Transactions and proceedings of the New Zealand Institute

TRANSACTIONS

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NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE.

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OBITUARY.

SIR DAVID ERNEST HUTCHINS, 1850-1920.

Tre late Sir David E. Hutchins, born on the 22nd September, 1850, was
educated at the well-known Blundell’s School, Tiverton, England, and after
leaving went, when twenty years old, to the famous Ecole Nationale des
Eaux et Foréts at Nancy, France, where he gained his diploma in forestry.
From Nancy he went to India as Deputy Conservator in Mysore, and ~
spent some ten years in the Indian Forest Service. Here he showed his
wide views of forestry in two papers which he wrote on Australian trees
in the Nilgiris and on the coastal planting of Casuarina. These papers
are still standard works on their subjects. From India he was transferred
in 1882 to Cape Colony, where, after some years passed in charge of the
Knysna forests, he succeeded Count Vasselot de Regné as Chief Conservator
of Forests, and remained until 1905. Sir David’s work as a forester in
South Africa has received the highest praise from such well-known autho-
rities as Sir W. Schlich, the late Professor Fisher, M. Pardé, H. R.
McMillan, and others. Under his regime in South Africa not only was
scientific management applied to the remaining indigenous forests, but
extensive plantations were made of eucalypts ‘and other exotics, which
are now yielding an annual revenue of about £20,000.

On his retiring from the South African Forestry Department Sir David
was later employed by the British Government to report on the forests
of British East Africa, where he succeeded in demarcating reserves, and,
among other things, in establishing economic plantations of the Chinese
coffin-wood tree (Persea nanmu). He was appointed Chief Conservator of
Forests for this territory, and after three years’ service there he retired
from regular Government employment. At various times in his career
he was called upon to visit different countries and report on forestry
problems. In 1907 he was employed by the Colonial Office to report on
the value of the Kenia forests, and in 1909 to inspect the forests of Cyprus.

In addition to his experience in India, South and Kast Africa, Sir David
during several visits had gained an intimate knowledge of the forests of
Algeria, Italy, Spain, Portugal, Belgium, France, and Germany.

Sir David came out to Australia in 1914 with the British Association
for the Advancement of Science, and remained there to study forestry in
that land. Whilst in Australia he wrote a valuable book on Australian
forestry, A Discussion of Australian Forestry, with Special Reference to
the Forests of Western Australia (1914-15), and by his persistent advocacy
stirred up such an interest in the matter that in all the various States of
the Commonwealth Forestry Departments are now firmly established.

In 1916, on the invitation of the Government, Sir David Hutchins came
to New Zealand to report on forestry in this Dominion, and it was mainly
on his advice that it was decided to establish forestry as a separate and
independent State Department here. He was also the original promoter

vill Obituary.

of the New Zealand Forestry League, as he recognized that some such
body is essential to sustain the interest of the public in a matter which,
unfortunately, is liable to be thought to concern our successors more than
ourselves.

Whilst in New Zealand Sir David devoted the whole of his time to the
study of forestry in this country, and when not in the field inspecting
native forests and plantations he was writing on those matters. Before
his death the Government had published his Report on the Waipoua Kauri
Forest (1918), and Part I of Forestry in New Zealand (1919), and up till
the time that he passed away he was engaged in writing Part II of this
latter work.

For forestry in the British Empire probably no one has done such service
as Sir David Hutchins, and it was for this that he in 1920 rece.ved the
honour of knighthood, which, in connection with forestry, had previously
been conferred only on three official heads of the great Indian Forest
Service. His published works were numerous, including, besides those
mentioned above, Report on Transvaal Forestry, 1903; Report on Rhodesia
Forestry, 1904; Hxtra-tropical Forestry, 1906; Forests of Mount Keria,
1907; Report on Forests of British East Africa, 1909; Cyprus Forestry.
1909 ; and others.

He died at his residence, Khandallah, on the 11th November, 1920.

E. Puitiirs TurRNeErR.

WX.

{Pace p.

Obituary. ix

GCCLONEL THOMAS WILLIAM PORTER, C.B., 1844-1920.

CoLONEL PortER came of a soldiering family. His father, Lieut.-Colonel
Porter, 7th Bengal Native Infantry, died in India during the Mutiny. On
his mother’s side he was Highland in descent, of the aristocratic and
ancient Roses of Kilravock Castle, Geddes, Nairnshire, a family whose
records go back for over a thousand years. He was a nephew of Lord
Strathnairn, a prominent figure in military history. He went to sea at the
age of thirteen as a midshipman in the Royal Navy, and served in
H.M.S. “ Hercules’? in raids against pirates on the China Station, 1857-58.
Leaving the Navy m 1859, he came to Australia and New Zealand, and
entered upon the military hfe in the Maori War. He joined the Colonial
Defence Force Cavalry, and after spending some time im charge of a
blockhouse at Mohaka (H.B.) he served in his first engagement with the
Hauhau natives at Waerenga-a-Hika Pa, near the present town of Gis-
borne, at the end of 1865. There he distinguished himself by assisting a
wounded comrade under fire, receiving a slight wound. After the disband-
ment of the Cavalry, Porter joined the New Zealand Armed Constabulary,
and during the campaigns against Te Kooti on the east coast, and against
Titokowaru on the west coast, he served in command of Maori contingents.
He was continuously on active service from 1868 to the beginning of 1872,
and during that period fought m scores of engagements and skirmishes.
His courage and skill were conspicuous at the siege of Ngatapa, in the
Gisborne district, where he commanded a portion of Major Ropata Waha-
waha’s Negati-Porou contingent. After sharmg in the final defeat and
pursuit of Titokowaru and the west-coast Hauhaus, in the interior of
Taranaki in 1869, he returned to the east coast with his No. 8 Division,
Armed Constabulary, and then took a very prominent and useful share in
the campaigns against Te Kooti in the Urewera Country. In this most
arduous chase, lasting for three years, Porter (then Captain) was a marvel
of energy and physical endurance. The Ngati-Porou contingents under
Ropata and Porter sometimes remained months in the formidable forest
ranges, far from their base of supplies, often without any food but what
the bush afforded, rigorously searching the almost unknown Urewera
terram for the rebel bands. Numerous skirmishes were fought and
fortified positions captured, and in September, 1871, Porter and his Ngati-
Porou decisively defeated Te Kooti at Te Hapua. (The final shots in this
forest war were fired by Captain Preece’s force in February, 1872.) The
infamous Kereopa, the fanatic murderer of the Rev. C. Volkner at Opotiki
in 1865, was captured by a detachment detailed by Captain Porter in the
Upper Whakatane, November, 1871.

After the close of the Maori wars Colonel Porter, who during his
prolonged and incessant activities was four times wounded, filled many
important military and Civil Service appointments on the East Coast. In
1889 he was once more called upon to take the field against Te Kooti, who
with a large body of followers insisted on a visit from Waikato to the east
coast. The old rebel was arrested by the Colonel at Waiotahi, Bay of
Plenty, and sent back to Auckland. When the South African War began
Colonel Porter once more sought active service. He commanded the

x Obituary.

Seventh New Zealand Contingent of Mounted Rifles in the Transvaal,
Orange Free State, Zululand, and later the Ninth Contingent. For his
services on the veldt (1900-2) he was awarded the Queen’s Medal (four
clasps) and created Commander of the Bath. For some time before retiring
from the service of the State, in 1908, Colonel Porter was Acting Under-
Secretary for Defence.

He was the author of The Life and Times of Major Ropata Wahawaha,
and had also completed a history of the war with Te Kooti (published in
several forms) and a book of Kast Coast Maori legends.

Colonel Porter was actively interested in the Historical Section of the
Wellington Philosophical Society, formed in September, 1918. He held
the office of vice-chairman from the beginning, and his picturesque figure,
his manly and military bearing, and his conversation, based on a long,
varied, and active experience, were always of interest.

His contributions on Maori subjects were highly valuable, and had his
life been prolonged he would no doubt have added considerably to the
store of New Zealand historical data. He died on the 12th November.
1920, at the age of seventy-six years.

JAMES COWAN.

[Fuce p. Xt.

Obituary. xl

KENNETH WILSON, 1842-1920.

KenNETH Witson, M.A., was born at Leeds in 1842, the youngest son of
Thomas Wilson, M.A., Director of the A. and C. Canal Navigation Com-
pany. He entered the Leeds Grammar-school, completing his school educa-
tion there, and leaving with a scholarship which took him to St. John’s
College, Cambridge. At Cambridge he took his degree, and at that place
he imbibed that pronounced appreciation of the classics of English literature
which he retamed throughout his life. After leaving Cambridge Mr. Wilson
spent some years as assistant master at Mostyn House, Cheshire, and on
being offered a position on the staff of King Edward VI School at South-
ampton he accepted it, and remained there until he came to New Zealand
in 1881 as Headmaster of Wellington College, with which he was connected
for many years. During this period many men now in Wellington and
elsewhere passed through the school, and they recall with friendly affection
the upright and distinguished figure of the Headmaster. For the last
thirty years of his life Mr. Wilson resided in Palmerston North ; his was
a familar figure, and his devotion to the beloved classics provided one of
the few remaining links with that period of English University life when
the Classical Tripos represented the beginning and the end of educational
excellence. Though actively engaged in teaching during his residence in
Palmerston North, he found time for other pursuits, and in conjunction
with Mr. Welch was one of the founders of the Manawatu Philosophical
Society. He was President, and for eleven years Secretary, of the society,
and its members have good reason for remembering him, since it was
mainly due to his enthusiasm and tireless, patient work that the society
is in the strong position it occupies to-day. Mr. Wilson, who lost a son
in the war, died on the 10th October, 1920, aged seventy-eight years.

Cuas. T. SALMON.

CONTE NS:

PAGES
Rott oF Honour ae ce ac re ae Xxi-Xxxili
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS 56 ae 510 36 Ss XXV—XXXIV
ANTHROPOLOGY.
ART. I. The Maori Genius for Personification ; with Illustrations of Maori
Mentality. By Elsdon Best, F. N.Z.Inst. : 1-13
XLVIII. Maori Food-supplies of Lake Rotorua, with Methods of outa
them, and Usages and Customs appertaining thereto. By.
Te Rangi Hiroa (P. H. Buck), D.S.O., M.D. sc 433-451
XLIX. Maori Decorative Art: No. 1, House-panels (Arapaki, T'uitui, or
Tukutuku). By Te Rangi Hiroa (P. H. Buck), D.S8.0., M.D. 452-470
L. An Account of a euppoed eee) poe sane stone. By Robert
Fulton, M.D. 3 j .. 471-472
BOTANY.
Art. XL. Notes on Specimens of New Zealand Ferns and Flowering-plants
: in London Herbaria. By W. R. B. eo BLS 0 eZe-5
Dominion Museum, Wellington 362-365
XLI. Descriptions of New Native Flowering- eer with a fou Notes
By D. Petrie, M.A., Ph.D., F.N.Z.Inst. .. 9365-371
XLII. The Genus Cordyceps in New Zealand. By G. H. Garant 372-382
XLIII. Unrecorded Plant-habitats for the Eastern Botanical District of
the South Island of New Zealand. By W. Martin, B.Sc. 383-385
XLIV. Further Studies on the Prothallus, Embryo, and Young Sporo-
phyte of Z'mesipteris. By the Rev. J. E. Bone ae D:Sc.,
F.N.Z.Inst., Hutton Memorial Medallist 386-422
XLY. New Species of Flowering-plants. By T. F. Con RLS,
F.Z.8., F.N.Z.Inst., Curator of the Auckland Museum .. 423-425
XLVI. New Plant-stations. By A. Wall, M.A., Professor of English,
Canterbury College 426-428
XLVII. On Growth-periods of New Zealand Teese speciale Netiefag
fusca and the Totara (Podocarpus totara). By H. B. Kirk,
M.A., F.N.Z.Inst., Professor of Holoeyog) Victoria aareratty
College 429-432
GEOLOGY.
Art. IV. Notes on a Geological Excursion to Lake Tekapo. By R. Speight,
M.A., M.Se., F.G.S., F.N.Z.Inst., Curator of the Canterbury
Museum dc on 30 37-46
V. The Modification of eek aia = Qidsiadan! By R. Speight, M.A.,
M.Sce., F.G.S., F.N.Z.Inst., Curator of the Canterbury Museum 47-53

32°81

XIV Contents.

Art. VI. aad eee in the Terminal Face of the Franz Josef Glacier.
R. Speight, M.A., M.Sc., F.G.S., F.N.Z.Inst., Curator of the
ene Museum

VII. Notes on the Geology of the Patea District. By PG sanonant M. ke
F.G.S., Director of the Geological Survey, New enim ;

VIII. The Geological History of Eastern Neues By Professor James
Park, F.G.S8., F.N.Z. Inst.

IX. The Birth and Development of New Teena By Peeraon sans
Park, F.G.S., F.N.Z. Inst.

X. Some Tertiary Mollusca, with eeecne of nee Sapte By
P. Marshall, M.A., D.Sc, F.G.S., F.N.Z.Inst., Hector and
Hutton Medallist, and R. Murdoch :

XI. Fossils from the Paparoa Rapids, on the ear Ree By
P. Marshall, M.A., D.Sc., F.G.S., F.N.Z.Inst., Hector and
Hutton Medallist, and R. Murdoch

XII. Tertiary Rocks near Hawera. By P. Marshall, M. A., D. Be E.G. s.,
F.N.Z.Inst., Hector and Hutton “Medallist, and R. Murdoch Ae

XIII. Geology of the Waikato Heads District and the Kawa Unconformity.
By M. J. Gilbert, M.Sc. ais Brother BEESUE), Sacred Heart
College, Auckland

XIV. Notes on the Geology of Gee ees Island, New Zenlens By
J. A. Bartrum, Auckland University College

XV. A Conglomerate at Onerahi, near Whangarei, Mee os Fee
land. By J. A. Bartrum, Auckland University College

XVI. The Warped Land-surface on the South-eastern Side of the ane
Nicholson Depression, Wellington, New Zealand. By C.
Cotton, D.Sc., F.N.Z.Inst., Victoria ATOR ces Wel
lington

XVII. Porirua Harbour: a Study of | its Shore-li line and thee Physiouraphie
Features. By G. Leslie Adkin

XVIII. An Account of the Geology of the Green Teland Coalfield. By L. ih
Grange, M.Sc., A.O.S.M.

XIX. On an Ice-striated Rock- sue on ae Shore of Circle eae hess
Manapouri. By J. M. Fowler 30 a a

HISTORY.

Art. II. Old Redoubts, Blockhouses, and Stockades of the Wellington Dis-
trict. By Elsdon Best, F.N.Z.Inst. :

Ill. The First New Zealand Navy; with some Bipisodes of the } Maori War
in connection with the British Navy. By Herbert Baillie

ZOOLOGY.

Art. XX. Notes on New Zealand Mollusca: No. 1, Descriptions of Three
New Species of Polyplacophora, and of Damoniella Gee He
Miss M. K. Mestayer, Dominion Museum

XXI. Notes on New Zealand Mollusca: No. 2. By Miss M. K. Mestayes
Dominion Museum

XXII. Notes on New Zealand Chilopoda. Be Gilbert Arche, MA,
Assistant Curator, Canterbury Museum

XXIII. A New Species of Shark. By Gilbert Pachey, M.A., (eee
Curator, Canterbury Museum

XXIV. The Leaf-mining Insects of New Zealand: Part II. By Moet N.
Watt, F.E.S. ..

PAGES

53-57

58-64

65-72

73-76

77-84

85-86

86-96

97-114

115-127

128-130

131-143

144-156

157-174

175

14-28

29-36

176-180

180

181-195

195-196

197-219

Art. XXV.

XXVI.

XXVII.

XXVIII.

XXIX.

XXX.

XXXII.

XXXII.

XXXII.

XXXIV.

XXXYV.

XXXVI.

XXXVII.

Contents.

Some New Zealand Amphipoda: No. 2. By Charles Chilton, M.A.,
D.Se., M.B., O.M., LL.D., F.LS., C.M-Z.S., F.N.Z.Inst., Hon.
Mem. Roy. Soc. N.S.W.: Professor of Biology, Canterbury
College, New Zealand F

The Life-history of some New Zealand THe No. 1. By John G.

Myers, F.E.S.

A Revision of the New Fealanal Gieadiias (eee
Descriptions of New Species. By John G. Myers, F.E.S.

Bionomic Notes on some New Zealand Spiders, with a Plea for
the Validity of the Species Araneus orientalis asec cl
John G. Myers, F.E.S. :

Notes on the Hemiptera of the Kermadec ieee with an Addition
to the Hemiptera Fauna of the New Zealand Sabre ey
John G. Myers, F.E.S.

Notes on the Me es (Diptera) of New veaiees By J. W.
Campbell :

Material for a Monograph on ihe ieee nace of ee Zealand :
Part II, Family Syrphidae. By David Bos F ae Govern-
ment Entomologist :

=

Notes and Descriptions of New Tenlana Lepidopters By E.
Meyrick, B.A., F.R.S. : :
Notes and Descriptions of New Zealand Deconteee: By Alfred

EDO F.E.S., Assistant Entomologist, Cawthron Institute of
Scientific Research, Nelson

Description of a New Dragon-fly belonging to the Gente Uropetala
Selys. By R. J. Tillyard, M.A., Sc.D. (Cantab.), D.Sc. (Sydney),
F.L.S., F.E.S., Entomologist and Chief of the Biological De-
partment, Cawthron Institute of Scientific Research, Nelson

Studies of New Zealand T'richoptera, or Caddis-flies: No. 1,
Description of a New Genus and Species belonging to the
Family Sericostomatidae. By R. J. Tillyard, M.A., Sc.D.
(Cantab.), D.Sc. (Sydney), F.L.S., F.R.S., Entomologist and
Chief of the Biological Department, Cawthron Institute of
Scientific Research, ‘Nelson :

Descriptions (with Illustrations) of oe Fishes new to New Zea-
land. By L. T. Griffin, F.Z.S., Assistant in the Auckland
Museum : : Sic a0 Sic

Observations on certain heAee Parasites found upon the New
Zealand Huia (Neomorpha acutirostris Gould) and not pre-
viously recorded. By George E. Mason

XX XVIII. The Crab-eating Seal in New Zealand. By W. R. B. Oliver, RLS:5

XXXIX. Variations in Amphineura.

F.Z.S8., Dominion Museum, Wellington

By W. R. B. vues: PLS, PZS.,
Dominion Museum, Wellington :

MISCELLANEOUS.

Art. LI. The Food Values of New Zealand Fish: Part IT. oy oe ) Dorothy

E. Johnson, B.Sc. in Home Science

Lil. The Chemistry of Flesh Foods—(5) The eee Consti-

tuents of Meat-extracts. By A. M. Wright, A.C. F.CS.;
(Miss) J. F. Bevis, B.Sc. ; and the late P. 8. Nelson, M.Sc.

LIL. The Anticomplementary Properties observed in certain Serum Re-

actions.

By A. M. Wright, Captain N.Z.M.C., Bacteriologist,

XV

PAGES

220-234

235-237

238-250

251-256

256-257

258-288

289-333

334-336

337-342

343-346

346-350

351-357

357-359

360

361

472-478

479-483

484-486

Xvl Contents.

PROCEEDINGS.

Annual Meeting of the Board of Governors :
Proceedings of the New Zealand Institute Science Congress
Wellington Philosophical Society

Auckland Institute

Philosophical Institute of eehierbies

Otago Institute

Nelson Institute

Manawatu Philosophical See

Wanganui Philosophical Society

APPENDIX.

New Zealand Institute Acts and Regulations

Hutton Memorial Medal and Research Fund

Hector Memorial Research Fund

Regulations for administering the Government Research Grant

Carter Bequest

New Zealand Institute—List of Gicees &e.

Roll of Members

Serial Publications received by Ane ee of the 1 Institute

List of Institutions to which the Publications of the Institute are presented

InDEX OF AUTHORS

PAGES
489-506
506-519
520 -524
525-527
528-530
531-522

533
533-034
534

537-542
543-545
545-546
547-548

548
549-553
554-569
570-575
576-581

583-584

LIS OR ae AAMs Ss:

FOLLOWS

PAGE

Sir Davip ERNEST HUTCHINS vil
COLONEL THOMAS WILLIAM PORTER bse
KENNETH WILSON xl

Extspon Brest—
Plate I.—Stockade at the Taita. Pencil sketch EDs W. ara 17th ee
184—

Plate II.—Fig. 1. pena of een BICcRB Ova still aading in 1920.
Fig. 2. Old blockhouse near Wallaceville, built in 1860-61

HERBERT BAILLIE—

Plate III.—Fig. 1. Rane Port Waikato (from a sketch by 8S. Percy
Smith). Fig. 2. The * ieee oe eae irae a sketch by John A
Gilfillan) F :

Plate IV.—Fig. 1. The “Governor Grey” (from a ae Major Aleaphy)
Fig. 2. The “ Caroline ” (from a painting by W. Forster) F

Plate VY.—Fig. 1. H.M.S. “‘ Eclipse ” (from a photograph supplied ie Kee
Sir E. F. Fremantle, G.C.B). Fig. 2. The “‘ Pioneer” off Meremere

Plate VI.—Fig. 1. The “‘ Pioneer.” Fig. 2. The ‘“ Rangiriri ”

R. SPEIGHT—

Plate VII.—Fig. 1. Lake Manapouri, looking east, showing notched seule:
Fig. 2. Lake Manapouri, looking east, showing islands

Plate VIII.—Fig. 1. Lake Manapouri, looking west. Fi is. Reset eacted
knob, Thompson Sound a Fie

Plate [X.—Range west of Cass River, ieee Valley ae

Plate X.—Fig. 1. Jim’s Knob, Upper Rakaia Valley. Fig. 2. Ice-cut bench
on lower side of Bealey River at its junction with the Waimakariri River

Plate XI.—Fig. 1. Jumped-up Downs, Upper Rangitata Valley, looking down-
stream. Fig. 2. ease ue Pa Upper ane V oe looking
up-stream

' Plate XII.—Fig. 1. Ice-front Siete fates Pare Rock, eee punt west.
Fig. 2. General view of glacier, looking south from Park Rock

Plate XIII.—Fig. 1. View looking east from Park Rock. Fig. 2. View ne
peg No. 7, looking south : oe of ic

P. MarsHaLtit and R. Murpocu—
Plate XIV.—Figs. 1, 2. Melina zealandica Suter .. Sc :
Plate XV.—Fig. 1. Osérea gudexi Suter. Figs. 2, 3. Thracea magna n. sp. ..
Plate XVI.—Figs. 1, 2. Miltha neozelanica n. sp. a Se Je
Plate XVII.—Fig. 1. Miltha neozelanica n. sp. Figs. 2, 2a, M. dosiniformis
. n.sp. Hig. 3. WW. parki n. sp. 56 20 50 ae 60
Plate XVIII.—Fig. 1. Couthouyia concinna n. sp. Fig. 2. Vermicularia
ophiodes n. sp. Figs. 3, 4. Cymatium suteri n. sp. Fig. 5. C. pahiense
n. sp. Fig. 6. Cypraea sp. Figs. 7, 8. Admete maorium n. sp. pe
Plate XIX.—Fig. 1. Daphnella varicostata n. sp. Figs. 2, 3. Euthria subcalir-
morpha n. sp. Fig. 4. Lulimella awamoaensis n. sp. Fig. 5. Odostomia
(Pyrgulina) pseudorugata n. sp. Fig. 6. Turbonilia awaimoaensis n. sp.
Fig. 7. Hulima aoteaensis n. sp... se ate aC

XVill List of Plates.

M. J. GirpERT— OREOUE:
Plate XX.—Fig. 1. Showing the characteristic dune-bedding in the consoli-

dated sands close to the bed of lignite near Fishing Rock, on the coast
north-west of Waiuku. Fig. 2. Photomicrograph of algal limestone
north of Te Orairoa Point. Fig. 3. nee of fine ae
limestone, Koruahine Point ; 112

Plate XXI.—Fig. 1. Mesozoic shales me nen of the: vattile aban
a little south of Okariha Point. Fig. 2. The belemnite shales ae
at the South Head, Waikato River . : so TEA

J. L. BaRrtrRumM—

Plate X XII.—Fig. 1. Western coast of Great Barrier Island: view looking
north-north-west towards the entrance of Port Abercrombie. Fig. 2. Kai-

toke Beach from the south, mid-east coast, Great Barrier Island 118
Plate X XITI.—Fig. 1. The Needles, north-east coast of Great Barrier ieicsal

Fig. 2. Breakaway Cliffs of Whitecliffs Range, near Whangaparapara .. 118
Plate XXIV. rag aes aut a summit of Mount Young, looking

north-west 124

Plate XXV.—Fig. 1. A conspicuous acid ion valley of Awana aan
Fig. 2. Ramifying narrow dykes, Mine Bay, Great Barrier Island.

Fig. 3. Closely-folded fine-bedded sediments, Harataonga Bay xan 24:
Plate XXVI.—Figs. 1-6. Photomicrographs of rocks from Great Barrier
Island .. a an: Br de - a sey 24
Plate XXVII.—Figs. 1-5. Photomicrographs of rocks from Great Barrier
Island .. ; 50 ae 36 36 ae seen OE
Plate XXVIII.—Figs. 1-6. Photomicrographs of rocks from Great Barrier
Island .. oo BS a = a ee 28

C. A. Corron—
Plate XXIX.—Fig. 1. The eastern shore of Port Nicholson. Fig. 2. The
Baring Head platform as seen from Cape Turakirae .. 136

Plate XX X.—Fig. 1. The Baring Head platform between the mouths of the
Wainui-o-mata and Orongorongo Rivers. Fig. 2. The Baring Head
platform, Orongorongo es and higher ge as seen from

Baring Head Dc 136
Plate XXXI.—Fig. 1. Baring ERAS antec on (anne ea Big 2. Teeth
Koangatera, at the drowned mouth of Gollan’s Valley 2 140

Plate XX XII.—Fig. 1. The aggraded headward-tilted valley of the western
branch of the Wainui-o-mata. Fig. 2. View looking seaward across the

widest part of the rocky coastal plain of Cape Turakirae ae oo _LZko)
Plate XX XIIJ.—Tig. 1. Map of the Hutt River delta. Fig. miner ee
the Upper Hutt basin- plain 140
Plate XX XIV.—An aggraded plain in small eee rgiel tilted auaiaties of
the Mangaroa River 30 oe : - 140
G. L. ApKInN—
Plate XX XV.—The raised shore-platiorm of the Porirua coast... .. 148

L. I. Granece—

Plate XX XVI.—Fig. 1. Section of cemented greensand of Waterfall Creek.
Fig. 2. Crystal of sodalite with inclusions .. sts i .. 164

J. M. FowLEr—

Plate XXXVIT.—Fig. 1. General view of striated rocks at Circle Cove.
Fig. 2. Near view of striated rocks ue ue ate Seno:

M. K. Mrestayer—
Plate XXXVITI.—Figs. 1-3. Lorica haurakiensis n. sp. Figs, 4-6. Lorica
volvox. (Reeve). Figs. 7, 8. Plaxiphora (Maorichiton) lyallensis n. sp.
Figs. 9-11. Rhyssoplax oliveri n. sp. Fig. 12. Damoniella alphan. sp. .. 176

List of Plates. X1X

G. ARCHEY— FOLLOWS
! PAGE
Plate XX XTX.—Scymnodon sherwood? .. 3 =z : wa) L9G
M. N. Watr—
Plate XL.—Mine of Nepticula egygia, showing character of frass-deposition .. 208
Plate XLI.—Fig. 1. Mine of N. perissopa. Fig. 2. Portion of early part of
gallery of NV. perissopa, to show character of frass-deposition .. .. 208
Plate X LIT —Early portions of mines of N. tricentra es : a 208

Plate XLIU.--—Fig. 1. Mine of V. fulva in leaf of O. nitida, as seen on upper
surface of leaf. Fig. 2. Mine of N. fulva in leaf of O. nitida, as seen trom
underside of leaf .. 56 Ae aie ae at we 208

JoHN G. Myrrs—

Plate XLIV.—Fig. 1. Ctenoneurus hochstetteri : egas (mostly hatched) in situ
on under-surtace of tawa-bark. Fig. 2. Ctenoneurus hochstetteri : imagines

and nymph of advanced age : si ao ZBlY
Plate XLV (coloured).—Figs. 1-10. Welamosdlul (various epeuiea} 55 si0)
Plate XLVI (coloured).—Figs. 1-13. Melampsalta (various species) 250

Davip MiInLER—

Plate XLVIT.—Figs. 1-5. Lepidomyia decessum: female, male, larva, and
pupa. Fig. 6. Sphaerophoria ventralis n. sp.: wing. Fig. 7. ee
novae-zealantliae ; adult male ae is rs 304

Plate XLVIEI.—-Fig. 1. Syrphus novae .zealandiae: larva on leaf. "Figs. 2
S. ropalus: larva (side view) and empty pupa. Fig. 4. S. sate :
adult male. Fig. 5. Platycheirus lignudus n. sp.: adult female.

Fig. 6. Mel anostoma fasciatum : eggs on a grass-head .. 304

Plate XLIX.—Fig. 1. Melanostoma fasciatum: larva on leaf. Fig. ye Xyl Aa
montana n. sp.: adult female. Fig. 3. Tropidia bilineata: adult female 304

Plate L.—-Figs. 1, 4. Helophilus antipodus: adult male and adult female.
Fig. 2. Wallota cingulata: adult female. Fig. 3. ee hochstetteri :

adult female te A a > 304
Plate LI.—Fig. 1. Myiatropa campbelli n. sp. : Raut fale Fig. 2 aM Boake
equestris: adult female. Fig. 3. Hristalis tenaa: adult male .. jo Bu)

Plate LIT.---Fig. 1. Paragus pseudo-ropalus n. sp.: adult male. Fig. 2. Syr se us
harrisi n. sp.: adult female. Fig. 3. Hristalis tenax larva submerged in
water .. oe : plc of ft a .. 3032
R. J. Trttyarp—
Plate LITI.—Full-grown larva of Uropetala carovei White sie .. 344

L. T. GrirFin—
Plate LIV.—Fig. 1. Muraenichthys breviceps. Fig.
Plate LV.—Fig. 1. Callanthias splendensn. sp. Fig.

Coris sandeyeri -. 302

Nw vo

Spheroides nitidus n. sp. 352
W. R. B. OLIvER—
Plate LVI.—SkulJ of crab-eating seal .. 30 ac ae OU

D. PEtTRIE—

Plate LVII.—Fig. 1. Notospartium glabrescens in flower, Nidd Valley, Clarence
River, Marlborough. Fig. 2. Notospartium Carmichaeliae, Tynterfield,

Wairau Valley .. ee De Bt se ee 56 axes)
~ Plate LVIII.—Figs. 1-5. Pods of Notospartium glabrescens, N. torulosum, and
N. Carmichaeliae .. ne a, oe aie 56 -- 368

G. H. Cunnrincuam—

Plate LIX.—Fig. 1. Cordyceps Aemonae Lloyd. Fig. 2. Larva of Aemona
hirta Broun. Fig. 3. lmago of A. hirta O60 31 50 376

XX List of Plates.

©, H. CunnrnguamM—continued.

Plate LX.—Fig. 1. Cordyceps consumpta n. sp. oe 2. Porine sh Buil.

Fig. 3. Cordyceps Craigii Lloyd

FOLLOWS
PAGH

Plate LXJ.—— Fig. 1. C ne Robertsii Hook. “Fig. 2 yaneee section

through sclerotium

Plate LXII.—Fig. 1. Porina dinoiles Meee Fig. 2. Corduceps Sinclair

Berk. Fig. 3. a, Melampsalta cruentata Fabr. ; 6, M. cinguiata Fabr.

J. E. Hottoway—

Plate LXIII.—Figs. 1-8. T’mesipteris : Photographs of portions of prothallus 400

Te Raner Hrroa (P. H. Buck)—

Plate LXIV.—Fig. 1. Tau koura: the korapa being slipped down between the
canoe and the fern bundle. Fig. 2. Taw koura: the eee vere

drawn up against the korapa

440:

Plate LXV.—-Fig. 1. J'aw koura: completely out of water. “Fig.2 Gite Eas $

the catch from one fern bundle

440

Plate LXVI.—Decorative panels. Fig. 1. Te fea rinon (the Milky Way).

Fig. 2. Stars, or roimata (tears). Fig. 3. Roimata (tears). Fig. 4. Rov-

mata toroa (albatross-tears)

Plate LXVII.—Decorative panels. Fig. 1. Poutama. Fig. 2. Kuokao (human
ribs). Fig. 3. Kaokao eer ae Fig. 4. Niho taniwha (dragon’s

teeth)

458

458

Plate LX VITI.—-Decorative ae Fig. 1. Aanohi aua (herring’s eyes).

Fig. 2. Waharua (double mouth). Hig. 3. Waharua, or waharua kopito.

Fig. 4. Patiki (flounder)
Plate’ LXTX.—Overlapping wrapped seitch

Rv Futton—

Plate LX X.—Three views of supposed sharpening-stone, showing grooves ..

458
458

470

NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE. LIBRA

ROLL OF HONOUR

SHOWING MEMBERS OF THE INSTITUTE WHO WERE ON ACTIVE

SERVICE DURING THE WAR.

Name.

E. H. Atkinson
C. M. Begg

Val. Blake oe
F. K. Broadgate ..
P. W. Burbidge
W. H. Carter

L. J. Comrie

V. C. Davies

W. Earnshaw
C. J. Freeman
C. Freyberg

J. G. B. Fulton

H. E. Girdlestone. .
H. Hamilton

C. G. Johnston

G. W. King

E. Marsden

J. M. Mason
D. McKenzie
H. M. Millar

W. L. Moore

T. D. M. Stout

R. M. Sunley =
W.M. Thomson ..
H. 8S. Tily

H. Vickerman

C. J. Westland

F. L. Armitage

S. B. Bowyer

R. Briffault ‘

Pere buck (Te
Rangi Hiroa)

S. Cory-Wright

W. J. Crompton ..
F. N. R. Downard
G. Fenwick :

Available Details of Service.

WELLINGTON PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.
Lieutenant, Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve. |

Colonel, N.Z. Medical Corps ate i Colac CaM Ge
Died of sickness.

Lieutenant, Canterbury Infantry .. ate | Killed in action.

Lieutenant, N.Z. Engineers aX ee Killed in action

Sergeant, 34th Specialists.

Canterbury Infantry.

Sergeant-Major, 36th Reinforcements.

Regimental Sergeant-Major, Ist N.Z. Rifle |
Brigade

Engineer Lieut.-Commander, R.N.

N.Z. Rifle Brigade.

ay Lieutenant, West York (Prince of Wales’s Own) |

Regiment.
Corporal, 10th Reinforcements.
Company Sergeant-Major, Wellington Infantry | Killed in action.
Sub-Lieutenant, Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve |

Lieutenant, Ist N.Z. Rifle Brigade .. .- | Killed in action
Lieutenant, N.Z. Tunnelling Company.
Major (temp.), N.Z. Engineers Bi .. | M.C.; mentioned

| in despatches.
Lieut.-Colonel, N.Z. Medical Corps. |
Trooper, Wellington Mounted Rifles.

Sergeant, N.Z. Engineers’ Divisional Signalling

Company. |
| Captain, N.Z. Field Artillery as .. | Mentioned in de-
spatches.
Lieut.-Colonel, N.Z. Medical Corps .. 56, |) DUSKO)-

Corporal, Specialists.
Captain, N.Z. Medical Corps. |
Sergeant, N.Z. Field Artillery.
Major, commanding N.Z. Tunnelling Company | D.S.0., O.B.E. ;

| despatches.
Corporal, N.Z. Machine Gun Corps.

AUCKLAND INSTITUTE.

Captain, N.Z. Medical Corps.
Gunner, N.Z. Field Artillery.
Captain, N.Z. Medical Corps.

Major, N.Z. Medical Corps aie eon DESSOs

Captain, N.Z. Engineers, Divisional Intelligence | M.C.
Officer |

lst Battalion, Otago Regiment.

Lieutenant, N.Z. Rifle Brigade.

Captain, N.Z. Medical Corps.

mentioned in

RY | =o

XX Roll of Honour.

Roitit oF Honour—continued.
Name. Available Details of Service.

AUCKLAND INSTITUTE—continued.

R. H. Gunson . | Lieutenant, Motor Boat Reserve.

G. H. Hansard | Sergeant-Major, 33rd Machine Gun Corps.

D. Holderness | Lieutenant, N.Z. Engineers.

R. T. Inglis Captain, N.Z. Medical Corps.

J. C. Johnson Captain, N.Z. Medical Corps.

C. W. Leys | Lieutenant, Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve.

K. Mackenzie | Captain, N.Z. Medical Corps.

H. A. E. Milnes .. | Lieutenant, Auckland Infantry Regiment Killed in action.

W. R. B. Oliver .. | Corporal, Canterbury Infantry.

G. Owen Lieutenant, N.Z. Rifle Brigade and N.Z. Engi-

E. Robertson
C. B. Rossiter
T. C. Savage

Rev. D. Scott

H. L. Wade
F. Whittome

H. Acland

G. E. Archey
J. W. Bird

F. J. Borrie

F. M. Corkill
William Deans

A. A. Dowie Smith

A. Fairbairn
H. D. Ferrar

C. E. Foweraker ..

F. G. Gibson
J. Guthrie

W. Irving

L. 8. Jennings
H. Lang

E. Kidson

G. MacIndoe
12. Sb Nelson

Sir R. H. Rhodes

A. Taylor

G. T. Weston
F. 8. Wilding
J. P. Whetter
A. M. Wright

8. C. Allen
R. Buddle

L. E. Barnett
F. C. Batchelor

Rev. D. Dutton ..

A. Mackie
EK. J. O'Neill

| Captain, N.Z
| Chaplains Department,

neers.

Major, N.Z. Medical Corps.
Captain, N.Z. Medical Corps.
Captain, N.Z. Medical Corps.
. Medical Corps

Force.

| Captain, Auckland Mounted Rifles.
| Corporal, N.Z. Rifle Brigade.

. | Sergeant-Major,

PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE OF CANTERBURY.

. | Colonel, N.Z. Medical Corps.
| Captain, N.Z. Field Artillery.

Sergeant-Major, Instructional Staff.
Captain, N.Z. Medical Corps.
Captain.

| Captain, Canterbury Mounted Rifles.

Major.
Captain.
Trooper, N.Z. Mounted Rifles.
Corporal, N.Z. Medical Corps.
Captain, N.Z. Medical Corps.
Captain, N.Z. Medical Corps.
Captain, N.Z. Medical Corps.
Captain, Otago Regiment .. :
2nd Lieutenant, N.Z. Rifle Brigade
Captain, Royal Engineers.
Signaller, Otago Infantry Brigade ..
Private, Canterbury Regiment
Sergeant, Head: quarters “Instructional Staff.
Headquarters Instructional
Staff.
Colonel, Red Cross Commissioner.
Captain, N.Z. Veterinary Corps.
Lieutenant, Canterbury Regiment.
Captain, N.Z. Field Artillery.
Captain, N.Z. Medical Corps.
Captain, N.Z. Medical Corps.

OTaGco INSTITUTE.

Captain, N.Z. Medical Corps.

Surgeon, H.M. Ships “‘ Crescent,” “‘ Cumber-
land,” and “* Warwick ”’

Lieut. -Colonel, N.Z. Medical Corps

Lieut.-Colonel, N.Z. Medical Corps.

Chaplain, N.Z. Expeditionary Force.

Sergeant, N.Z. Expeditionary Force

Lieut. -Colonel, N.Z. Medical Corps ..

| Died of sickness.
N.Z. Expeditionary |

Killed in action.
Killed in action.

Killed in action.
Killed in action.

Mentioned in de-
spatches.
C.M.G.

M.M.
C.M.G., D.S.O

XXili

Roll of Honour.

RoLut or Honour—continued.

Name.

T. R. Overton
H. P. Pickerill
R. Price

E. F. Roberts
S. G. Sandle

F. H. Statham
. D. Stewart
. Thomson
Vanes
Waters

=

W.A
R. N.
DOB:
Jalil

E. C. Barnett
D. H. B. Bett
A. A. Martin
J. Murray

H. D. Skinner
W. R. Stowe
H. F. Bernau
J. P. D. Leahy

H. Whitcombe

. F. Northcroft

E
E. G. Wheeler
G. T. Williams

F. A. Bett

Nore.—The roll is as complete as it has been found possible to make it.

Available Details of Service.

OTaco INstTItTuUTE—continued.

Lieutenant, N.Z. Pioneers.
Lieut.-Colonel, N.Z. Medical Corps ..
Major, Otago Infantry ee
Captain, Royal Engineers.

Major, N.Z. Expeditionary Force.
Major, Otago Infantry

Lieutenant, Otago Infantry.

N.Z. Machine Gun Corps.

Lieutenant, N.Z. Expeditionary Force.
Captain, N.Z. Tunnelling Corps.

5 || Ole 10
. | Killed in action.

: Killed in action.

c | Captain, N.Z. Medical Corps. |

Gunner, N.Z. Field Artillery.

Manawatu PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.
Captain, N.Z. Medical Corps. |
Captain, N.Z. Medical Corps. |
Major, N.Z. Medical Corps = |
Lieutenant, Auckland Infantry. |

Killed in action.

Private, Otago Infantry
Major, N.Z. Medical Corps.

Hawken’s Bay PHtLosopHicaL INSTITUTE.

Captain, N.Z. Medical Corps. |
Major, N.Z. Medical Corps. |
| Corporal, 41st Reinforcements.

|

Corporal, Wellington Regiment.

Wellington Mounted Rifles Died of sickness.

NELSON INSTITUTE.

The

Editor would be glad to be notified of any omissions or necessary amendments.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

Tue following is the presidential address delivered before the New Zealand
Institute Science Congress, Palmerston North, on the 28th January, 1921,
by Thomas Hill Easterfield, M.A., Ph.D., F.LC., F.N.Z.Inst., Director of
the Cawthron Institute of Scientific Research, and Emeritus Professor in
Victoria University College :—

LADIES AND GENTLEMEN,—Our meeting to-night is saddened by the
absence of two of our members whose names are familiar to you all:
I allude to the late Sir David Hutchins and Mr. Kenneth Wilson. It
was the intention of Sir David Hutchins to read a paper on forestry at
this Congress. His whole life had been devoted to the study of forest
problems in Africa, India, Australia, and New Zealand, and the fact that
our Dominion has at last adopted an active forest policy is in no small
measure due to his persistent advocacy of this step.

Mr. Kenneth Wilson was one of the founders of the Manawatu Philo-
sophical Society, and its first President. He was for many years a member
of the Board of Governors of the New Zealand Institute. That the present
meeting is being held in Palmerston North is largely due to his efforts.

Addressing, as I am, an audience containing but few with an intimate
knowledge of the science which has been my life-study, I decline to weary
you by attempting any account of the progress made in chemistry or in
any branch of it. I have therefore chosen as the subject of my address
“Some Aspects of Scientific Research.”

At an early stage in the history of the human race man must have
learnt that knowledge is the equivalent of power, and that the acquisition
of new knowledge is of great importance in the struggle for existence. It
is not probable that the idea of systematic experiment was common—
indeed, the idea is still foreign to the conception of the average man.
It would be natural for the first systematic observations to be made on
the apparent movements of the heavenly bodies—the most systematically
recurring of all natural phenomena. ‘The fact that the orientation of the
starry heights is definite for the seasons of the year could not long have
escaped observation, and a practical interest would thus be added to the
study of the heavens. It is probable that the arrangement of the constel-
lations much in their present order was carried out in Babylonia at least
three thousand years before the Christian era. In no other branch of
knowledge have early observations of the same degree of exactitude
remained on record.

From many points of view agriculture must be regarded as the most
important of human activities, and at a very early stage man must have
been faced by the problems of the soil. Experience gained by long
observation must have taught that certain crops will thrive only under
certain more or less narrowly defined conditions of soil, season, and climate.
How far the early agricultural knowledge was due to chance observation,
and how far to direct experiment, we shall never know. Even in the
Stone Age much agricultural knowledge had been accumulated, for both
wheat and barley occur in those interesting pile dwellings, the remains of
the villages of the neolithic lake-dwellers of Switzerland.

XXV1 Presidential Address.

Chemistry may still be defined as the study, in the widest sense, of the
properties of substances, and the foundations upon which modern chemistry
has risen must have been laid in a period of remote antiquity. The pursuit
of the discovery of the philosopher’s stone and of the elixir vitae made
alchemists and iatro-chemists acquainted with the properties of substances
which otherwise might have been ignored, and even the art of the poisoner
must have extended knowledge in a like direction.

Illuminating as is the study of the old-time knowledge, it seems to teach
that the principles of scientific mquiry were understood by very few of
the ancient observers. Such ingramed ideas as that astronomy is insepa-
rable from astrology, or chemistry from witchcraft, or, again, that nature’s
riddles may be solved by ingenious argument without appeal to observation
or experiment, militated greatly against the development of accurate know-
ledge. Only after the arrival of that indefinite period of transition known
as the Renaissance would it appear that the pursuit of knowledge for its
own sake became common—or, indeed, that such pursuit was regarded as
legitimate. Even amongst civilized peoples of the present day the pro-
portion of persons who show any real desire to learn more of the laws of
nature than is already known is not very large, and the announcement
of some important discovery in physics, chemistry, or biology receives but
little notice from the general public. It may be that the desire for
knowledge is latent in every human being, but that owing to our so-called
civilization, or to some failure in our systems of education, the smouldering
fire is seldom fanned into burning flame. Possibly the extension of those
very clever researches in education which have been so energetically carried
out in America during recent years may show us how to make every pupil
interested in at least one branch of knowledge, and thus materially change
the attitude of the public towards science and scientific research.

The sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries provided an ever-
increasing number of intellectual workers prepared to devote time and
labour to exact scientific investigation. The idea of quantitative measure-
ment became more general; new instruments were invented, such as the
microscope and telescope, the thermometer and barometer, and these
assisted greatly in further discovery and in the elaboration of a new
technique. The establishment of botanic gardens assisted and stimulated
the systematic study of plants. The seventeenth century saw the founda-
tion of the Royal Society of London, and of the Academies of Science
in Rome, Florence, Paris, and Berlin. This period also marked the
triumphs of William Harvey, Francis Bacon, Robert Boyle, Isaac Newton,
Descartes, Huygens, Malpighi, and Leeuwenhoek.

The eighteenth century was very prolific not only in scientific discovery,
but also in its technical applications. Linnaeus and de Jussieu published
their botanical systems; John Hunter raised surgery to the rank of a
scientific profession ; James Hutton founded the science of geology, Werner
and William Smith the cognate science of palaeontology; Joseph Priestley
discovered oxygen and ammonia, whilst Scheele, the brilliant Swedish
apothecary, prepared chlorine and glycerine, citric, tartaric, oxalic, lactic,
prussic, and uric acids; Henry Cavendish showed the chemical nature of
water, and determined the mass of the earth; Lavoisier explained clearly
the nature of combustion; John Robison and Volta observed the pheno-
menon of the electric current, and William Nicholson that of electrolysis.

Amongst the technical applications of this period John Roebuck and
Le Blane respectively established the manufacture of sulphuric acid and
soda, the key industries of the heavy chemical trade. James Watt revo-
Iutionized all manufactures by giving a practical form to the steam-engine

Presidential Address. XXVIII

and placing the theory of this prime mover upon a sound basis. The
general adoption of steam-power necessitated a great increase in the number
of skilled mechanics, and thus facilitated the production of all kinds of
scientific instruments. In 1798 William Murdoch erected the first gas-
works ; by the end of the next century the capital invested in gas under-
takings in the United Kingdom represented a sum of more than £100,000,000.

Of the achievements of science during the nineteenth century I shall
say littlke—the subject is too vast to allow of any survey to-night.
I would, however, point out that whereas at the beginning of the period
there were no schools or universities in Great Britain at which provision
was made for the practical study of the sciences, there are now but few
secondary schools in the Empire at which experimental science in some
form is not taught. The University of Cambridge introduced an honours
examination in the sciences in 1851, and there were nine successful candi-
dates, of whom one, my old master, Professor Liveing, is still a distinguished
member of the University. In 1900 there were 136 successful candidates
for this examination, and at the present day the ** Natural Sciences Tripos ”
is the largest of the ‘Cambridge honours schools.

Before any experimental research is commenced, a careful study and
verification should be made of the statements due to earlier investigators.
First of all the latest text-books are consulted—and I regret to say that
generally they do not give much help. Then a systematic research is made
amongst the original papers published in the scientific journals throughout
the world. The neglect of this study and checking of the work of previous
authors has caused much delay in the progress of science, and has led to
much waste of time in work upon problems which had already been
elucidated. I would remind you that the fundamental law of chemical
action discovered by the Norwegian investigators Guldberg and Waage
was overlooked for more than twenty years; Mendel’s discoveries with
regard to heredity remained unknown for thirty- five years; whilst Caven-
dish’s experiment indicating the presence in the atmosphere of the inert
gases now known as the Argon group was unnoticed or forgotten for more
than a century.

Investigators are therefore greatly handicapped if unable to consult a
well-equipped and properly catalogued library containing complete sets of
the most important British and foreign scientific journals. There is at
present no efficient library of this type in New Zealand, and one of our
greatest needs is the provision of such a central library, specially arranged
for convenience of consultation, and from which, under suitable safeguards,
books could be posted to investigators in other parts of New Zealand. The
difficulty of equipping such a library will obviously increase year by year,
since the demand for the back numbers of scientific journals increases
annually, and every new American and European university endeavours to
secure an efficient reference library.

To the workers in the biological sciences good museums are also essential,
and I must add my protest to that of former Presidents of this Institute
who have pointed out the negligence—in my opinion, criminal negligence
of successive Governments in not providing suitable accommodation for
the irreplaceable collections at present buried in the ancient and inadequate
wooden buildings of the Dominion Museum in Wellington.

Research consists essentially of the collection of facts, the arranging of
these in order, and the arriving at deductions from the statistics thus
collected and arranged. It is true that in one science the actual methods
adopted may be—in fact, must be—very different from those employed in
some other science. Thus in zoology the facts are arrived at by such

XXVill Presidential Address

methods as the observation of animals in their natural habitats, the dis-
section of animals, the study of their embryology, and the examination of
the histological characters of animal tissues ; whereas in chemistry research
consists largely of the preparation of new compounds, the determination of
their composition, physical constants, and other properties, and the study
of the nature of the changes which occur when substances are brought into
contact under different physical conditions. When sufficient facts have
been collected it becomes possible for some generalization to take place,
the accuracy of which can be tested by further experiments suggested by
the generalization. This generalization we call a “ theory ” or “ hypothesis,”
and if all deductions based upon the hypothesis are found to be in accord-
ance with fact the theory is accepted as a general guide for future work
until facts are discovered which force upon us the rejection or modification
of the theory. A theory is thus to the scientific experimenter what a map
is to the explorer. If the map is wrongly drawn the explorer will soon find
himself in difficulties. If the errors are only small the map will be of use
as a sketch-map, but the explorer will learn not to rely upon it for points
of detail. So also an hypothesis, which is the incomplete expression of a
sound principle, may be of considerable use, in that it will indicate much
which would not be foreseen without it. Kventually, however, it will be
found wanting, since it is not a strictly true representation, but only
allows us to “see as through a glass, darkly.” Again, just as a correct
map may be misinterpreted, so also a strictly accurate hypothesis may
through unsound reasoning lead to deductions which are quite unwarranted.
Theories, then, are of great practical utility ; indeed, rapid practical develop-
ment usually follows each great advance in theoretical conception.

It is obvious that research work may be undertaken either from a desire
for knowledge itself or in order that the knowledge may be turned to some
economic use. Research undertaken with the latter object is commonly
spoken of as “ technical research,” and undoubtedly its prosecution is looked
upon by the public with far more sympathy than is the research based
upon a desire for knowledge alone. Whilst not deprecating in any way
the technical application of scientific knowledge, I believe that the view
of the public, that technical research is of more importance than research
carried out with the object of increasing our knowledge of the laws of
nature, 1s fundamentally wrong, for it cannot be too strongly emphasized
that in every science the greatest advances which have been made, and
which have led ultimately to the most important technical developments,
have usually been those which were carried out by seekers after truth with
regard to the Jaws of nature, and not to those who expected commercial
returns from their investigations. On the other hand, I would enter my
protest against the views of those who scoff at their fellow-workers when
attempting to apply scientific knowledge to commercial development and
to the benefiting of mankind. It has been my privilege to study under
some of the greatest scientific thinkers in Great Britain and on the Continent
of Europe, and I can say that, though most of these men devoted their
labours to the elucidation of nature’s laws, they were ever ready to take
an interest in the application of their discoveries to useful ends, and to
encourage their students to accept positioss in which scientific knowledge
could be applied to the solution of the problems of the factory and the
workshop. No greater example of this can be quoted than that of the
late Emil Fischer, whose death in 1919 caused sorrow in all scientific circles.
Though the first of the so-called aniline dyes was prepared by William
Henry Perkin in 1856, the real chemical nature of these substances
remained a mystery until Fischer unravelled the tangled skein in 1878,

.

Presidential Address. Oca bse

after which he was offered a very lucrative post as director of research in
one of the most important of the German aniline-dye factories. This offer
he refused, preferring the small salary of a university professor and the
control of a school of scientific research. It is interesting to note that
researches on coal-tar colours no longer occupied his attention, but that
the remainder of his life was chiefly devoted to the study of substances
playing an important part in animal and vegetable physiological processes.
His next achievement was the placing of the uric-acid group upon a satis-
factory basis; for, though uric acid had been discovered so long ago as
1770 by the great Swedish chemist Scheele, the number of its later-prepared
derivatives being legion, and though many facts concerning the group were
known, the kev had yet to be found before the relationship between these
substances could be understood. From uric acid Fischer passed to the
sugar group, then to the proteins, and lastly to the tannins. ‘The story
was the same in each case. These four groups are of immense importance
in the chemistry of the plant and animal kingdoms. In each case con-
fusion reigned supreme before the group was investigated and brought
into an orderly system by the great investigator. No one could accuse
Fischer of the degradation of chemical research by turning his great talents
to mere commercial problems; and yet I do not think I have ever met
a man who more acutely realized the value of technical research for the
people. He was always sympathetic with the manufacturer, and large
numbers of his students found occupation as research chemists in the great
chemical factories of the world. During the war his energies were naturally
largely devoted to war problems. He warned the Westphalian manu-
facturers of the inefficiency of the steps they were taking in the matter of
nitrogenous products for high explosives, and was rebuffed by the military
authorities. At his instigation a Food Commission was established in Ger-
many, and he fearlessly warned the authorities that military victory was
of less importance than the health of the people, which could not be main-
tained with the inadequate food-supphes. I instance Fischer because he
was the greatest organic chemist of his age, but all other great investigators
whom I have known have shown a similar attitude towards the technical
applications of science.

My own opinion is that it is impossible to differentiate sharply between
pure and applied science. He who works out the life-history of a minute
insect or obscure plant is adding to our store of entomological or botanical
knowledge. He may, however, be throwing light, though unwittingly,
upon some great agricultural problem. Are we to consider that the science
is “ pure” if no immediate economic result follows, and “ applied” if our
discovery turns out to be of economic importance ? Michael Faraday can-
not have conceived of the technical importance of his investigations when he
succeeded in the liquefying of gases, or when he discovered benzene, or when
he enunciated the laws of electrolysis, or even when he discovered the
remarkable phenomena of electro-magnetic induction. Yet upon each of
these discoveries not one but many great industries have been founded.

Training in the methods of pure science is regarded by many eminent
technologists as the best foundation for technical practice. I would remind
you that the detection of the German guns on the western front, and
their accurate location before the great advance of 1918, was due to the
application of his electrical knowledge by a young Cambridge graduate
of Australian birth, whose research work up to the time of the war was of
a strictly scientific character.

XXX Presidential Address.

For the progress of science in New Zealand there is great need for a
strong spirit of research to permeate the community. In every trade, in
every profession, in our social relationships and religious questionings, a
more burning desire for knowledge of the whole truth is required.

It is a matter for regret that such a small proportion of the students
entering our University colleges become investigators. If we attempt to
assess the blame, I do not think we can put any considerable portion of
it upon the professors, for in general a professor of science has his time
so fully taken up that it is only by extraordinary effort that he can himself
get any serious amount of research work done. Yet experience shows
that only those teaching institutions become important centres of research
activity in which the professors are devoting their main interest to
scientific inquiry, and the direction of such inquiry on the part of their
students. One contributing cause in some of our University colleges is
that too much of the instruction is given in the evening, with the
philanthropic object of enabling those who are working by day to receive
instruction outside of working-hours. Excellent as this practice is from
one point of view, it is not in the interests of national efficiency, and it
appears to be based upon the supposition that it is more important to give
opportunities to all than that it is of the greatest importance to the State
to have in the community a supply of highly trained scholars. “ These
things ought ve to have done and not to have left the other undone” is a
maxim as true to-day as when it was first spoken.

A point which I should like to stress is that we have great need at the
present day for investigators who can carry on researches in the border-
land between the different sciences. How seldom we meet a biologist who
can understand the researches of a chemist, or a chemist who similarly
can appreciate the work of a biologist! Yet there is an immense amount
of work to be done in the borderland between chemistry and biology, and
for this work to be successful the investigator’s theoretical and practical
knowledge of both of these sciences must be of a very high order.
Distinguished physiologists have assured me that the greatest hindrance
to research in their departments was the fact that so few of the students
desiring to carry out research had attained facility in the technique of the
chemical laboratory, and that familiarity with theoretical chemistry which
allows of the thinking without effort in terms of chemical phenomena.
I believe that all great investigators now recognize that it is impossible for
any one science to stand alone, and the difficulty which faces the educator
in scientific subjects is to combine breadth of outlook with specialized
knowledge in the short period which can be given to a student’s training.
Several solutions of this difficult problem have been suggested. One is
that an effort should be made to teach each subject more rapidly, by
eliminating all unnecessary detail. From the examination point of view
this system might be perfect, but I have great doubts as to whether
the hastening-up of the acquiring of scientific knowledge by such a method
can be effected satisfactorily. Time is essential for the absorption of ideas,
and if the ideas are to take root and be fruitful of results the student
must regard each principle from a large number of standpoints. He must
discuss it with his fellow-students, and he must perform many experiments.
Having made this criticism, I suggest that it would be of great interest if
the teachers of some one science were to agree to carry out a series of
experiments extending over several years, and checked by a constant
comparison of observations, in order to ascertain the quickest way in which

Presidential Address. XXx1

that science could be taught effectively. I am not certain that either the
students or the Councils of the University colleges would welcome a
research on the lines which I have suggested.

A second suggestion which has been made is that a longer course of study
should be demanded from those who proceed to a science degree in the
University. A change of this kind has been made in medicine, the length
of study having been lengthened from four to five and then from five to
six years. Obvious objections to such a course are the greatly increased
expense to the student, and the fact that so many of those who work
for a science degree do not intend to become scientific specialists, being
satisfied to attain the comparatively low standard demanded of the science
master in the secondary school. If there were more openings in this
country for well-trained scientific men there is little doubt that many
students would be prepared to undergo a longer and more intensive period
of training.

Still another suggestion which has been made is that more attention
should be paid to the teaching of science in the secondary schools. In
some of the schools in New Zealand the science teaching is well done; in
others, however, it is certain that the subject receives the “ cold shoulder.”
With the large number of subjects which enter into the secondary-school
curriculum, it could only be by very careful organization and excellent
teaching that the average boy could obtain such a grounding in science
as would allow him to hasten through the University course of instruction
with greater rapidity than is the case at present.

No institution has done as much as the New Zealand Institute for the
encouragement of scientific research in this Dominion. Established in
1867 by an Act of the General Assembly, the Institute bound together
the philosophical societies already in existence in different parts of New
Zealand. The preamble of the Act states that it 1s expedient to promote
the general study and cultivation of the various branches and departments
of science, literature, and philosophy—in other words, to encourage the
advancement of every branch of knowledge. The first volume of the
Transactions of the Institute was published in May, 1869, and contained
articles on geology, ethnology, chemistry, zoology, geography, and engi-
neering; such practical subjects as gold-extraction, the preparation of
New Zealand flax, the smelting of Taranaki ironsand, and experiments
with hydraulic mortar are amongst the articles; so that, as at the present
day, the philosophers of that time interested themselves with subjects of
both theoretical and practical importance. I trust that this interweaving
of science with practice will always continue amongst the scientific men
of this Dominion. I am glad to be able to tell you that though for fifty
years the Government grant to the Institute remained at £500 it has
this year, on the recommendation of Sir Francis Bell, been increased to
twice that sum. Unfortunately, the cost of printing the Transactions has
increased in almost equal proportion, so that the balance left for work in
other directions is still small.

The New Zealand Institute exists, then, mainly for the encouragement
of scientific investigation ; and the medium which the Transactions of the
Institute provide for publishing the results of scientific observations has
done much to stimulate those who, without this encouragement, would
never have gone on with their researches. The Institute has lost no
opportunity of placing before Cabinet, and other authorities, the need for
some definite policy in connection with research work in New Zealand.

XxXxll Presidential Address.

Until a few years ago no help could be obtained for the financing of
any researches in this country. On the representation of the Institute a
research grant of £250 was in 1917 placed on the estimates by the Hon.
G. W. Russell. This amount is now increased to £2,000, but is small in
comparison with the large quantity of work which ought to be carried out.
During the war the Institute conferred with a number of bodies interested
and drew up a scheme for the advancement of scientific and industrial
research. After slight modification by the Efficiency Board, the proposals
were forwarded by the Chairman of that body to Cabinet with a very
strong endorsement. I understand also that the general principles of this
scheme were approved in the report of the Industries Commission ; but
effect has not yet been given to the recommendations, which involved an
annual expenditure of some £20,000 for the first five years. I know that
the matter has received the sympathetic attention of the Minister of Internal
Affairs and of the Minister of Education, and that other members of Cabinet
recognize the importance of taking action in this matter. New Zealand
spends half a million annually on national defence—it is a wise insurance-
premium against attack from our enemies. Would it not be wise to also
spend one-tenth of this sum annually on research as an insurance against
disaster due to ignorance? None of the money spent on defence can
be revenue-producing, but funds spent upon a wisely-directed scheme of
scientific and industrial research could not fail to increase the efficiency
of our primary and secondary industries, to develop our natural resources,
and to add to our national wealth and prosperity. I see little hope of
removing the crushing financial burden left by the war unless a determined
attempt is made to ascertain the extent of our resources and to develop
them upon the practical lines indicated by scientific investigation.

I trust that an efficient national research scheme will soon be
agreed to by Parliament, that no attempt will be made to differentiate
between the claims of pure and applied science, and that provision will
be made—

(a.) For the encouragement of research in all the scientific Departments
of the Government; for I am certain that, great as are the
results that have been accomplished by those Departments, still
more would have been achieved if, in the Departments concerned,
a number of scientific men had been employed whose time was
given entirely to the solving of problems, men who were com-
pletely freed from ordinary routine work. It is, I think, quite
evident that a scientific officer whose time is almost wholly taken
up with routine work, and who attempts research work during
the time when the pressure of the routine work slackens, can
have but little chance of giving such an amount of thought and
concentration to the problems as will ensure a high standard of
efficiency. The economic results which would be obtained if
really first-class investigators were employed in the way which
I have mentioned would far more than justify the expense which
would be involved.

(b.) For enabling the University colleges to become real living centres
of research activity. Indeed, I should be glad to see the carrying-
out of research work regarded as the most important duty of a
University professor. This would involve the giving of more
assistance to him in his teaching, and the better equipping of
the college laboratories.

Presidential Address. XXXlll

(c.) For providing facilities for research in every institution in which
problems are being seriously attacked. Such institutions should
receive sympathetic aid from the State. The Fish-hatchery at
Portobello, in which investigations are being carried on with the
object of conserving and improving the supply of fish for the
whole of New Zealand, is an institution which is worthy of
much help. The Cawthron Institute, too, in which researches
are carried out on such technical subjects as soil-chemistry, the
diseases of crops, the control of insect pests, and the utilization
of waste products, could not in fairness be overlooked.

(d.) For the continuing of the present system of grants to private
workers, a class which has contributed a very large proportion of
the scientific papers published in the Transactions of the Institute.

I am of the opinion that a very grave mistake will be made if in any
general scheme for research the New Zealand Institute, which for so many
years has devoted its attention to this problem, is not given a place of
great prominence.

One fact which greatly militates against the advancement of science in
New Zealand and the production of a continuous output of expert research
work is the lack of employment for qualified graduates when they leave
the University. One of the most admirable points in the New Zealand
University system is that for a candidate to obtain honours in any science
he must, in addition to the examination, present a thesis containing the
result of his own original work. The obtaiming of the M.Sc. degree, then,
is to some extent a guarantee that the science graduate has reached the
research standard, and I can certify that the work which has been pre-
sented by many of the candidates in chemistry has been very good indeed.
When, however, the graduate leaves the University he generally finds it
difficult to obtain in New Zealand a position in which his advanced know-
ledge can be employed, and the more enterprising amongst these men leave
the country, and, as a rule, do not return. No community can afford
to lose a large proportion of its best talent, and it is little consolation to
‘know that many of these men are now holding positions of distinction in
England, India, America, and Australia. I am sure you will be pleased to
know that all the professors of chemistry in New Zealand are University
graduates who have returned to their native land after post-graduate study
in England or on the Continent of Europe. Although we can scarcely hope
to retain the most brilliant of our graduates—men of the calibre of R. C.
Maclaurin and Ernest Rutherford—nevertheless many would return to New
Zealand if some systematic attempt were made to provide suitable employ-
ment for them. It would, I believe, be in the interests of the whole country
if a certain number of Civil Service appointments were made annually of
honours graduates, who would be attached to specified Departments as
research officers, and who would carry out investigations under the direc-
tion of the scientific head of the Department. A condition of these appoint-
ments should be that the officers must not be called away to do ordinary
routine work when the Department became short-handed, but that they
should devote themselves to the researches which they were undertaking,
and to no other work. In agriculture alone there must be many problems
which could be worked out under the direction of the Dominion Agricul-
tural Chemist or Biologist. The Dominion Analyst, too, could, I am sure,
find important researches for a number of these investigators. If these
officers proved efficient, facilities should be given for them to rise to posi-
tions of high salaries, for their work for the nation would be of extraordi-
nary value. Difficulties would no doubt be met in establishing such a
scheme, but I am convinced that if the scheme were properly organized

ii—Trans.

XXXIV Presidential Address.

great results would follow. Something has already been done by the Civil
Service Commissioners in insisting that the cadets in the scientific Depart-
ments shall attend University classes at the expense of the State, and that
their grading shall to some extent be influenced by the progress which they
show in their University work. Some of these men are already showing
great promise of becoming investigators. and I do not doubt that the
system will give great opportunities to many cadets who would otherwise
have little chance of securmg a sound scientific education. One great
advantage of the system is that, since these young men are mostly taking
the full B.Sc. course, which involves the study of four sciences and the
acquisition of a reading knowledge of at least one foreign language, they are
obtaining a far greater breadth of outlook than could otherwise be the case.

Science durmg the last two hundred years has revolutionized the state
of our knowledge. It has contributed more than any other factor to our
material wealth. It has shown us the nature of disease, and has placed in
our hands in large measure the means whereby disease can be combated.
The scientific discoveries of Mendel are of far-reaching importance. They
have widened our ideas of the origin of species, and their practical appli-
cations have produced results of great value to agriculture. Dalton’s
introduction of the chemical, in contradistinction to the metaphysical,
conception of the atom formed the basis upon which the magnificent edifice
of nineteenth-century science was based. The idea of a spatial arrangement
of atoms hinted at by Wollaston and formally enunciated by Le Bel and
Van’t Hoff as an outcome of Pasteur’s researches on asymmetry opened up a
new science of stereo-chemistry, the importance of which to modern physt-
ology is becoming daily more apparent. The new sciences of radio-chemistry
and physics have shown, through the work of Bragg and Rutherford, not
only how the atoms are arranged in crystalline substances, but also the
structure of the atoms themselves. Can we doubt that the practical out-
come of these investigations will be a harvest as important as that which
followed the implanting of the Daltonian idea? The application of mathe-
matics to the simple electrical ideas of Faraday has opened to us, through ,
Clerk Maxwell] and his successors, an almost limitless field of work for
the physicist and electrical technologist, and wireless telegraphy is but
one outcome of Maxwell’s conceptions. ;

The race for the future must be largely a race for the acquisition from
nature of her many secrets. Are we in this country to take our fair share
in the work, or shall we wait for it to be done elsewhere, in the hope that
we may benefit by the labours of other nations, without ourselves taking
part in the necessary sacrifice ? Tf this latter niggardly attitude is to be
assumed, we must, as a nation, expect to sink into obscurity. New Zea-
land’s problems should be attacked by New-Zealanders, and the work must
be carried out in New Zealand and not in other countries. I emphasize
this point, for the absurd view has been put forward that our scientific
problems should be attacked for us by non-resident scientists. Such men
could have little understanding of the nature and environment of our diffi-
culties compared with that which would inspire our own investigators.
Their results could not appeal to us in the same way as research carried
out in our own forests, fields, and laboratories. Questions occasionally
arise for the answering of which the help of outside specialists must be
called, but this is no argument in favour of refusing to adopt a self-reliant
policy and to undertake the solution of our own problems. In no spirit
of narrowness I appeal for active support and sympathy on behalf of the
scientific workers of New Zealand, knowing well that national progress will
be influenced deeply by the extent to which this sympathy and support
are given or withheld.

aol geN ee le ON GS..

oR ACN, S Ac@yiai OnNSS

Or THE

NE Wen A LAND IN See ee:

Art. I—The Maori Genius for Personification ; with Illustrations of
Maori Mentality.

By Exspon Best, F.N.Z.Inst.

[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 18th May, 1920; received by Editor,
18th May, 1920; issued separately, 27th June, 1921.]

Or the singular mythopoetic concepts of the Maori folk, and their inner
meaning, but little has been recorded. Such information on native myths
as is contained in published works is in most cases a bare and hard trans-
lation, a soulless rendering of the original that ignores the vivifying spirit
of the myth and the teachings that it contains. The spirit that prompted
the evolution of such concepts is ignored, or perhaps not understood.
The cause of this neglect lies in our ignorance of the mentality of uncultured
man, and of his endeavours, in times long past, to seek and explain the
origin of man, of natural phenomena, and many other things. In the
peculiar plane of mental culture pertaining to such folk as the Maori, such
matters are taught in the form of allegorical myths, and the most remark-
able feature of such myths is that of personification. At some remote
period the Maori strove to envisage primal causes, to grasp the origin of
life, of manifestations, and of tangible objects. In these endeavours he
trod the path followed by other folk of a similar culture stage, and his
mental concepts, his myths, teem with personified forms and with illus-
trations of animatism. Personifications hinge upon animatism; for given
the belief that all natural objects and phenomena possess an indwelling
and vivifying spirit, then such a spirit is always apt to develop ito a per-
sonified form. These primitive beliefs, coupled with that which looks upon
all things as having come from a common source, contain the kernel of
Maori mythology.

1—Trans.

2 Transactions.

Though the primal being of Maori myth was Io, the supreme god, yet
it was not taught that he begat any other being, but, in some unexplained
manner, he caused earth and sky to exist. These are personified in Rangi,
the Sky Parent, and Papa, the Earth Mother, and these were the primal
parents. Their progeny amounted to seventy, all of whom were atua, or
supernatural beings, and among them was Tane, or Tane the Fertilizer, he
who fertilized the Earth Mother, and who was the origin of man, of birds,
fish, vegetation, minerals, &c.

All things that exist, saith the Maori, are a part of Rangi and Papa,
the primal parents—that is to say, they originated with them. Nothing
belongs to the earth alone, or to the heavens alone ; all sprang from that
twain, even unto the heavenly bodies that gleam on high, and the heavenly
bodies of all the other skies above the one we see: and all those bodies are
worlds.

It was taught in the tapu school of learning that water is one of the
chief constituents or necessities of life. It is moisture that causes growth
in all things, other necessary agents being the sun, the moon, and the stars.
Lacking moisture, all things would fail on earth, in the heavens, in the suns,
the moons, and the stars of all realms. Clouds are mist-lke emanations
originating in the warmth of the body of the Karth Mother. All things
possess warmth and cold, all things contain the elements of life and of
death, each after the manner of its kind. It was Tane (personified form of
the sun) and Tawhirimatea (personified form of winds) who sent back the
mists to earth in the form of rain, as a means of cherishing and benefiting
all things, for all things absorb moisture, each after the manner of its kind.
Air, moisture, warmth, with various forms of sustenance, were the origin
of the different forms around us, of the differences in such forms, as in
trees, in herbage, in insects, birds, fish, stones, and soils; these things
control such forms, and their growth. Hence death assails all things on
earth, in the waters, in the sun, the moon, and the stars, in the clouds,
mists, rain, and winds; all things contain the elements of decay, each after
the manner of its kind.

Again, there is no universal mode of life and growth among all things ;
each lives, moves, or grows after the manner of its kind. All things possess
a home, or receptacle, or haven of some kind, even as the earth is the home
of many things. Even the wairua (spirit) has its abode in all things ; there
is no one thing that does not possess a spirit or soul, each after the manner
of its kind. And inasmuch as each and every thing possesses an indwelling
spirit or soul, then assuredly everything possesses the elements of warmth,
each after the manner of its kind.

Now, as all things in all the realms of the numberless worlds are
so constituted, it follows that the female element pertains to all things.
Everything has its male and female element. Lacking the female element,
nothing could survive, for by such, combined with moisture, do all things
acquire form, vitality, and growth. Warmth is another element by means
of which things are nurtured, and earth supports all. Even stone 1s formed
of earth, moisture, and heat, and so endowed with life and growth after
the manner of its kind.

Now, as such was the intention of Io (the supreme being)—that is, to
arrange the functions of all things—even so the denizens of the heavens
were appointed as guardians and directors of all things in all the heavens,
on earth, and in the heavenly bodies. The twelve heavens are connected
with the moons, but the sun is above all—it is the controller of all things.

Best.—The Maori Genius for Personification. 3

Because all things are influenced by good and evil, by anger, jealousy,
ambition, and because all follow some form of leadership, even so was it
that guardians were appointed to watch each realm and report their con-
dition to lo. And because of the differences that exist im all things, thus
it is that all possess strength and weakness, goodness and evil, justness
and lack of justice, each after the manner of its kind. Hence the guardians
appointed as lords of the eleven heavens, of the earth, and of the spirit world.
As these beings appointed as guardians are the salvation of all things by
promoting their welfare, and are the emissaries of Io, thus it is that all
eyes and all ears are directed to lo-matua, Io the Parent, for he is over
all. He is the very acme of all welfare, of life, the head and summit of
all things.

Since fo is the head of all things, all things become tapu through him,
for without a lord nothing can become tapu, and so he is termed Io the
Parent. Since he is termed Io the Parent, and represents the physical
and spiritual welfare of all things, we see that the origin of such welfare is
with the parent—that the parent holds and controls the welfare of every-
thing. And since all things are centred in him, there is nothing left to be
controlled or directed by any other god or being. All things in the Kel
heavens, and in all realms, are thus gathered together before him. It i:
now clear that there exists nothing that does not come under his er:
all comes under lo the Parent.

All things possess a wairua (spirit, or soul), each after the manner of
its kind. There is but one parent of all things, one god of all things, one
master of all things, one soul of all things. Hence all things are one, and
all emanated from Io the Eternal.

It may be thought that the foregoing remarks, which are translated
passages from a speech made nearly sixty years ago by a teacher of the
tapu school of learning, do not embody mueh information as to personifica-
tions, but they do illustrate Maori mentality. They show clearly how
the superior minds of a comparatively uncultured folk broke free from
shamanism and a belief in malignant deities, and strove to conceive
a supreme being of nobler attributes; how the ancestors of the Maori,
wrenching asunder the bonds of gross superstitions, and seeking light
from the darkness of ages, pressed forward on the difficult path toward
monothesim.

ANTHROPOMORPHIC PERSONIFICATIONS.

We have already seen that the heavens and the earth are personified
in Rangi and Papa, the Sky Parent and the Earth Mother, from whom
all things are descended. They were the primal parents, and appear fre-
quently in Maori myth. The Harth Mother is spoken of as the mother of
mankind, as the guardian and nurturer of her offspring. Not only did she
give birth to man, but she also produces food for him, and gives shelter
to his worn body when the soul leaves it at death. After the rebellion
of their offsprmg the Sky Parent wished to punish them, but the Harth
Mother said, “‘ Not so; though they have erred, yet they are still my
children. When death comes to them they shall return to me and I will
shelter them; they shall re-enter me and find rest.’ Hence the burial
of the dead.

It is probable that many of the offspring of the primal parents are
personifications—some certainly are, and these come under the title of
departmental gods. All these primary offspring were males, and all were

1

4 Transactions.

supernatural beings. They numbered seventy, and each had his own pro-
vince and functions.

The most important of these children of Rangi and Papa, though not
the eldest, was Tane, and he was the personified form of the sun, as wil!
be shown in another paper. But Tane was also the Fertilizer — he
who fertilized the Earth Mother, and so produced man and vegetation ;
hence he also personifies the male element, as well as forests, trees, &c.
His daughter was Hine-titama, the Dawn Maid, who, on being pursued
by Tane (the sun), fled from him, and so passed into Night, the under-
world and spirit world. She became ruler of that realm of Night. And
ever Tane is begetting offspring (Dawn Maids), who pass through their brief
life in the upper world and then retire to the realm of Night. For Hine-
titama had said to Tane, “ Return, O Tane, to bring forth cur children
to the world of Light, while I remain here to receive them, for their welfare
shall be my care.” And ever does the Queen of Night battle with dread
Whiro of the world of Darkness in order to protect her charges.

Another daughter of Tane was Hine-rau-wharangi, she who personifies
growth in the vegetable world.

Whilst Tane is the personified form of the sun, the common vernacular
term for the sun is va, Ra Kura and Tama-nui-te-ra being honorific
names for the sun. Tane-te-waiora personifies sunlight. In our crude
translations of native myths we render “ Waiora a Tane ” as “ life-giving
waters of Tane.” This is quite wrong; in this connection watora means
sunlight, and it is so called because the Maori taught that the sun is the
origin of life. This waiora is a concrete expression, not two distinct words,
and is clcsely allied to the words vaiora of eastern Polynesia, meaning
“to be, to exist.” The waning moon does not bathe in life-giving waters
of Tane to regain her youth; she bathes in the sunlight of Tane, and so
returns to us again young and fair— which may be termed a scientific fact.

The moon is persenified in Hina-keha, or Pale Hina, and Hina is a far-
spread name for that orb, as also is that of ra for the sun, a name that in
ancient times was known in Babylonia and Egypt. Hina, being a female,
is not included among the children of Rangi and Papa. Rona is the maid
in the moon, her full name being Rona-whakamau-tai, or Rona the Tide-
controller. Rono, according to Fenton, was a name of the moon god in
Assyrian myth. Here we find a parallel in Polynesia, where Rongo, Longo,
Lono, is evidently a personification of the moon. This is made clear in
Hawaiian mythology, wherein Sina, personified form of the moon (cf. Sin of
Babylonia), the Hina of New Zealand, on being translated to the heavens
took the name of Lono.

Another of the primal offspring was Tu, he who personifies war and
its attendant evils; he was an impcertant departmental god. In Assyrian
myth Tu represented the setting sun and death, while Ra-tum (the setting
sun) was god of death in Egypt, and ra tumu denotes the setting sun in
eastern Polynesia (Churchill's Haster Island, p. 126).

In opposition to Tu of evil fame we have Rongo, another of the
seventy brothers, who personifies peace and the arts of peace, such as
agriculture, and all fruits of the earth. Hence Rongo is appealed to in
peace-making functions, and by cultivators of food products.

Another member of the family was Tawhirimatea, in whom are personi-
fied the winds of space. The personifications of wind number about thirty,
each representing a different form. These are known as the Whanau Puhi

(the Wind family).

Best.—The Maori Genius for Personification. 5

Yet another of the brothers is the dread Whiro, he who personifies
darkness, death, and evil. In the fierce war that waged between Tane
(representing light and life) and Whiro (representing darkness and death)
the latter was defeated. Hence he retired to the underworld, where he
ever wages war against mankind and drags them down to death, while
ever the former Dawn Maid, now Queen of the Underworld, strives against
him for the souls ef the dead.

In Tangaroa we have the personified form of fish, and he shares
with Rona the task of controlling the ocean tides.

Te Ihorangi personifies rain, while Parawhenua-mea is the origin and
personification of the waters of earth. The former was one of the primal
offspring, but the latter, a female, was one of the daughters of Tane by
Hine-tu-pari-maunga, the Mountain Maid; hence the streams seen descend-
ing from the great ranges. The offspring of Parawhenua-mea (water) was
_ Rakahore, who represents rock, and who took to wife Hine-uku-rangi.
the Clay Maid, and produced the personified forms of stones, such as
Hine-tuakinikiri (Gravel Maid), and Hine-tuahoanga (Sandstone Maid),
Hine-tauira (a form of flint), and many others. Another of the family was
Tuamatua, who took to wife Wai-pakihi (Shoal Water), and begat different
forms of stones, and sand.

Parawhenua-mea was taken to wife by Kiwa, guardian of the ocean,
which is known as the Great Ocean of Kiwa. But the ocean is personified
in one Hine-moana (Ocean Maid).

One Mahuika personifies fire. In the first place, fire emanated from the
sun. When Tama-nui-te-ra (honorific name of the sun) decided to conier
a benefit on man he sent them fire by, or in the form of, one Auahi-tu-
roa (a personified form of comets). Mahuika had five children, and their
names are those of the five fingers of the hand. (In Indian myth, Agni,
the fire god, had ten mothers, who were the ten fingers of the hands.) These
were the Fire Children, or family, and in the myth of Maui we see that
Mahuika plucked off one of her fingers and gave it to him as fire. When
pursued by Fire, Maui called upon Te [horangi (rain) to save him; hence
rain fell, and fire fled for shelter to Hine-kaikomako (personified form of
the kaikemako tree, Pennantia corymbosa). Thus is it that when man seeks
to generate fire he hews a piece off the body of Hine-kaikomako whereby
to procure it. The sister of Mahuika, one Hine-i-tapeka, represents the
fire of the underworld—voleanic fire.

Now, the sun has two wives, Hine-raumati, or Summer Maid, the per-
sonified form of summer, and Hine-takurua, or Winter Maid, the personified
form of winter. The latter is a fisher, and the former a cultivator of food
products. The sun dwells half a year with the Summer Maid, and the
other half with the Winter Maid. The offspring of the former is Tane-rore,
whose dancing is the quivering appearance of heated air in the summer-
time. It is personified in Parearohi.

We have in Hine-ata a personified form of morning; of day in Hine-
aotea ; and of evening in Hine-ahiahi, the Evening Maid, All three are
females. This is a Moriori myth.

In Hine-te-wira and Tama-te-uira we have personified forms of lightning,
one of each sex; and there are ten other such forms. Tawhaki also seems
to be connected with lightning, as also was Mataaho.

Whaitiri personifies thunder, but each kind of thunderstorm has its
own personified form, such as Rautupu, Whaitiri-pakapaka, Ku, Ka,
Aputahi-a-pawa, Tane-matau, and others. Thunder is often personified

6 Transactions.

in Hine-whaitiri, the Thunder Maid. It will be noted that a considerable
number of personified forms are of the female sex. Hine-kapua is the
Cloud Maid.

Personifications of the rainbow are Kahukura, Uenuku, and Haere
Uenuku was originally a person of this world. He dwelt on earth, where
he attracted one Tairi-a-kohu (personified form of mist), who had come
down from celestial regions in order to bathe in the waters of the world.
She visited Uenuku only during the hours of darkness, and strictly forbade
him to make her known to his people. So beautiiul was she that Uenuku
felt compelled to disobey her. By a cunning trick he delayed the departure
of the Mist Maid, and so exposed her to the people, whereupon she deserted
him and never again returned to earth. Uenuku was now disconsolate,
and he set off in search of her. He traversed distant regions and many
realms, but never again beheld the Mist Maid. Finally death came to him
as he still sought her, and his ara, or visible form, is the rainbow we see in
the heavens. Parallels of this curious myth are widely known in Europe
and elsewhere, as shown in the writings of the late Andrew Lang.

A rainbow composed of bands of different colours has as many personi-
fied forms, each colour bearing its own name.

Hine-korako is the personified form of a lunar halo or bow.

Personified forms of the comet are Wahieroa, Tunui-a-te-ika, Upokoroa,
Auahi-tu-roa, Taketake-hikuroa, Meto, Auroa, Unahiroa, and_ possibly
Puaroa.*

Fire is sometimes termed Te Tama a Upokoroa (the son of Upokoroa,
the long-headed one), because the seed of fire was brought to earth by
a comet, and hence Mahuika produced the Fire Children. These comet-
names are suggestive in their meanings, as “long-headed”’ and “ long-
tailed.’;

Personifications of meteors are Tamarau and Rongomai.

Hine-pukohu-rangi and Tairi-a-kohu are personified forms of mist, and
Hinewai represents fine misty rain.

Ruaumoko represents earthquakes. He is the youngest child of the
Earth Mother, but never came forth to this world. When he moves within
the body of Papa an earthquake results.

Volcanic phenomena are represented by Hine-tuoi, loio-whenua, Hine-
tuarangaranea, Te Kuku (or Te Pupu), Te Wawau, and Tawaro-nui.

The personified forms of wind and of rain are said to have cohabited,
and their issue, twelve in number, represent different forms of snow, frost,
hail, and ice.

In Wero-i-te-ninihi, Wero-i-te-kokota, Maeke, Kunawiri, &c., we have
personifications of cold, and the first two are also star-names—stars marking
winter months.

An old cosmogonic myth is that Te Ao (Day) and Te Po (Night) produced
as offspring Oipiri and Whakaahu, or Winter and Summer, who were born
in space ; both are females. Oipiri, whose full name is Oipiriwhea, pertains
to night, and her name has the same signification as that of Takurua-
hukanui, or Cold-engendering Winter; she produces snow, ice, frost.
Whakaahu belongs to the day, or to this world, which she represents. Both
of these female personified forms were taken to wife by Rehua, he who
personifies the heat of summer. Their attendants are ever contending
against each other, but neither side ever gains a permanent victory. This

* Puaroa, cf. Pusaloa = comet (Samoa).

Best.—The Maori Genius for Personification. 7

illustrates the struggle between summer and winter, which occurs often,
but is never final. Tama-uawhiti, also known as Hiringa, represents
Whakaahu—that is, summer. He 6 the same as ‘'ama-nui-te-ra—that
is to say, the sun—and he represents desire for knowledge, industry in
procuring food-supplhes, and other important activities. He is termed te
puna o te matauranga (the source of knowledge). An old saying 1s, “* Kotaha
tangata ki Hawaiki, ko Whakatau anake ; kotahi tangata ki Aotearoa, ko
Tama-uawhitr.”’ (There is only one person at Hawaiki—namely, Whakatau ;
there is one person at Aoteroa, Tama-uawhiti). This is equivalent to saying,
“ The most important being at Hawaiki is Whakatau ; the most important
thing in New Zealand is the sun ’—as it probably was to a people coming
from the tropics. It is probable that Whakatau is a personification,
possibly of winter, for we have a sentence in the above myth that runs
thus: “‘ Whakatau was a warrior, equalling Oipiriwhea.”’ We have already
seen that Whaitiri, Wahieroa, and Tawhaki, of Polynesian myth, are
personifications, and Hema is a name for the south wind at Hawaii.

Whakaahu, Takurua, and Rehua are also star-names, whilst Oipiri
seems to be connected with Pipiri, a double star that appears in June.

Tioroa represents winter, and Takurua is employed in a similar sense.
Spring is personified in Mahuru.

We have seen that Hiringa (or Tane-i-te-hirmga) represents knowledge,
but the acquisition of knowledge and the power of thought, mental activi-
ties, are personified in Rua-i-te-pukenga, Rua-i-te-hirmga, Rua-i-te-mahara,
Rua-i-te-wananga, &c.

Space is personified in Watea and Rongomai-tu-waho, and misfortune
in Aitua.

In personified forms of clouds we have Hine-kapua, Tu-kapua, Aoaonui,
Aoaoroa, Uhirangi, and Takerewai, and these all dwell in the house called
the Ahoaho o Tukapua (the open space of Tukapua). Here they ever
dwell, for they are in fear of Huru-mawake, Huru-atea, Huru-nuku, and
Huru-rangi (personified forms of the four winds), fearing to be jostled and
swept away to the bounds of Rangi-nui (the heavens).

The two principal personified forms of wind are Tawhirimatea and
Tawhiri-rangi. These personified winds in general, but each wind has its
own personified form. The personified forms of ice, snow, and frost we have
already encountered; they dwell upon the summit of Mahutonga (an
emblematical term for the south), in the realm of Paraiweranui. The Wind
Children of Tawhirimatea bring hither the semblance of those offspring in
the drifting snow and driving hail. One Tonganui-kaea took to wife
Paraweranui (personified form of the bitter south wind) and produced
some two dozen offspring, all of whom are personifications of different
forms of wind. These are the Whanau Puhi, the Wind Children, who bore
Tane to the twelfth heaven when he went to obtain the three baskets of
occult knowledge.

The Wind Children abide at the Tihi o Manono, in Rangi-naonao-ariki
(the tenth heaven, counting upwards), where also dwell their elder brethren,
the personified forms of the four winds—north, south, east, and west. For
there dwell Paraweranui, Tahu-makaka-nui, Tahu-mawake-nui, and the
other elders; all live in the houses Pumaire-kura, Rangitahua, Rangi-
mawake, and Tu-te-wanawana-a-hau.

The plaza of the Wind Children is known as Marae-nui, as Tahuaroa,
as Tahora-nui-atea. It is the marae of Hine-moana, the Ocean Maid, the
vast expanse of the great ocean. This plaza is the playground of the Wind

8 Transactions.

Children. To this meeting-place they come from all parts to frolic and
gambol on the broad heaving breast of the Ocean Maid. From the frigid
south comes Parawera-nui, from the blustering west hurries Tahu-makaka-
nui, from the east glides Tahu-mawake-nui, and from the fair north comes
the marangai, while from every intermediate point the younger Wind
Children troop forth to hold high revel on their great playground of
Mahora-nui-atea, illuminated by Tane-te-waiora, or by the Whanau
Marama, the Children of Light that gleam in cloudless skies when Tane
has departed.

A list of the many personified forms of wind would be tedious, but some
of the more prominent ones were Rakamaomao, Titi-matangi-nui, Titi-
matakaka, and those given above.

Tane is the personified form of trees, for a reason already explained,
and in this connection his name is Tane-mahuta—for Tane, like the old-
time gods of Babylonia, has many names, according to his activities or
manifestations.

When engaged in his great search for the female element Tane took to
wife many beings, who produced trees. In many instances such beings
are viewed as the personified forms of such trees. Thus Mumuwhango
represents the totara, Te Puwhakahara the maire and puriri, Ruru-tangiakau
the ake, Rerenoa the rata and all parasitic and epiphytic plants, Hine-
waoriki the kahika and matai, Mangonui the tawa and hinau, Hine-
mahanga the tutu, Hine-rauamoa the kiokio fern, and so on. Puahou
represents the parapara, Poananga the clematis, while Hine-kaikomako we
already know in her character of fire-preserver for mankind. Toro-i-waho
represents all aka (climbing and creeping plants), Tauwhare-kiokio ali tree-
ferns,. Putehue the gourd-plant, and Haumia the edible rhizome of the
bracken.

Te Rara-taungarere seems to represent the fertility of trees and plants,
while Rehua was also connected with forests; he is mentioned with Tane
in connection with forests (White’s Ancient History of the Maort, vol. 1,
p. 145), and lehua was an old Hawaiian term for forest.

Tane, under the name of Tane-mataahi, represents all birds, though
Punaweko is said to have been the origin and personification of forest-birds,
and Hurumanu the same in regard to sea-birds. One Tane-te-hokahoka
is also spoken of as one who brought birds into being; probably this is
another name for the great Tane. Rupe personifies the pigeon.

In addition to these major personifications, we have, as in the case of
trees, personified forms of different species of birds. Thus Terepunga and
Noho-tumutumu represent the kawaw or cormorant, Parauri the tui, Hine-
karoro the seagull, Hine-tara the tern, Moe-tahuna the duck, Matuku the
bittern, Tu-mataika the kaka parrot, Koururu the owl, and others might
be given.

In regard to fish, we have Tangaroa, who represents all fish. Tutara-
kauika represents whales. Puhi is the personified form of eels, Takaaho
of sharks. Te Arawaru represents shell-fish.

Rakahore is the personified form of rock, and Rangahua seems to repre-
sent stones. These are the more important beings, but Hine-tuahoanga
represents all forms of sandstone, Hine-one all sand. Poutini personifies
greenstone in general, and is also a star-name. Hine-aotea, Hine-auhunga,
Hine-tangiwai, Hine-kahurangi, Hine-kawakawa, and Tauira-karapa repre-
sent different kinds of greenstone, while Whatuaho and Mataa represent
obsidian. These will suffice as illustrations.

Best.—The Maori Genius for Personification. 9

Even swamps are personified in Hine-i-te-huhi and Hine-i-te-repo.
South Island Maori state that Hine-tu-repo was the wife of Maui, and it
was she who was interfered with by Tuna or Puhi, personified form of the
eel. Maui himself seems to have personified day or daylight; hence his
contest with Hine-nui-te-po, of the realm of darkness. Transform the eel
into a snake, and in the inner reading of the Maui, Hine, and Tuna myth
you have the true version of our borrowed myth of Eve and the serpent.
This story also explains why the tail of an eel is known as hiku rekareka
and tara-puremu. The name of the woman is usually given as Hina, a
suggestive name.

The glow-worm is personified in Hine-huruhuru and Moko-huruhuru,
the earth-worm in Noke, and the lizard in Rakaiora. One Peketua was
the origin of lizards, and the first to appear was the tualara. Peketua
moulded some clay into the form of an egg, and took it to Tane, who
said, “Me whakaira tangata” (Give it life). This was done, and that
egg produced the tuatara. All land-birds were then produced from another
egg, fashoned by Punaweko, and sea-birds from yet another, made by
Hurumanu. Birds and tuatara had a common origin.

Maru is the personified form of some celestial phenomenon. Amorg
the Awa folk of the Bay of Plenty Wainui is a personification of the ocean,
and Tahu personifies food.

Though Whiro is the origin of death, &c., yet there are many per-
sonifications of different kinds of disease and misfortune. Among them
are Maiki-nui, Maiki-roa, Maiki-archea, Tahu-maero, Tahu-kumia, Tahu-
whakaeroero, and Tahu-pukaretu. All these dread beings are the hench-
men and agents of Whiro, the evil one. They dwell within Tai-whetuki,
the abode of disease and death, which belongs to Whiro, and ever they
affict mankind. Thus does Whiro still continue his struggle against Tane,
continuing to slay man, animals, trees—all things of this world that sprang
from Tane. Thus is man destroyed in the upper world, and when his
spirit reaches the underworld Whiro strives to destroy that also. Had
not Hine-titama, the Daughter of Light, descended to the underworld,
there to war with Whiro and so rescue the spirits of her children, then they
would have been cast by Whiro into Tai-whetuki and Tai-te-waro, there
to perish. When men of this world die, their spirits are drawn down to
the underworld by Rua-toia and Rua-kumea, and are there received and
protected by Hine. For, in the days when the world was young, when
Hine fled from Tane, the sun god, her abiding words were, “I go to the
lower realm that I may protect our descendants ; to the underworld I will
draw them down and cherish them; their spirit-life shall be my care.
Maku e kapu i te toiora 0 a taua tamariki.”

But ever Maiki-nui and Maiki-roa lurk within Tai-whetuki, the House
of Death, while Rua-toia and Rua-kumea convey the souls of men to the
care of the Daughter of Light, erst the Dawn Maid.

There are two aspects of Maori myths, or two forms in which they
are related. One of these is the common or “fireside” version, the other
is the “inner” version, as conserved in the school of learning, and taught
only to those entrusted with the task of preserving the esoteric know-
ledge of the elders of the tribe. These remarks do not apply to ordinary
folk-tales, but to what may be termed the higher class of myths. The
ordinary version of such myths is known to all members of the tribe, and
may be related at any time or in any place. The other version is seldom
heard, and is usually unknown to the bulk of the people.

10 Transactions.

As an illustration of this double aspect, we will take the case of the
myth concerning the origin or cause of the ocean tides. The common
version is that tides are caused by the inhalations and exhalations of a
colossal marine monster known as Te Parata. The school of learning
ignored this as a fable, and taught something nearer the truth—namely,
that when all realms were being placed under the control of certain
guardians the marama-i-whanake, or waxing moon, and. Rona were appointed
to control the tides of Hine-moana (personified form of the ocean).
Again, the common version of the story of Rona is that she was transferred
to the moon as punishment for having insulted that orb because one night
its light became obscured when she was proceeding to fetch a calabash
of water. She is yet visible in the moon, with her calabash by her side.

We have also the instance of Tane, whose many names were often
inserted in genealogies showing the descent of man from the gods and the
primal parents. The inclusion of these names as those of different beings
was strongly condemned by the learned. The same remarks apply to Tiki
and others.

We have given abundant evidence that the Maori was permeated with
the spirit of animism and of animatism—that is to say, he believed in
spiritual beings, and also attributed life and personality to things, but not
a separate or apparitional soul as in the case of man. Yet the writer has
heard statements made to the effect that the Maori possessed no power
of abstract thought. Now, if there is one quality that the Maori did
possess, it was that power.

In a brief account of Maori personifications it is impossible to give the
various myths relating to them or in which they figure. We can only
scan the long list and mention the more interesting of such personified
forms. The following condensed account of one of the exploits of Tane
will, however, serve to show how the wise men of yore handed these
myths down, and how they taught racial beliefs to succeeding generations.
Tane, the personified form of the sun, is necessarily the origin of light ;
hence he is spoken of as the enemy or opponent of Whiro, who personifies
darkness. After a long contest and many battles on the horizon and
elsewhere, darkness is defeated and retires to the underworld, though
Whiro still wars against Tane. As the personified form of evil things,
he causes his satellites, Maikinui and others, to assail the offspring of
Tane, who succumb in their thousands. Tane, as personified form of
knowledge, is called Tane-te-wananga; it was he alone who succeeded in
ascending to the twelfth heaven, where he obtained from Io the three
baskets of occult knowledge, a fact that was bitterly resented by Whuiro.
The latter, as the elder brother (darkness is older than light), objected to
such treasure passing to the younger brother.

When about to make the great ascent, Tane went to Tawhirimatea
and Huru-te-arangi and asked them for the services of their offspring, the
Wind Children, to convey him “to the heavens. The multitude of Wind
Children assembled from all quarters to bear Tane to the heavens; from
far-distant realms, from the great spaces of Tahora-nui-atea they came.
They ascended to the upper regions, to arrive at the Cloud House, whence
emerged the Cloud Children to join them in brave array. Now came the
multitude of Peketua, the Whanau akaaka, the repulsive ones—insects,
vermin, winged creatures—sent by Whiro to attack Tane. But the Wind
Children guarded Tane; they furiously assailed the emissaries of Whiro,
scattered them, and drove them afar.

Best.—Vhe Maori Genius for Personification. 11

Having gained possession of the three baskets of divine or esoteric know-
ledge—that of good, that of evil, and that of ritual—Tane began his
descent to this world. He now assumed the name of Tane-i-te-wananga,
as representing all knowledge, as being the fountain and source of know-
ledge. During his descent he was again attacked by the army of Whiro,
and here he is alluded to as Tane-te-waiora, for it was Darkness attacking
Sunlight. His attendants called upon the personified forms of wind, snow,
hail, &c., who swiftly came and defeated the hordes of Whiro. Some
of the latter were captured and brought down to earth, among them
being Waeroa (mosquito) Namu-poto (sandfly), Naonao (midge), Ro (mantis),
Moko-kakariki (green lizard), Pekapeka, Ruru, and Kakapo (all night-
birds). Thus Tane returned safely to this world, bringing with him the
great boon of knowledge for the benefit of his descendants, the people of
the World of Light.

A study of the mythopoetic tales so frequently met with in Maori lore
tends to show that such mental concepts are by no means to be classified
as ordinary folk-tales. They are not merely metaphorical discourses or
hight allegorical fables, but often show that much thought has been
devoted to the subject of the myth, to endeavour to discover cause or
origin. The myth of Rona (the moon) and the tides illustrates this view,
and other instances might be mentioned in which the Maori mind has
approached near to scientific truth.

At the same time, man in the culture-stage of the Maori would never
state baldly that the moon controls the tides. He must at least personify
ocean and moon, for this curious faculty is one of the most remarkable
and persistent features in the traditions and occult lore of uncultured
peoples. We can even see survivals of such conceptions among highly
civilized races, and we still cling to a few of the old-time personifications.

Neolithic man adopted this mode of teaching what he held to be
primary truths. Having worked out his crude theories of the origin of the
earth, of the heavenly bodies, of natural phenomena, of man, and of many
other things, his mentality, strangely affected by long ages of contact with
nature and by ignorance of natural laws, proceeded to depict all activities
as anthropomorphic beings, and hence the Maori myths we have discussed
in this paper. Uncultured man handed down his conclusions as prized
knowledge to his descendants; he taught his children these myths, as
we teach ours the moral lessons contained in Aesop’s fables and in fairy-
tales.

A. ©. Parker struck at the root of personification when he wrote,

“ The primitive mind, believing all things the result of some intelligence,
personifies and deifies the causes of effects, and thus has arisen the
multiplicity of gods and guardian spirits.” Thus we have the many
manifestations of the activities of Tane, the sun god and fertilizer. Even
sunlight is personified in Tane-te-waicra, and in an old song we find the
following :-—

Ko te ata i marama,

Marama te ata i Hotunuku,
E, ko Tane-te-waiora ... e.

(Fair dawned the morn,
Bright was the morn at Hotunuku,
Behold! it is Tane-te-waiora.)

Explanatory myths teem in Maori lore, and are a characteristic feature
of the peculiar plane of culture to which he had attained. The Maori was

12 Transactions.

a mystic by nature. He ever felt that he was part of a living world in
which nothing is truly inanimate. He looked upon Mother Earth as the
nourisher of mankind, her offspring; his outlook upon life and upon his
surroundings differed much from ours; he possessed a feeling of kinship
with nature, and a curious form of mental vitality, utterly unknown to
the dweller by city streets.

The curious practice of attributing sex to things that possess none is
very noticeable in Maori myths, and we ourselves have retained some
survivals of this habit. The Maori held very singular beliefs as to the
protective and destructive powers of sex, beliefs that seem to be also held
by certain races of India. Animatism is marked by mental concepts of a
very strange nature, which in many instances are most difficult to under-
stand ; of this fact many illustrations might be given.

These peculiarities of Maori mentality have the effect of making genuine
old traditions, recitals, poems, and speeches of much interest, simply
because they were reflected in the language of the people. The mytho-
poetic concepts passed into the common tongue; hence such matter as
mentioned above teemed with allusions to personifications, with metaphor
and allegory, with aphorisms and occult expressions. Here we encounter
in a living language the figurative expressions and quaint sayings in which
is preserved the mentality of uncultured man. Here are the fossilized
thoughts of long-gone peoples, of past ages, being uttered by persons of our
own day. :

The better-class Maori was ever careful to acquire a knowledge of tribal
history, of myth, tribal aphorisms and poetry, in order to adorn and point
his speech. These folk were born orators, most punctilious in their
utterance, and their formal speeches were marked by rhythm, by peculiar
modes of diction, and by archaic and poetical expressions.

When Whare-matangi took leave cf his mother, Uru-te-kakara, at
Kawhia, in setting forth to search for his father, he said to her, “‘ Farewell!
Grieve not for me. Should I survive, then the sea-spray will assuredly
return me to your side. Two nights hence, look you to the south ; should
the gleam of Venus be plainly seen, it will be my token to you that I have
safely reached my destination. If you see it not, then know that Aitua
has struck me down, by the hand of man or by Maikiroa. Then do you
send me kindly greeting by means of the kura awatea,* that I may be
comforted by it in Rarohenga ”’ (the spirit world).

When Ngarue and his wife were separated, and he departed for Tara-
naki, he said to her, ‘‘ Farewell, the breast-clinging spouse! Shame gnaws
at me like unto the gnawing of the Ocean Maid into the flanks of the
Earth Mother. It is like a fire burning within me. Even my love for
you pales before it. Farewell! Remain at your home with your elders.
Think not of me, though I will ever greet the mists that hang over Pari-
ninihi and conceal you from me. And now the swift-running stream can
never return to its source. Farewell! The gnawing of affection is a
grievous affliction, but by Te Ihorangi was Mahuika destroyed. Farewell !
In the summer of our days we part as the Dawn Maid parted from the
Sun God.”

In these notes we have endeavoured to explain the Maori genius for
personification, and to throw some light on his modes of thought. For

*The kura awatea is the solar halo. The Maori believed that certain persons
possessed the power to produce this phenomenon, and that they utilized it in signalling
to a distance.

Brest.—The Maori Genius for Personification. 13

the Maori lived in a world to which we have no access; we emerged
from that world many centuries ago, to enter a new and very different
sphere.

The Maori had a loving regard for the earth, for was not Papa, the
Earth Mother, the mother of mankind? Far above him he saw Rangi,
the Sky Parent, upon whose breast the Whanau Marama, the Children of
Light, were arranged by Tane the Fertilizer, who traverses the head of
Rangi accompanied by Tane-te-waiora, the cheering sunlight. The moon
was to him Hina-keha, Pale Hina, she who follows in the wake of the sun
god, and, in times of stress, becomes Hina-uri, or Darkened Hina. In the
transient comet he recognized Auahi-tu-roa, he who brought fire to man-
kind; and in Maru he resolved celestial phenomena into a protecting deity
and a war god. When a meteor darted across the heavens he knew that
Tamarau was active; and he saw in the brilliant rainbow Uenuku spent
with his long, hopeless search for the Mist Maiden. When the chill winds
of winter smote him he knew that Paraweranui was abroad; when the
heaving breast of the Ocean Maid troubled his rude craft he knew that the
Whanau Puhi were gamboliing on Mahora-nui-atea; when the golden
trail of Tane gleamed athwart placid seas he knew that the Wind Children
had retired to their haven. Far overhead he beheld the many-coloured
battalions of ‘Tukapua and the Cloud Maid, as they hurried forth from the
Cloud House, harassed by Tawhirimatea. When Mahuika assailed in fiery
wrath the offsprmg of Tane-mahuta he saw the countless legions of Te
Thorangi darting to their rescue, while Mahuika found fair haven within
Hine-kaikomako. In the ceaseless contest between Parawhenuamea and
Rakahore he saw the origin of Hine-tuakirikiri (the Gravel Maid), whose
multitudes protect the body of the Earth Mother from the wrath of the
Ocean Maid, and of whom it was said, “ He ope na Hine-tuakirikiri e kore e
taea te tatau”’ (A troop of the Gravel Maid cannot be numbered). Yet
another stubborn defender of the Earth Mother was Hine-one, and all
footsore travellers welcomed the advent of the Sand Maid.

Even so the Maori of yore traversed the path of life, the life he gained
from the Earth Mother and from Tane. As he passed down that path he
was protected by the offspring of the primal parents, by anthropomorphic
personifications, and by the spirits of his dead forbears. When the path
became faint as he neared its end, when Whiro and Maikinui destroyed
his body, when his spirit traversed the Broad Way of Tane that leads to
the spirit world, it was then that the Dawn Maid fulfilled her vow made
in the days when the world was young, and protected her children who
sought refuge within her realm.

And Tane the eternal, who saw the birth of man, guides his spirit
down the Golden Way, and knows that the end is well.

14 Transactions.

Art. Il.—Old Redoubts, Blockhouses, and Stockades of the Wellington
District.

By Exsvon Best, F.N.Z.Inst.

[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 21st September, 1920; received by
Editor, 21st September, 1920 ; issued separately, 27th June, 1921.1

Plates I, I.

THE amount of interest displayed by Wellington folk in the story of the
settlement of the district is exceedingly smali, and very few possess any
knowledge of the anxious times passed here by early settlers during the
Maori disturbances of the “ forties ” of last century, and, in a lesser degree,
some fifteen years later. Probably no man could locate the sites of all the
blockhouses, stockades, and redoubts erected in this district in the early
days, hence it has been deemed advisable to put together the following
notes pertaiming to those posts. The stockade-sites marked on Collinson’s
little map are approximate only, but fortunately the writer was enabled to
fix them definitely ere the old generation of settlers in the Porirua district
passed away.

WELLINGTON REDOUBTS, ETC., OF THE “ ForTIES.”’

The general feeling of uneasiness and apprehension that followed the
Wairau massacre led to the erection of two defensive positions in Wellington
—one on the Thorndon Flat, as it was called formerly, and one at Te Aro,
on the north side of Manners Street. The former was situated near the
junction of Mulgrave and Pipitea Streets, and was known as “* Clifford’s
Redoubt’ and “ Chfford’s Battery’ among the settlers, but appears
as ‘“Thorndon Fort” in official documents. Mundy calls it “ Clifford’s
Stockade,” but that name was usually applied to the post at Johnson’s
Clearing, now known as Johnsonville.

In the New Zealand Journal of the Ist March, 1844, appears a report of
the Committee of Public Safety, of Wellington, appoimted at the public
_ meeting held on the 19th June, 1843. Among other items of interest in
this report occurs the following: “‘ Your committee have also to report
that a battery has been erected on Clay Hill, under the superintendence
of Captain W. M. Smith, R.A., and three guns placed therein. Another
battery on Thorndon Flat was in progress at the period of the arrival of
the military from Auckland, but has not been proceeded with since.”

Clay Hill was the name of the bluff headland, known otherwise as “ Clay
Point” and ‘‘ Windy. Point,” above the junction of Lambton Quay and
Willis Street. Its native name was Kai-upoko.

In the same Journal of the 6th January, 1844, containing Wellington
news up to the end of July, 1843, appears a statement that at 9 o’clock on
Sunday, the 2nd July, 400 Wellington Volunteers mustered for imspection
on Thorndon Flat. At a meeting of the military sub-committee on the
6th July, there were present Major Durie (president), Captain Sharp, Major
Baker, Major Hornbrook, and Dr. Dorset. ‘“‘ It was resolved that a public
notice be issued calling upon all parties to assemble on Thorndon Flat on

Brest.—Old Redoubts, d-c., of the Wellington District.

\ Rangi- -haeata’s rifle pits
Graves of Tuite « Roberts
Killed at Horo- kiri 1846

Nacevilie

= = tn.
/ockhouse
2 Paua-tananui
= ) Matai-taua Pa
> Pdrémata Redoubt
es Whitianga é
& Horopak: FS
\\ &
$F
Bibs Sin f port Block house
Q
i S
& 2) 9/ g Stte of Camp Boulcotts Farm
x a\% y/ f"~ where Bugler Allen was killed
a? n 7 / ( May 1646
lak tock v
ao eo = Blockhouse
ME C. Srockaek Ne : $.
£ Coy's Stockade n,)%
S y ote, Ole cy \
[a Midee!tons Stockade; ¢ ea 2oeS *,
= 8 oi ones me Ohiti Pa
S House TonOne.
Clifford's tockade
Johnsonville
On, Vohnsen's Clearing) a ~
QR. fi 4 i) 2
S $< Mount Misery Aga-uranga A
2 } Port Nichoison
(Te Whanganis-a-Tara)
‘ is Kaiwharawhara 8 ak
Bf oon fo u. ion
70n 2 OntareS pipitea ay
: ai Hee x
ye 3 Tard. -Te- =)
) ¥ oa ule ee OS
TS
® karor!
$ Stockade /ington
S
Scale of Miles
nnh é. = = = >

Fic. 1.—Map showing blockhouses and stockades of the Wellington district.

16 Transactions.

Monday morning next at 9 o’clock, provided with spade and pickaxe, to
assist at the erection of the battery now in progress, the completion of which
has been retarded by the late unfavourable weather.”

The following is a copy of district orders issued in May, 1845 :—

WELLINGTON Minit1a.—Districr ORDERS.

Secretary’s Office, Wellington, May 26, 1845.
By virtue of a commission issued by His Excellency the Governor of New Zealand,
dated April 10, 1845, appointing me Major in command of the Wellington Battalion
of Militia, I hereby assume command of the troops stationed in the southern districts
of New Zealand.

Captain Russel, of the 58th Regiment, will take charge of and direct the detail
of the garrison of Wellington.

Captain Wakefield will take charge of and direct the detail of the Wellington
Battalion of Militia.

Captain Baker will take charge of and direct the detail of the Mounted Volunteer
Corps when organized.

Lieutenant Rush, of the 58th Regiment, will hold the local rank of Captain in
this division of the colony, to bear date the 10th April, 1845.

His Excellency the Governor having been pleased to appoint the undermentioned
gentlemen to commissions in the Wellington Battalion of Militia, they are posted to
companies as follows :—

No. I Company: Captain Wiliam Wakefield, Lieutenant Charles Sharp, Ensign
Nathaniel Levin.

No. II Company: Captain David Stark Durie, Lieutenant Hugh Ross, Ensign
George Hunter.

No. III Company: Captain George Compton, Lieutenant James Watt, Ensign
Edward Abbott.

No. IV Company: Captain John Dorset, Lieutenant Robert Park, Ensign George
Moore; Ensign Samuel Edward Grimston to be Aide-de-Camp to the Major
commanding.

Captain Arthur Edward Macdonogh, Adjutant. Quartermaster, Alfred Horn-
brook.

On the alarm being given, the troops will assemble at the following places :—

The detachment of the 58th Regiment will fall back upon Thorndon Fort.

No. 1 Company of Militia will assemble at Thorndon Fort.

The detachment of the 96th Regiment will fall in under arms at the Barracks,
Te Aro, when they will be joined by No. 2 Company.

No. 3 Company will proceed to Fort Richmond, on the Hutt, and join the detach-
ment of the 58th Regiment stationed there, under the command of Captain Rush.

No. 4 Company and the Cavalry will assemble in front of Thorndon Fort.

The Captains of Nos. 1 and 2 Companies wil! enrol the names of any volunteers
who are desirous of giving their aid in case of emergency, and station them within the
forts of Thorndon and Te Aro, for their defence, to render as many men of their
companies as possible available to resist any attack that may be made upon the town.

The companies of the Militia stationed in the town of Wellington will patrol every
morning from 5 o’clock till 7 o’clock a.m. No. 1 in the district from Thorndon Flat
to the station of the 58th Regiment; No. 4 from Kumutoto Stream to Thorndon Flat ;
No. 2 from Te Aro Flat to Kumutoto Stream.

These patrols will consist of a non-commissioned officer and four men, and will
move in the rear of the town.

The detachments of the 58th and 96th Regiments will protect the flanks, and
patrol at the same hours, the former in the direction of Wade’s Town, the latter towards
the signal-station and Evans Bay.

The Cavalry Corps, when formed, will patrol the roads leading to Karori, Porirua,
and Petoni.

A guard of the Militia consisting of a sergeant, corporal, and twelve men will mount
daily at Thorndon Fort. The companies of Militia will assemble at their private parades
for exercise every morning at 8 o’clock, and 4 in the afternoon, until further orders.

Definite instructions have not yet been received relative to the pay of the Militia,
but for the present it will be the same as the non-commissioned officers and privates
of the line. Those working at the batteries between the hours of drill will be allowed
10d. a day extra.

The Militia volunteer for three months, or 28 days.

(Signed) M. Ricumonp, Major Commanding.

Best.—Old Redoubts, d&e., of the Wellington District. 17

In the New Zealand Journal of the 10th October, 1846, giving Wellington
news up to the 27th May, is the following: “* An address has been issued by
Major Richmond stating that, in the event of any alarm, two guns will be
fired. The guns at Thorndon Fort have been put in order and placed in
charge of a gunner from Her Majesty’s ship ‘Calliope.’ The carriages of
the two guns at the head of the bay will also, by direction of Captain
Stanley, be repaired by the carpenters of the * Calliope,’ and the guns will
be rendered fit for service.”

Colonel Mundy, who was in Wellington in 1 1847, wrote: “On the plain
of Thorndon is an old field-work called Clifford’s Stockade, mounting a few
guns. . . and intended as a place of refuge in case of an attack.
With a little repair and deepening of the ditch this trifling earthen fortalice
might be made quite efficient against a cowp de main; and, by a very simple
contrivance, which may perhaps have never occurred to an engineer, or
other defender of a fortified post, might be rendered impregnable against
bare-footed savages—namely, by throwing into the ditch all the broken
bottles which, in a short period, have been so lavishly emptied by the
Company’s colonists!”

The above writer has anether entry, as foliows: ‘‘ January 18. Inspec-
tion of the 65th Regiment on Thorndon Flat, an excellent parade-ground,
like an English village green. It is pleasant to see the truly British appear-
ance of the troops of this country—no pale faces, no dried-up frames.
Here was a corps 900 strong, including detachments, so increased indi-
viduallv in bulk and healthiness of aspect since I saw them a year ago at
Sydney, after a long voyage from England, that it was difficult to believe
them the same body of men.”

Te Aro Fort.

In Mr. Brees’ illustration showing the old Wesleyan Chapel in Manners
Street appears a part of the earthworks of the redoubt at Te Aro, which
was situated on the north side of Manners Street, opposite the above chapel:
Brees remarks, “‘ The house occupied by the late Mr. Brewer is on the
right of the road, and the large trench and mound which were formed
immediately after the Wairau massacre, for inclosing certain spots as places
of refuge in case of Wellington being attacked by the natives.” The
illustration shows a bullock team and dray proceeding along Manners Street.

Barracks.

In the New Zealand Journal of the 15th January, 1848, giving Wellington
news up to the 14th August, 1847, appears a short item from the Welling-
ton Independent, as follows: ‘The mechanics and artisans employed in
the erection of the new barracks lately completed at Mount Cook were
on Monday evening regaled with a substantial supper by the contractor,
Mr. Mills. The evening was very pleasantly spent. We have much pleasure
im noticing this event, because the buildings have given great satisfaction,
and reflect credit upon all engaged in their construction.”

The Thorndon Barracks were situated on the eastern side of the old
Queen’s Head Hotel, where Fitzherbert Terrace now is. They have long
disappeared, but two of the four cottages built for the officers at the junction
of Park Street and Grant Road, eastern side of Park Street, are still standing.

he wood-trails on the hillside above Park Street, where the soldiers used
to throw the wood down, are also still in existence.

The Thorndon Barracks witnessed a lively scene during the visit of the
Duke of Edinburgh to Wellington in 1869, when a party of Maori per-
formed a war-dance on the flat. They were armed with Enfields that were
kept in store there

18 Transactions.

Karori Stockade.

The site of this post has been fixed on the map. It was erected on
Mr. Chapman’s land at Karori in the “ forties,’ as a rallying-place and
refuge for the surrounding settlers. It was erected under the supervision
of Mr. A. C. Strode, on the high ground south of the main road and about
opposite the English Church. It was apparently never utilized as a refuge.

Colonel Mundy wrote of Karori in 1847, ‘‘ Here are several hundred
acres partially cleared, and the remains of a stockade built for the defence
of the rural community.”

Hutt Posts oF THE ‘“ Fortress.”
Fort Richmond.*

This was the principal defensive post in the Hutt district during the
troubled “* forties,” and was situated near the old bridge, which was some-
what down-stream from the present bridge.

Brees tells us that Fort Richmond “ was constructed under the direction
of Captain Compton, an enterprising settler of the Hutt. It 1s planned on
the model of those in the United States of America to guard against incur-
sions of the Indians. The stockade is arranged in the form of a square of
95 ft., with towers of defence, or blockhouses, at two of the opposite angles,
which command the bridge and river on both sides. It is composed of slabs
of wood 9 ft. 6 in. high, and 5 in. to 6 in. thick, and is musket-proof. One
of the blockhouses is 15 ft., and the other 12 ft. square. The fort was
erected at a cost of £124, independent of the value of the timber, which
was presented by Mr. Compton, and voluntary labour to the amount of
£54 10s. is included in the above statement of the cost.

“ The excitement which was felt at the Hutt when a party of the 58th
Regiment took up their quarters in the fortress on the morning of the 24th
April, 1845, will not soon be forgotten. The settlers having brought all
their energies to their assistance in the erection of the stockade, had just
completed it on the evening of the previous day (Sunday), when an attack
was expected from the natives. The settlers accordingly determined to
hold possession until the arrival of the military, which took place at about
3 o’clock in the morning, amid the acclamations of the settlers.”

This post was named after Major Richmond, who was then in command
of the district. A woodcut of the fort appeared in an early number of the
Wellington Independent (now known as the New Zealand Times). A con-
temporary remarks of those crude woodcuts, “They are apparently the
work of no trained artist. The ground is black and the delineation white,
reversing the usual process.” Brees gives a good illustration of the fortress.

Wellington papers of October, 1846, state that ‘‘ We are informed that
the late flood in the Hutt has done considerable damage in the district.
The south-western corner of Fort Richmond, where a detachment of the
58th Regiment is stationed, has been thrown down.” Ere long the river
had swallowed the site of Fort Richmond, which fortunately was no longer
needed.

Colonel Mundy, in Iur Antipodes, made the following remark on Fort
Richmond: “It is a small baby-house kind of fortress built of timber,
with a couple of carronades on corner turrets, one of which, impinging on
the river, has been carried away by a freshet.” This writer visited the
Huté in 1847.

* Not shown on map, but situated on the opposite side of the river to the block-
house above Hikoikoi pa.

Brest.—Old Redoubts, de., of the Wellington District. 19:

Boulcott’s Farm Post.

At this place the troops were camped in tents and farm buildings without
any protection, hence we have no defensive works on which to remark.
The attack of the 16th May, 1846, was the natural sequence of establishing
this singular form of military post. The site of it was near the spot marked
on the map issued by the Lands Department, and entitled, ‘ Wellington
Country District : showing Native Names.”

The Tata Post.

As this place is always called ‘ Taitai,” which, accordmg to Mr. Buck,
a surveyor, of Hutt, is its correct name, our early settlers must have
formed their own ideas of how it should be spelt. The name of Nainai
appears to have suffered in a similar way.

The Wellington Spectator of the 28th February, 1846, remarks, “‘ The
stockade and barracks to be erected in the Hutt district will be 90 ft. square,
and will be composed of trees 12 im. in diameter placed closely together and
loopholed all round; the stockade is to be splinter-proof. When com-
pleted it will be capable of accommodating eighty men and two officers.
The site fixed upon for the stockade is near Mr. Mason’s house, or rather
beyond the present encampment. It is intended to have it completed in a
month’s time.”

The post was, however, established a considerable distance above
Mr. Mason’s place, its site bemg on the western side of the present hotel at
Taita. A local paper remarked in May, 1846, after the attack on Boulcott’s
Farm (see New Zealand Journal of the 10th October, 1846), “ After getting
rid of the Maoris on the Hutt, His Excellency decided on building a block-
house, and maintaining a post of a hundred men somewhere about Mason’s
section, considerably in advance of the picquets surprised by the natives
(i.e., Boulcott’s Farm). Instead of this being done, the Superintendent
and his coadjutors objected to the amount of the tenders for building the
blockhouse, and, the Governor yielding to them, the soldiers fell back to
Boulcott’s barn, where they were attacked.”

Shortly after the above appeared we find the following in a local paper
(see New Zealand Journal, 2ist November, 1846): “* The troops and the
native allies in the Hutt have been forming an entrenched camp at Taita
in the shape of two squares connected at an angle of each, and having a
communication from one to the other.”

It would appear, however, that a number of Militia were stationed at
Taita when the attack on Boulcott’s Farm took place, 16th May, 1846.

In Captain Collinson’s report we find several statements concerning this
post: “ The flat part of the Hutt Valley is about eight miles long and two
broad, covered with forest. About two miles up it the New Zealand Com-
pany’s road crosses the river; here a small stockade called Fort Richmond
had been erected some time before, and was occupied by a party of 58th
under Lieutenant Rush. ‘Two miles farther on was a settler’s house called
Boulcott’s, in a clearing of some twenty acres, and two miles farther was
another house called the Taita.” (See Plate I.)

Collinson tells us that Maori depredations caused the Governor to take
action: ‘‘ He proclaimed martial law, and (under the usual fiction of con-
sidering the natives as rebels) he sent a herald to inform them of it, and
at the same time ordered the Taita farm to be occupied by a company of
the 96th. . . . In March, 1846, there were three detachments occupy-
ing this little valley, fifty men at Fort Richmond, fifty men at Boulcott’s,

20 Transactions.

and about a dozen militia at the Taita.” Wellington papers of October,
1846, reported, “ A sergeant and ten men of the Hutt Militia have been
kept on by His Honour Major Richmond, and stationed at the Taita, so
that the settlers may have some little force to fall back on in case of
accident.”

Portrua District Minitary Posts oF THE “ FortTIEs.”

Quite a number of military posts were established in the Porirua district.
These were to serve three purposes : the protection of settlers, as at Johnson-
ville ; defensible camps for military roadmakers ; and, in the case of the
Paremata and Paua-tahanui posts, the keeping of a watchful eye on the
turbulent Ngati-Toa folk, and to act as an outpost for the defence of the
Hutt Valley. Fort Strode seems to have been a small police post, page
being situated at Waikanae. All these posts pertained to the lively “ forties ”’
in the disturbed times of the “ sixties”’ no posts were established in this
district, though some troopers were stationed for a while at Paua-tahanui.

Clifford’s Stockade at Johnsonville.

In the journal kept by Captains Wilmot and Nugent during their
walking-tour from Wellington to Auckland, via Taupo, Galatea, and
Rotorua, in 1846, occurs the following entry: “ March 17, 1846. Started
from W ellington i in company with the Reverend G. on our road to Whanga-
nul. At about 11 a.m. arrived at Jobnson’s Clearing on the Porirua
Road, where about forty of the Volunteer Militia were stationed, under the
command of Captain Clifford, and were constructing a stockade as a pro-
tection to the few settlers in the neighbourhood. The road thus far is
good ; afterwards there is a mere bush path to Jackson’s Ferry.”

The Spectutor of the 7th March, 1846, remarks, ““On Thursday His
Excellency, attended by a guard of thirty men under Major Last, proceeded
on the Porirua Road to examine the stockade erecting under the direction
of C. Clifferd, Esq., and returned to town again in the evening.” Other
statements in local papers of that month inform us that the Porirua settlers
had been armed and placed under the command of Mr. Clifford, under whose
direction a stockade had been commenced on Mr. Johnson’s section. The
site was a hillock on the north side of Ames’s accommodation-house at
Johnsonville, east of the main road and railway, and on the south side of the
road running eastward to the old Petherick farm. We are told that this
post was “‘ for the defence of the settlers, and for the purpose of preventing
any predatory incursions of the natives, and a company of sixty men has
been formed for the protection of the district.” For some time sentries
were kept on Sentry Hill and Mount Misery to guard against a surprise by
Maori. Lieutenant L. R. Elliott, of the 99th Regiment, was in charge of
Clifford’s Stockade in October, 1846.

Middleton’s Stockade.

When the military roadmakers pushed on beyond Johnsonville each of
their camps was surrounded by a stockade, in case of any attack being
made by Maori. The men also carried their arms every day they proceeded
to work. It is not stated whether they worked under covering-parties or
not, as we did in the Taranaki District in later years.

The first defensive post or camp north of Johnsonville was Middleton’s
Stockade, named after Ensign F'. Middleton, of the 58th Regiment: it was
situated on Section 26, west of the main road and about half a mile north

Prats I.

“—FRT “10G0}0Q YLT “uosuremg “Ay Aq Yoyoys jroueg

“RUT, ayy 3e

apeyo0qyg

Face p. 20,)

LERANSSOIN DZ. eUNSES. Vion Anllt: PLATE II.

Fia. 1.—Remains of Paremata Blockhouse still standing in 1920

,
aie
ee
o————— Ss. > NO a 5 Mb Z
SS Ca

Fig. 2.—Old blockhouse near Wallaceville, built in 1860-61. Photo by J. McDonald,
1916, taken from a point near the bastion, and within the area originally
stockaded. The timber lying in the foreground covers the mouth of the well.

Best.—Old Redoubts. dc., of the Wellington District. 21

of the old Half-way House. It stood on the spur just above the road-line
at the corner and rock-cut formerly known as “ Pyebald’s Corner,” “ Byass’s
Corner,” and “Gibraltar Corner.’ This post was built and occupied by
men of the 58th Regiment. Each of these stockades from Johnsonville to
the Ferry (or Jackson’s Ferry), just north of the Porirua Railway-station,
was named after the officer in charge of the post.

McCoy’s Stockade.

Named after Lieutenant F. R. McCoy, of the 65th Regiment. It was
situated on Section 36, on the eastern side of the main road, about where the
house of the late Mz. James Taylor stands, on the left bank of the Kenepuru
Stream, just below its junction with the Takapu Creek.

Leigh's Stockade.

Also known as “ Fort Leigh.” Named aiter Lieutenant C. E. Leigh,
99th Regiment. It was situated on the west side of the road, about where
the northern boundary-line of Section 41 cuts the road. The short road
extending past the school is a part of the road-line as origina!ly surveyed.

Eiliott’s Stockade.

Also known as “Fort Elliott.” The original stockade stood on the
flat on the left bank of the Kenepuru Stream, about 7 or 8 chains scuth of
the hotel (now closed) near Porirue Railway-station. Late in 1846 flood-
waters overflowed this flat and rendered the post untenable, destroying 4,000
rounds of ball cartridge. A new stockade was built on the bluff or low
hill on the western side of the road, Section 62—a much better site.

In October, 1846, two officers and twenty-four men of the 58th Regiment
and two non-commissioned officers and thirty-four men of the 99th Regiment
were stationed here under Captain A. H. Russell (father of the late Sir
William Russell, and grandfather of the present General Russell who served
in the Great War) and Ensign F. Middleton.

Paremata Redoubt.

This post consisted of a stone blockhouse (or barrack, as it was usually
called) surrounded by a stockade. It was situated at Paremata proper, at
Porirua Harbour. The name cf “ Paremata”’ applies properly only to the
flat north of the railway-bridge ; the railway folk are to blame for having
transferred the name to the railway-station across the water. The station
should have been named ‘ Whitianga ’’ or ‘“ Horopaki,’’ both names of
places within a few chains of the station. The remains of this stone
blockhouse at Paremata are still to be seen at Paremata Point, west ef the
railway-line (Plate II, fig. 1), and it was here, at the narrow channel between
the outer bay and the inner arm, that the first ferry was established at
Thoms’ whaling-station.

In Collinson’s report on the Wellington Military District (published in
the papers of the Corps of Royal Engineers, 1855) appears the following :
“On April 8 [1846] 220 men under Major Last were sent round to Porirua,
and, after lving a week under Mana Island from stress of weather, they
landed and pitched their tents on Paremata Point.” The Wellington
Independent of the 15th April, 1846, mentions this movement. On landing
at the point tents were erected, and a large whare near Thoms’ whaling-
station was also occupied. Men were set to work to form a trench and

29, Transactions.

rampart defence, of which some signs may still be seen. The building of
the blockhouse was a slow affair. Wellington papers of October, 1846,
stated that “‘ The first stone of this building was laid on Friday, the 23rd
instant, by Captain Armstrong, the officer in command at Porirua. As
usual on such occasions, various coins of the present reign were deposited
in the stone.” The Spectator of the 14th August, 1847, remarks, “‘ Last
Saturday [7th] the new stone barracks at Porirua were delivered over by
Mr. Wilson, contractor to the Ordnance Department.”

A plan of this post made by V. D. McManaway in 1852 (fig. 2) shows the
blockhouse almost surrounded by a five-angled stockade, the water-front
being left open. Within the stockaded enclosure are shown a number of
huts, mcluding a sergeant’s hut, three men’s huts, a hospital, guard-room,
and commissariat. A well is also marked inside the enclosure, while
outside are the canteen, bakery, and two other huts.

The walls of the blockhouse were built of undressed stones laid in cement.
Many are waterworn boulders apparently obtained from a pit near by, and
a few bricks are worked into the walls. The portions of wall still standing
are about 30 in. in thickness and up to 10 ft. in height. The dimensions

(eae ©. , Xy

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Xe <Toaraen aS [aoretotghy
IGS eae ae

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ae \ te ccaes Room / Canteen
\ Le =

N Private Hospital

&y

Wharf.
ET er bour

Fig. 2.—Plan of Paremata Redoubt.

of the building are about 60 ft. by 36 ft. inside, and the ground-floor was
divided into two rooms. The men’s quarters were in the upper story, to
which access was gained by means of an outside stairway. The place is
only about 35 yards from high-water mark. The earthquake of 1848 so
shattered the upper parts that the men were moved out into huts, and the
shake of 1855 brought down the upper story. The post had been abandoned
before the latter date. Turrets had been built on it, apparently to
accommodate cannon of sorts, but the first shot fired at a passing canoe
manned by hostiles so shook the fabric that the gun was not used again.
Powers tells us that the stockade was a very inferior one.

The Wellington Spectator of the 27th May, 1846, gives the strength of
the force stationed at Paremata as follows: 58th Regiment—-seventy-eight
men, under Captain Laye and Lieutenant Pedder ; 99th Regiment—seventy-
four men, under Captain Armstrong and Lieutenant Elliott; Royal
Artillery—nine men, under Lieutenant the Hon. A. Yelverton ; also twenty-
five Royal Marines from H.M.S. “ Calliope,’ under Lieutenant Fosbrooke.

Paua-tahanui Post.*

This post was established at the Matai-taua pa at Paua-tahanui
after its evacuation by the hostile Maori on the approach of the force of

* Mis-spelt ‘‘ Paua-tananui ” on map.

Brest.—Old Redoubts, de., of the Wellington District. 23

Militia and Maori auxiliaries from the Hutt in August, 1846. This force
occupied the pa on the Ist August, Governor Grey arriving there in
the afternoon of the same day, accompanied by Captain Stanley, of
the “ Calliope.”

The post was situated on the spur on which the church stands at
Paua-tahanui, just above the creek, and above the bridge. A rude sketch
of the Maori pa appeared in a Wellington paper of that time, but the
reproduction of the stockade is decidedly eccentric. A sketch in the
writer’s possession is much more reliable. The name Matai-taua is one of
the few local names of which we know the origin. This pa was built by
Te Rangihaeata when he retired from Motu-karaka some months before.
When the Imperial troops advanced from Paremata fortress to join the
Militia and Maori contingent in the advance up the Horokin Valley
Lieutenant De Winton occupied the pa as a military post. On the 10th
August he was reinforced by a detachment of police under Sub-Inspector
Strode. In October, 1846, we find that the post was garrisoned by three
officers and one hundred men of the 65th Regiment. These officers were
Captain R. Newenham, Lieutenant T. F. Turner, and Assistant Surgeon
T. E. White.

In 1848 Captain Russell and a detachment of the 58th occupied the
post. They were engaged in roadmaking. The post was finally abandoned
in 1850. Apparently the 58th advanced to this post in 1847, for a
traveller passing down the coast in that year describes it as follows :—

“The strong pa of Pawhatanui (?) belonging to Rangihaeata, Rau-
paraha’s fighting- -man, had been seized the year before by our forces, and was
now occupied by a detachment of the 58th. I stopped at the blacksmith’s
outside the pa to have the horse shod, before taking him on the hard
metalled road into Wellington, During the process an ” officer happened to
pass. We entered into conversation, and the result was that Captain R.,
the officer in command of the detachment (for he it was), invited me to pass
the night at the pa. Mounting the hill on which it stood, we entered the
gate.

“The strong palisade, about 15 ft. high, which surrounded the original
pa, remained undisturbed, but nearly the entire space within was now
occupied by neat wooden huts, painted blue and shingled. Captain R.,
with his wife, a heutenant and the assistant surgeon, with their wives, and
an ensign, formed the society of the pa, and a very lively and agreeable
society it was. The ladies were all young and pretty, and on the best
terms with each other; Mrs. R., with her frank gaiety, being the life and
soul of the little party. As for the officers, they did not, with the exception
of Captain R., get through their time so easily—in fact they were mortally
bored. What, indeed, had they to do? The doctor, in that provokingly
salubrious climate, had no patients to cure, and the subalterns, since the
Maori war was over, had none but routine duties to perform, which on
detachment service are usually light enough. There was no hunting, and
nothing to shoot but parrots, pigeons, and tuis. However, they did
what they could; they fished and boated, pulled down almost daily to
Paremata Point, where there was a detachment of the 65th, to compare
notes with the major and the ensign, the latter of whom ingeniously
contrived to kill a good many hours in the education of a talking tui, and’
laid schemes for obtaining leave to go to Wellington, which was another
London or Paris to an unfortunate subaltern buried in the bush at
Pawhatanui.”

24 Transactions.

Fort Strode.*

In Wakefield’s Handbook, published in 1848, is a short description of
the eastern or Paua-tahanui arm of Porirua Harbour, in which occurs the
statement, “‘ Two stockades, one of which is called Fort Strode, at different
points of this north arm, have been occupied by small military detachments.”

One of these posts was that described above ; the other, Fort Strode,
named after Sub-Inspector A. C. Strode, of the Police Force, was situated
on the terrace-like point of Motu-karaka, on the northern shore of this eastern
arm of the harbour. The earthworks of the post are still to be seen near
the point, which on some old maps is marked “ Police Point,’ on account
of some police having been stationed there, under, I believe, Mr. Tandy,
This post was built on the site of the position occupied by Te Rangihaeata
after he left Taupo (Pliimmerton) and prior to his removal to Paua-tahanui.
His sojourn at Motu-karaka was rendered uncomfortable by young McKillop,
a midshipman of H.M.S. “Calliope” (afterwards McKillop Pasha), who
mounted a gun on the long-boat of the “* Tyne ” (wrecked shortly before at
Island Bay), and strolled up and down the harbour bombarding hapless
hostiles, and puncturing the atmosphere with cannon-balls.

In those days of the “forties” the ferry charge from Paremata to
Jackson’s Ferry was 1s. 6d., to Paua-tahanui the same, to Fort Strode 9d.,
and to Cooper’s, at. Whitireia, 9d.

We have now enumerated all the posts established in the Wellington
District in the “forties,” and explained their situations. Other details
and remarks concerning some of them, as Fort Richmond, Paremata, and
Paua-tahanui, are not given here, not being necessary to a paper that is
designed merely to draw attention to these places of interest. Further
notes on some of them were published in a series of papers on “ Porirua
and They Who Settled it” in the Canterbury Times of 1914.

NATIVE DISTURBANCES OF THE “ SIXTIES.”

Two Blockhouses erected in the Huit Valley in 1860-61,

When these troubles arose in the land public uneasiness caused the
erection of two blockhouses in the Hutt Valley, one at McHardy’s clear-
ing, Upper Hutt district, and the other near the Hutt Bridge, where the
Post-office now stands. The latter has disappeared, but the former still
stands (1918). The old post at the Taita seems to have disappeared about
twenty years ago.

The Spectator of the 21st March, 1860, gives an account of the balloting
for the first draft of the Militia at Mount Cook Barracks in the presence
of Major Trafford.

Old Blockhouse at Upper Hutt.

Half-hidden by tree-growth, this old refuge of sixty years ago stands
lone and unknown in a paddock half a mile from the Wallaceville Railway-
station, in the Upper Hutt district, some twenty miles from Wellington
City. Of the few who know of its existence some have curiously erroneous
ideas as to its origm and age. It was built in the latter part of the year
1860 as a refuge and rallying-place for the settlers of the district, im case
of a Maori raid; for at that time many of the Maori of the Otaki district
were hostile to Europeans, and the King flag was hoisted in the village

* Not shown on map, but situated on the point immediately west of Paua-tahanui,
north-east of Paremata.

Bust.—Old Redoubts, &c, of the Wellington District. 25

at the Roman Catholic end of the settlement. The Wairarapa Maori
were also disturbed, and some of the settlers in that district had asked
that blockhouses be- erected there, though curiously enough the sheep-
run men, the most isolated and exposed of the settlers, did not sign the
petition. The Wairarapa Maori strongly objected to soldiers being sent
to their district, and, as a matter of fact, none were sent.

Rumours of Maori raids in 1860 led to the erection of two blockhouses
near Wellington, the one herein described and another near the bridge at
the Lower Hutt. A number of Volunteer corps were also formed, and these
became numerous in the land. The blockhouses were not actually utilized
as refuges, simply because those raids never came off. The Wairarapa
Maori never became openly hostile. They probably remembered the
answer given by a local chief to Te Rangihaeata in 1846, when the latter
wanted Wairarapa to join him in a raid on Wellington—“ Kei a wai he
tahurangi maku ?”’? (With whom is a tahurangi for me?) Tahurangi was
the Maori name of the old-fashioned red blankets. The wise chief knew
that to slay the pakeha would be to cut off the supply of European
products, hence the red blanket saved Wellington. The memory of those
old-time fears and dangers has passed away now, and no one worries about
Maori raids.

The following is taken from the New Zealand Spectator, of Wellington,
for the 5th September. 1860 :—

Engineer’s Office, Lower Hutt, 18th August, 1860.
SEALED tenders in duplicate will be received at this office until Wednesday at noon
of the 5th September next for the erection of
STocKADE AND BLocKHOUSE

at the Upper Hutt, on McHardy’s Clearing, according to plans and _ specifications
No. 1 and 2.

Further particulars can be obtained upon application to Corporal Tapp, Royal
Engineers, at this office.

Persons may tender for either Plan No. 1 and No. 2, or both. The lowest tender
will not necessarily be accepted of.

W. Rawson TRAFFORD,
Commanding Wellington Militia and Volunteers.

The defences consisted of a stockade and trench, with a two-storied
blockhouse in one corner. The stockade, which has long been pulled down,
was 9 ft. high and bullet-proof, as described below, though its form of loop-
holes is not given. The hlockhouse projected outside two faces of the
stockade so as to act as a flanking angle, the opposite corner being provided
with a bastion as shown on the plan: thus each covered two curtains or
faces. The northern and western curtains were each commanded by eight
loopholes in the blockhouse, four on each floor. The western and southern
sides of the stockaded area still show a parapet on the outer side of the fosse,
or trench. Presumably the stockade occupied this low parapet, while the
defenders would occupy the fosse inside it.

The space enclosed inside the trench, is 30 yards east and west, and
somewhat more north and south. The measurements given in the report
would doubtless be those of the line of stockade. The trenches now contain
a considerable amount of debris, but were probably 24 ft. or 3 ft. deep
originally, the width being about 5 ft. at the bottom. The spoil from
these trenches was evidently used to form the parapet, of which, however,
we now see no sign on the north and east sides. The entrance to the
enclosure was probably at the side of the blockhouse where for a space of
18 ft. no signs of a trench are to be seen.

26 Transactions.

The blockhouse is in a good state of preservation, the timber sound and
still showing in places the marks of the circular saw ; it was probably cut
in Cruickshank’s mill, the first to be erected in this vicinity, which produced
some fine totara timber, The ground floor is divided into two rooms, the
larger one containing the staircase, as also a small room in the south-west
corner, like the sergeant’s cubby-hole in a military barrack-room. Four
sides of the ground floor present loopholed walls, the two interior walls
being blank, save for the doorway and two windows as shown. There are
twenty-four loopholes, as marked, not including three higher up to be
occupied by persons stationed on the staircase. These loopholes are rect-
angular, formed with | in. timber, with the smaller end outward, the inner
and larger orifice being 8in. by 6in. Some are still plugged with the original
tompions—solid blocks of timber. The walls are flush-lned with 1 in.
boards, and the outside weatherboarded with the same; studs, 6in. The
interior space is filled with fine gravel.

The upper floor is im one reom, and is pierced with loopholes all round,
on all six faces. The southern end has but two loopholes, but the two
windows there are probably modern and not a part of the original plan.
The west and north faces have each eight loopholes. The two interior
walls have three each, two long vertical ones and a small square one between
them. Two of these appear in the illustration. Not being a disciple of
Vauban, the writer is unable to explain why these elongated loopholes
should appear in two walls only, and those both interior faces. On the
outer side these loopholes are 36 in. by 3in., but the inner part is wider.

The blockhouse is built on piles, and roofed with corrugated iron ;
height of walls, 18 ft.

The magazine was a small building, 9 ft. by 5 ft. in size, originally lined,
and probably with gravel-filled walls. Outside the blockhouse is a small
ditch of unknown use, for presumably the stockade did not extend along
outside the north and west sides of the blockhouse. The place seems to
have been used as a residence at some time, and a stove has been used in
the upper floor. Again, the place seems to have been utilized as a chicken-
ranch at no distant period.

The well was covered over with timber, as it appears in the photograph
(Plate II, fig. 2). The bastion shows no signs of having contained any
small flanking blockhouse, such as we constructed in Taranaki as late as
the “seventies.” From the trench outside the bastion a covered drain
runs to a stream-channel, evidently designed to carry off storm-waters
from the trench. A part of the outer scarp of the trench at the south
corner of the bastion has been neatly faced with stones, reminding one of
the Koru pa at Oakura.

No trace of a parapet is seen on the eastern and northern faces of the
defence ; the interior of the defended area is level ground, which extends
far out on all sides.

(An outpost of singular form was erected at Taita in 1846, and was
occupied by Militia for some time. The following appeared in the Welling-
ton Independent at the time: ‘“‘ The troops and native alles in the Hutt
have been forming an entrenched camp at Taita, in the shape of two
squares connected at an angle of each, and having a communication from
one to the other.”” The main post of that period was Fort Richmond, at
the Bridge, Lower Hutt.)

The Australian and New Zealand Gazette of the 17th October, 1860,
contains the following: ‘“ The natives in the Wellington district still con-
tinue quiet, but the settlers are, as they ought to be, on the alert. The

Best.—Old Redoubts, &c., of the Wellington District. 27

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28 Transactions.

Militia has been called out both in Wellington and Whanganui, all the dis-
posable rifles have been distributed, and two stockades are being erected
in the Hutt district.”

The same publication in its issue of the 24th November, 1860, giving
Wellington news up to the 7th September, quotes the following from the
Wellington Independent: ‘‘ A stockade is about to be erected at the Upper
Hutt, and the one now erecting at the Lower Hutt is rapidly progressing.
Recently, at the request of several gentlemen of the Hutt, the contractor
supplied them with a target made the exact thickness of the sides of the
stockades and filled with screened gravel, which was carted to a suitable
place under the superintendence of Captain Carlyon, Lieutenant Ludlam,
and Corporal Tapp, of the Royal Engineers. The firing commenced at
120 yards, shortening the distance until within five paces, when several
rounds were fired from three different descriptions of rifles, likewise from
one of the percussion muskets. On examination of the target the result
proved very satisfactory, sixteen having struck the centre, but not one had
passed through, the balls flattening as soon as they come in contact with
the gravel, thus proving the efficiency of the present works.”

‘‘ A memorial for the erection of stockades has been sent to the Governor
from about sixty of the residents in the small-farm neighbourhood of the
Wairarapa. It is worthy of note that none of the sheep-farmers whose
homesteads are scattered over the valley, and whose property would have
to be abandoned should an outbreak occur, have consented to sign it.”

The Hutt Stockade.

The following particulars of the blockhouse and stockade erected at the
Lower Hutt at the same time is culled from the Spectator :-—

“Through the courtesy of Corporal Tapp, of the Royal Engineers, who
has been sent down to superintend the works, we have been favoured with
an inspection of the plan for the stockade and blockhouse to be erected
at the Hutt. The site selected is a paddock opposite Jillet’s Hotel, known
as Plowman’s land. The stockade will be 95 ft. square, with walls 9 ft.
high, rendered bullet-proof to 6 ft. by the interstice between the inside
and outside planking being filled with shingle. The blockhouse, which will
be in the south-west corner, the nearest the bridge, will be two stories high,
with galvanized-iron roof, and rendered bullet-proof throughout by the
same means as that used for the stockade. Its dimensions will be 30 ft.
by 30 ft., with outside flanks of 15 ft., with loopholes on all sides and in
both stories. In the opposite cr north-east corner will be corresponding
flanks or loophcles. The magazine will be 8 ft. by 4 ft., by 7 ft. high. The
blockhouse will be built so as to protect the Wairarapa and Waiwhetu
Roads, the bridge, and the ferry. Mr. W. Taylor’s tender, £725, has been
accepted, and the works will be commenced next week, the contract time
for their completion being three months from the acceptance of the
tender.”

In this extract we see what the nature of the stockade was at the Upper
Hutt, the two being constructed on the same plan. Some of the loopholes
are plainly seen, while those blocked with tompions are scarcely discernible.

BarttuigE.—Vhe First New Zealand Navy. 29

Art. II.—The First New Zealand Navy; with some Episodes of the
Maori War in connection with the British Navy.

By Herpert BaI.uie.

[ Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 21st October, 1919 ; received by Editor,
21st September, 1920 ; issued separately, 27th June, 1921.)

Piates ITI-VI.

THE early volumes of the Illustrated London News contain many illustra-
tions of New Zealand scenes and incidents. I was particularly interested
in those shown in the issue of the 30th January, 1864, among which was
one of “the gunboat * Pioneer’ at anchor off Meremere, on the Waikato,
reconnoitring the native position.” On looking into the subject of New
Zealand’s first navy I found that New Zealand had about that time quite
an imposing fleet, which was manned from ships of the British Navy then
on the station. On further search I found that the colony possessed a gun-
boat as far back as 1846. In the early days of settlement many requests
had been made to the Mother-country to provide the colony with one or
two armed vessels, but without success. It has been difficult to piece
together the story of New Zealand’s first navy from newspaper and official
records and personal narratives, the censor having apparently been at
work even in those far-off days.

An official statement of ““ Revenue and Expenditure for 1846 ”’ contains
the item, “ Purchase, &c., gunboat for Porirua Harbour, £100 17s. 11d.”
A newspaper records the information that H.M.S. “ Calliope’s ’’ pinnace
and two whaleboats had been sent to Porirua, and in a later issue it is
mentioned that the “ Tyne’s”’ long-boat had been lengthened for service.
The “ Tyne” was a barque which had ended her voyage from London to
Wellington on the rocks off Sinclair Head, Cook Strait, on the 3rd July,
1845. McKillop in his Reminiscences says, ““ A ship’s boat had been
purchased and converted into a gunboat by the carpenters of the ‘ Calliope,’
mounting a 12-pounder carronade.”’ A brass gun was also placed aboard.
(Plate III, fig. 2.) The “Calliope” took the boat to Porirua on the 11th
July, 1846. Midshipman McKillop was installed in command. He says
that he secured the addition of six more bluejackets and two gunners lent
by the officer in command of the Royal Artillery detachment then stationed
at Wellington. McKillop came into contact with the Maori at the Paua-
tahanui head of the harbour on the 17th July; shots were exchanged,
but, as he had “ taken the precaution of lashing the men’s beds up in their
hammocks and fastening them round the boat, making a bullet-proof breast-
work, which afforded great protection to the crew,” no damage was sus-
tained, except that the brass gun burst at the first shot. For meritorious
work at Porirua Midshipman McKillop received great praise from Lieut.-
Governor Grey, and was promoted to be mate of H.M.S. ‘“ Driver.”

The gunboat was used for some time at Porirua on patrol duty, and
was then taken early in 1847 to Wanganui, where it was commanded by
Lieutenant Edward Holmes, H.M.S. “ Calliope,’’ who was assisted by Naval
Cadet H. E. Crozier, of the same ship. Crozier accidentally wounded a
native chief with a pistol, and this was the direct cause of the Gilfillan

30 Transactions.

murders. The natives demanded the surrender of the youth, which, of
course, was refused. Crozier was replaced by Midshipman John Carnegie.
During the months of April and May, 1847, good work was done by the
gunboat. On the 19th May, in consequence of the gunboat being injured
from its own firing, Lieutenant Holmes moved his 12-pounder on board the
‘“‘ Governor Grey” (Plate IV, fig. 1), a Wanganui-built schooner of 35 tons,
from whose unbarricaded deck he continued to fight until the enemy retired.

Captain J. H. Laye, 58th Regiment, who commanded the forces at that
time, reported to the Governor, “ To Lieutenant Holmes I am exceedingly
obliged ; the efficiency of the gunboat under his command (which was
exposed to the fire of the enemy the whole of the day), his alertness with
her at all times, and cordial co-operation, I am only too happy to bear
testimony to.”

In a despatch from Wanganui dated the 21st February, 1848, Major
Wyatt, O.C., states, “ The repairs to the gunboat are progressing.”

On the outbreak of hostilities in the Taranaki Province in 1860 the
Government advertised for two vessels suitable for gunboat service. In
April the schooner “ Ruby,” 24 tons, recently launched from a shipbuilder’s
yard, was purchased by the Defence authorities, renamed “‘ Caroline ”
(Plate IV, fig. 2), and armed with a 32-pounder gun, and a supply of ammu-
nition from H.M.S. ‘“‘ Elk.” The cost of the schooner was £630; the cost of
stores, fittings, and the cannon, £300. Mr. Smyth, of H.M.S. “ Niger,” who
had distinguished himself at the attack on Waireka, near New Plymouth, was
appointed to the charge of the gunboat. He hoisted the pennant on the
14th April, 1860, and sailed from Auckland for Manukau on the 17th April.
Mr. Hannibal Marks, “an old, experienced, and dauntless seaman, who
knew every nook and inlet of the coast,” was appointed pilot and sailing-
master, being later appointed to command. The vessel acted as guard-
ship on the Manukau Harbour, also being used as a despatch-boat between
that port and New Plymouth. Later, she was transferred to Auckland,
where she was chiefly used as a despatch-boat. I can find no record of her
being engaged in any action. Her commission ended on the 12th October,
1863, and she was sold out of the service, the purchaser being Captain
Davidson. Her name was changed back to “ Ruby,” and for many years
she traded between Wellington and Kaikoura. She was wrecked off Jackson
Head in 1879.

An urgent call for help had been sent to Australia, and in reply the
Government of Victoria had lent its warship, the steam-sloop “ Victoria,”
Captain Norman, which arrived at New Plymouth on the 3rd August, 1860,
bringing Major-General Pratt, C.B., Commander of the Forces in Australia,
and his staff. General Pratt took command of the troops in Taranaki
until the arrival of Lieut.-General Cameron in May, 1861, when he returned
to Australia in the “ Victoria.”” The “ Victoria” also brought a detach-
ment of troops from Australia during this period, and was engaged on the
coast on various duties, including the transferring of refugees from New
Plymouth to other ports. Officers and men from this vessel took part in
some of the Taranaki land engagements.

On the 28th March, 1860, Captain Peter Cracroft, H.M.S. “ Niger,”
- with a force of sixty men and a 24-pounder rocket-tube, landed and
captured the Maori pa at Waireka, Taranaki, incidentally relieving a party
of Volunteers who weve in difficulties. This is the action in which Seaman
William Odgers won the first Victoria Cross to be awarded for service in
New Zealand. He was the first man to enter the pa, and he hauled down

Baituin.—lhe First New Zealand Navy. 31

the Maori flag. He was promoted to be a warrant officer by the Admiralty
on the 26th June, 1860, and the Cross was presented to him on parade at
Devonport, England, July, 1862. Lieutenant Blake, who, with some men
of the ‘ Niger,” took an active part in the military operations, was pro-
moted to be commander for his services, later taking command of H.MLS.
‘Falcon? on the New Zealand station. The “ Niger” had shelled the
Warea Pa on the 20th March.

A Naval Brigade under Captain (later Commodore) F. Beauchamp
Seymour, afterwards Lord Alcester, was stationed at Waitara, where Captain
Seymour was wounded, June, 1860, at the attack on the Puketakauere Pa.
The brigade, which was in service 1860-61, was composed of men and
officers from H.M. ships “ Niger,”’ “‘ Pelorus,” “‘ Cordelia,” “ Iris,” “ Elk,”
and the Victorian steam-sloop “ Victoria.”

In 1862 the Government purchased the paddle-steamer “* Avon” for
£2,000. This steamer, which was 60 ft. in length, 14 horse-power, 27 tons
register, and drawing 3ft. of water, had been brought from England in
sections and put together at Lyttelton in 1861. She had been engaged
in the trade between Lyttelton, Heathcote, and Kaiapoi. On the 22nd
November she left Lyttelton in charge of Lieutenant Hasther with a crew
of fifteen men from H.M.S. ‘“‘ Harrier,” in tow of that vessel. Lieutenant
Easther retained command until the close of the Waikato War. Mr. Ellis,
who is still living (1920) m Auckland, was engineer. The vessels arrived
on the 26th November at Onehunga, where the ““ Avon” was refitted and
armoured for service on the Waikato River. She assisted in the rescue
of survivors from the wreck of H.M.S. “‘ Orpheus,” on the Manukau bar,
7th February, 1863, the men being transferred from the steamer ‘‘ Wonga
Wonga,”’ which happened to be crossing the bar at the time of the disaster.

The ‘‘ Avon’ was towed to the Waikato Heads on the 25th July, 1863,
by H.M.S. ‘‘ Eclipse,” Commander Richard C. Mayne (Plate V, fig. 1).
Thirty men were transferred from the “‘ Eclipse,” and Commander Mayne
took the “‘ Avon” up the river to the Blufi—a little below where Mercer
now stands. On the 6th August Captain Sullivan, H.M.S. “‘ Harrier,” senior
naval officer in New Zealand, took the vessel on a reconnaissance as far
as Meremere, where the Maori opened fire, which, on completion of observa-
tions, was replied to from the ‘‘ Avon’s ” 12-pounder Armstrong gun and
a 12-pounder rocket-tube.

While the “Avon” was being fitted at Onehunga four large barges
were brought overland from Auckland. These were also armoured with
an iron-plate covering, and pierced for rifles and sweeps, or oars, this work
being done under the superintendence of Captain Mercer, R.A., who was
later killed at Rangiriri.

The “Avon” was on service during the course of the Waikato War.
On the 18th February, 1864, through striking a snag in the Waipa River,
she became partly submerged. She was used for a time as a coal-hulk
at Port Waikato, which in those days was a busy place, with building and
repairing shops. Later the “Avon” was renamed “Clyde,” and was
occupied in mercantile trading in the run between Tamaki and the Thames.
In 1876 her paddles were dismantled and twin screws substituted. She
was broken up in Auckland about 1883.

In 1860 a small paddle-steamer, the “Tasmanian Maid,” 53 tons
register, 36 horse-power, which had been trading between Nelson, Wairau,
and Wellington, was sent over by the Nelson people to bring the women
and children from New Plymouth if necessary. She was then used as a

32 Transactions.

despatch-boat between New Plymouth, Waitara, and Onehunga. In 1862
she was engaged in trade from Auckland to Coromandel, and about Auckland
Harbour. In June, 1863, she was purchased by the Government for £4,000.
She was renamed “Sandfly,” and armoured, being also armed with two
12-pounder Armstrong guns. Lieutenant Hunt, H.M.S. “ Harrier,” hoisted
the pennant on the 23rd June, 1863, and his crew consisted of twenty-two
men from the warships. On the 12th October Captain Marks, of the
gunboat “ Caroline,” was transferred to the “‘ Sandfly,” while Lieutenant
Hunt was transferred to the paddle-steamer ‘“‘ Lady Barkly,’ which had
been purchased by the Government and partially plated, when it was
decided that she was unfit for service, as intended, on the Waikato River.
She was used for transport work in and from the Manukau Harbour.
The ‘“ Lady Barkly ” is still (1920) running on the coast as a screw-steamer
under the name “Hina.” The “Sandfily”’ was stationed on the east
coast of the North Island, her headquarters being Auckland. She took
part in the blockade of the Firth of Thames and the Tauranga campaign.
She captured on the 3lst October the cutter “ Eclair,” a vessel of about
20 tons, owned by the Maori, and loaded with provisions. In 1865 the
“Sandfly ’ was sold by the Government, after a short service about Cook
Strait transporting troops to Wanganui, and doing a little survey work
for the Cook Strait submarine cable. The new owners changed her name
back to “Tasmanian Maid,” and she was wrecked off New Plymouth on
the 16th January, 1868.

In 1863 the Imperial Commissariat Department purchased the 80-horse-
power steamer “ Alexandra” for transport work. She cost £13,000, and
was also wrecked somewhere near New Plymouth, 9th August, 1865. In
1863 the Government owned a sailing gunboat, “* Midnight,” but I have not
been able to trace her commission, except that she appears to have been
on service on the east coast, north of Auckland.

In a memorandum dated 20th October, 1863, the Minister of Defence
stated, ““ Towards the end of 1862 the Government determined to place
a small steamer on the Waikato, and after some inquiry the ‘ Avon’ was
purchased for the purpose. Her draught of water is too great to be
available as is desirable; but, notwithstanding this disadvantage, the
vessel has been of great service. The importance of having a suitable
steamer for the navigation of the Waikato determined the Government to
have such a vessel constructed in Sydney, and after many delays and much
anxiety the gunboat ‘ Pioneer’ (Pilate VI, fig. 1) has been obtained—a
vessel, it is believed, well adapted for the purpose.” The “ Pioneer”
was launched from the shipyard of the Australian Steam Navigation
Company, Pyrmont, Sydney, on the 16th July, 1863, having been
under construction for a period of about seventeen weeks, the super-
intending engineer of the work being Mr. T. Macarthur, of the com-
pany’s staff. A report in a local paper, the Empire, says, “‘ Yesterday
morning there was launched from the A.S.N. Co.’s patent slip,
Pyrmont, a rifle gunboat for the New Zealand Government, and
intended for the service of the inland waters of the Waikato district.
She is intended to carry 300 men, on a light draft of water. Her
dimensions are 140 ft. in length, 20 ft. beam, 8 ft. 6in. depth of hold,
and draws only 2it. 6in. of water. She will be propelled by an overhang-
ing stern wheel, 12ft. diameter, 7ft. broad, driven by two engines, each -
30 horse-power. She is constructed of Zin. iron, which is pierced for
rifles, and which will render her ball-proof. She is fitted with watertight

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vou. LILI

Prate IIt.

ye
to

Fig. 1.—Putataka, Port Waikato.

From a sketch by 8. Percy Smith.

>

~ :
aid = ys
oe biomes : . 4D oN
os fee) Sieeats
Os ‘ at ame Lime crayjverl 4 Aarstile ahies Sy se
- i
: TAUPO QUAY NVHANGANU
Yow motes Ste
Plante, 4,4 % ae
Brae Rie
Fic, 2.—The “Calliope” gunboat.

From a sketch by John A. Gilfillan.

Face p. 32.

Trans. N.Z. [nst., Vou. LILI. Puate LV.

Fie. 1.—The ‘“‘Governor Grey.” From a painting by Major Heaphy.

>

From a painting by W. Forster.

Fig. 2.—The “ Caroline.’

TRA INeZe INST) Viola oii: PrATEH We

Fie. 1.—H.M.S. “Eclipse.” From a photograph supplied by Admiral Sir E. F.
Fremantle, G.C.B.

Fig. 2.—The ‘ Pioneer,” off Meremere

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vou. LILI. Prana Vvale

Fic. 1.—The ‘‘ Pioneer.’? The mainmast was removed when the boat was in use on
the Waikato.

Fic. 2.—The “ Rangiriri.”” The “Koheroa” was a sister boat.

Baiture.—The First New Zealand Navy. 33

compartments. ‘ihe boilers were placed 54 it. forward of the engines for the
purpose of keeping the vessel on an even kee].”” . The Hmpire of the 15th
September further reports, ““ On the vessel’s trial trip her speed was tested
from Fort Denison to Bradley’s Heads, a distance of 1 mile and 150 yards
A smart N.H. breeze prevailed, but with this disadvantage the distance
was run down in 8 minutes 12 seconds, and up in 6 minutes 53 seconds,
giving a speed of nearly 9 knots, with 52 revolutions per minute, with
6U lb. on pressure of gauge, and a very small consumption of coal. Her
speed exceeded the builder’s expectations by one mile per hour. She
is fitted with two sliding keels—one forward, one aft. The officers’ cabins
are situated ait, and the soldiers’ apartments forward ; they are very large
and lofty. She has a flush deck, on which are placed two cupolas, 12 ft.
in diameter and 8 ft. high, each pierced for rifles and 24-pounder howitzers.
The commander’s station was in a turret above the engime-room, which
vas also shot-proof and placed aft.” She was provided with space for the
storage of 20 tons of coal, and it is interesting to note that while on the
Waikato she used local coal, being the first steamer to do so. The Hon.
(iater Sir) Francis Dillon Bell, a member of the Ministry, represented the
New Zealand Government on the occasion of the “‘ Pioneer’s”’ trial. For
the trip to New Zealand the stern wheel was removed, and three masts
provided to carry sail. The cost of construction was £9,500.

After shipping a supply of ammunition, consisting of 60 cases shot and
shell, 600 cartridges for 24-pounders, 1,000 tubes, 10,000 Terry’s rifle
cartridges, 12,000 caps, and 18,000 revolver-cartridges, the ‘‘ Pioneer,”
in tow of H.M.S. “ Eclipse,” left Sydney on the 22nd September, reaching
Onehunga on the 3rd October, after a rough trip. The officers attached
to the vessel for the trip were Lieutenant G. R. Breton, late of H.M.S.
“Tris”; Lieutenant O’Callaghan, H.M.S. “Miranda”; and Mr. Jeffrey,
engineer; with a crew of twenty-five men. On the 24th October the
“ Pioneer,’ with two companies of seamen from H.M.S. “‘ Curacoa,” was
towed by H.ML.S. “ Helipse”’ to the Waikato. At the same time the four
armoured barges, or gunboats, were also taken to the river. While on
active service each of the gunboats was in charge of an officer from
H.M.S. “ Curacgoa.” I am informed by Admiral Hammick (then a sub-
lieutenant), who was in charge of one, which was named the ‘‘ Ant,” that
one was commanded by Midshipman C. 8. Hunt, who had been saved from
H.M.S. “ Orpheus’? when that vessel was wrecked on the Manukau bar ;
another was in charge of Midshipman F. Hudson. The fourth, which
was named the “ Midge,” was commanded by Midshipman Foljambe.
Mr. Foljambe in his Three Years on the Australian Station (1868) tells us
that the boat was armed with a 12-pounder gun and a 4:4 in. brass Cohorn
mortar, and carried a complement of seven men. ‘These boats were used
in the different operations on the Waikato and its branches, and also in
carrying stores. Mr. Foljambe was the father of the late Governor-General
of New Zealand, Lord Liverpool.

On the 29th October the “ Pioneer,” piloted by Mr. Chandeler, and
flying the broad pennant of Commodore Sir William Wiseman (‘‘ Curacoa ’’),
atter landing at Whangamarino, which commanded the Maori position at
Meremere, two 40-pounder Armstrong guns, brought by the “ Curagoa”’
from Sydney, conveyed Lieut.-General Cameron, commander of the troops
in New Zealand, on a reconnaissance. (Plate V, fig. 2.) Shots were
exchanged, but no damage was sustained by the vessel, which returned
to headquarters. On the 31st October the “ Pioneer” again proceeded
up the river as far as Rangiriri, the Maori stronghold. A spot about six

2—Trans.

34 Transactions.

miles above Meremere was selected as a landing-place for a force of 640
men and twenty-one officers, with two 12-pounder Armstrong guns This
force was embarked on the “ Pioneer” on the Ist November, and landed
without opposition During the afternoon it was found that the Maori
had abandoned their position at Meremere, which was then occupied by
a party of 250 seamen, under Commander Mayne (‘“ Kclipse’’), and 250
men of the 12th and 14th Regiments, under Colonel Austin, from Koheroa.
This force was reinforced next day by detachments from the 12th, 14th,
18th, and 70th Regiments, amounting to 500 men.

On the 20th November General Cameron, with a force of 860 men,
attacked Rangiriri. To assist in the operations an additional 300 men of
the 40th Regiment were embarked on the steamers, to be landed at a
selected point, so that they might make an attack on the rear of the main
line of the Maori entrenchments while the main body attacked in front.
Owing to the wind and current the “‘ Pioneer’ and ‘“‘ Avon,” with two of
the gunboats, were not able to reach the landing-place decided upon.
After a preliminary barrage by the Royal Artillery 12-pounders, under
Captain Mercer, and the naval 6-pounder, under Lieutenant Alexander
( Curagoa’”’), the main body attacked the main line of entrenchments
and drove the enemy to the centre redoubt, while the party of the 40th
Regiment, who had been landed sufficiently near to reach their position,
were able to pour a heavy fire on a body of Maori, who were driven from
their position and fled towards the Waikare Lake, where a number of them
were drowned. The centre redoubt, still holding out against the troops,
was attacked by a party of thirty-six men of the Royal Artillery, under
Captain Mercer, who was mortally wounded, then by a party of ninety
seamen under Commander Mayne, who was wounded. Both attempts
were unsuccessful, as was another by a party of seamen under Commander
Phillimore (“ Curacgoa’’), who used hand-grenades. As it was now nearly
dark, the General decided to wait until daylight, when it was found that
the white flag had been hoisted, and 183 Maori surrendered. Midshipman
Watkins (“ Curacoa’’) and five men of the Naval Brigade were killed ;
while, in addition to Commander Mayne, Lieutenants Downs (‘‘ Miranda ’”’)
and Hotham (“ Curacoa’’) (afterwards Admiral Sir C. F. Hotham) and
five men were wounded.

In a letter from Negaruawahia dated the 4th December Wiremu Tame-
hana (William Thompson), the Maori leader, said that he had lost all his
guns and powder. ‘It is your side alone which is still in arms—that is to
say, the steamer which is at work in the Waikato, making pas as it goes
on; when they finish one, they come a little farther and make another.
Now, then, let the steamer stay away; do not let it come hither. That
is all.” But, as the Maori king’s flag had been hoisted at Ngaruawahia
in the first place, it was decided that the Queen’s flag should fly there.

On the 2nd December General Cameron moved on from Rangiriri. As
the outlets from Lake Waikare were not fordable, the troops, with their
tents and baggage, were conveyed up the river in boats manned by seamen
of the Royal Navy, under Commander Phillimore. The following day
the troops again moved on, and encamped abreast of the island of Taipori.
Here General Cameron was delayed, waiting for provisions, until the 7th,
when he moved the camp about five miles farther up the river, and met
the ‘“‘ Pioneer,” which had safely passed the last shoal below Ngaruawahia.
Next day he went with Commodore Wiseman in the “ Pioneer’ to Ngarua-
wahia, which he found to be deserted. He immediately returned to the
camp, and, after embarking 500 men of the 40th and 60th Regiments,

Barturn.—The First New Zealand Navy. 35

again proceeded up the river, and landed at Ngaruawahia, where he
established headquarters. On the 26th December 300 men of the 50th
Regiment leit Onehunga on the transport “ Alexandra” and the chartered
steamer “ Kangaroo” for Raglan. On the 28th, 250 men of the Waikato
Militia, under Colonel Haultain, embarked on the steamer “ Lady Barkly ”’
for the same destination.

The memorandum of the Defence Minister, dated the 20th October,
1863, stated, “ But so strongly has the necessity been felt for providing
means for commanding the navigation of this important artery of the
country, and for preparing means of communication with the military
settlers to be located in the Waikato country, and of transporting the
necessary supplies, that two smaller steamboats of very light draft of
water have been ordered to be constructed in Sydney. These vessels are
being constructed of iron. They will be brought from Sydney in sections,
on board a vessel laden with coal, direct to the Waikato River, and
put together at the Waikato Heads. These two boats are also specially
designed of great power, so as to be used as tugs, and thus provide means
_ of transporting supplies up the river.”’

These two boats were named “ Koheroa” and “ Rangiriri,” probably
after the two actions fought on the Waikato. (Plate VI, fig. 2.)
The builders were Messrs. P. Russell and Co. A Sydney newspaper, in
describing one of the boats, said, “‘ This boat, which can easily turn in the
space of a little more than her own length, may follow the bendings of
such a river as the Waikato in its narrowest part, and may either be used
as a steam-tug, towing flats for the conveyance of troops, or may be armed
with a gun at each of the singular-looking portholes, which are closed with
folding doors, in the middle of the lower deck; while the bulwarks on
each side are pierced with twenty or thirty loopholes for rifle shooting.”
The “ Koheroa ”’ was built in less than six weeks from the time the contract
was received from Mr. James Stewart, C.E., who had been sent to Sydney
by the New Zealand Government to superintend the construction. The
sections of the “ Koheroa” were brought from Sydney to Port Waikato
by the steamer “ Beautiful Star.” The first bolt was riveted on the
4th January, 1864, and the vessel was launched on the 15th. I can find
no record of these boats being engaged in hostilities, but they were used
for transport work for some time.

By the end of January, 1864, General Cameron’s headquarters had
been moved to Te Rore, on the River Waipa, from which, on the 20th
February, with a force that included a naval detachment of 149 men and
ten officers, he moved across the Mangapiko River to Te Awamutu, where
headquarters were established. During the last few days of this campaign
(February, 1864), while the “Avon” was patrolling the river, a shot
reached the vessel and killed Lieutenant Mitchell, H.M.S. ‘‘ Esk.”

From Ngaruawahia Commodore Wiseman and a party of naval and
military officers went up the Horotiu River a distance of twelve miles, then
transferred to the “ Koheroa,” and, proceeding twenty-two miles farther
on (to near the site of the present town of Cambridge), located the Maori
position, and returned. This incident ends the story of the British Navy
on the Waikato River, though the steamers were used for some time
longer on transport duty. Colonial crews were placed on board, and
the Naval Brigade’s operations were transferred to the Tauranga district.

General Cameron transferred his headquarters to Tauranga on the 21st
April, 1864. Reinforcements, which had been sent from Auckland on

2%

=

36 Transactions.

H.M.S. ‘“ Harrier”? and “ Esk,” arrived at Tauranga on the 26th April.
On the morning of the 27th the Maori had fired heavily on Fort Colville,
but they were shelled out of their position by H.M.S. “ Falcon” and the
colonial gunboat “ Sandfly.” Captain Jenkins (“ Miranda’’) took charge
of the “‘ Sandfly,” which with the “ Falcon” pursued the Maori who were
retreating along the beach. Two 12-pounder Armstrong guns had been
placed aboard the * Sandfly ’; one, from the “ Falcon,” was manned
by ‘“‘ Miranda” men, and the other, from the “ Esk,’ was manned by men
from that ship. Both ships shelled the whares at Otamarakau. At 3 p.m.
firing ceased, as the enemy had finally disappeared. Captain Hannibal
Marks, of the “Sandfly,” and Senior Lieutenant Hope, in command of
the ‘‘ Falcon,” were mentioned in despatches for “zeal and exertion.”
The gunners from the “Miranda” and “Esk” were mentioned for the
‘ extraordinary precision of their fire from the 12-pounder Armstrongs.”’

On the 29th April General Cameron made the attack on Gate Pa, with
a force of 1,700 of all ranks, including a Naval Brigade of four field officers,
six captains, seven subalterns, thirty-six sergeants, five drummers, 371
rank and file. One hundred and fifty seamen and marines under Com-
mander Hay (“ Harrier’), and an equal number of the 43rd Regiment
under Lieut.-Colonel Booth, formed the assaulting party. Commander
Hay and Lieut.-Colonel Booth fell mortally wounded. Captain Hamilton
(‘‘ Esk’) was killed. The casualties of the Naval Brigade were: Killed or
mortally wounded : ‘‘ Curagoa ”’—Lieutenant Hill and one man; “ Miranda”
—one man; ‘ Esk”—Captain Hamilton and three men; “ Harrier ”’—
Commander Hay and three men; “ Eclipse’”—one man. Wounded :
‘* Curacoa ’’—five men; ‘‘ Miranda ”’—Lieutenant Hammick and eight men ;
“ Hsk ’’—Lieutenant Duff and ten men; ‘ Harrier’”—four men. Total
dead, 12; wounded, 29. Most of the wounded cases were classed as
‘* severe’ or “ very severe.”

For bravery in carrying Commander Hay, when wounded, off the field,
Samuel Mitchell, captain of foretop, and captain’s coxswain, was awarded
the Victoria Cross, which was presented to him by Sir J. Young, Governor
of New South Wales, in Sydney in October.

On the 2lst June Colonel Greer, commanding the Tauranga district,
attacked the enemy at Te Ranga, and while this attack was being made
a naval force from the “ Esk” and the “ Harrier’? was landed for the
protection of the camp. Lieutenant Hotham was mentioned in despatches.

Lieut.-General Sir D. A. Cameron left Auckland in January, 1865,
for Wanganui on H.M.S. “ Falcon,” calling at New Plymouth en route.
He arrived at Wanganui on the 20th January, and on the 5th February
moved camp to Waitotara, one and a half miles from the mouth of the
river. The paddle-steamer “ Gundagai’’ entered the river during the
evening, bringing provisions for several days. On the 16th February
General Cameron marched to the Patea River, which had been entered
by the ‘ Gundagai”’ and “ Sandfly” the day before. The General stated
in his report, ‘‘ They crossed under the most favourable circumstances ;
but as the latter [“ Sandfly ’’] had not more than a foot to spare at high
water, it will not be prudent to bring her into the river again.”

This covers, as far as I can discover, the operations of our first naval
adventures. The vessels seem to have done good work, and all that was
expected of them. It is to be hoped that the “ Calliope’s”’ gunboat, the
schooner “Caroline,” the paddle-steamers “‘ Avon” and “Sandfly,” and
the river-steamers “ Pioneer,’ ‘‘ Koheroa,” and “ Rangiriri,” and the men
of the British Navy who manned them, will not be forgotten in our histories.

SpricHT.—Geological Excursion to Lake Tekapo. 37

Art. IV.—Notes on a Geological Excursion to Lake Tekapo.

By R. Speicut, M.A., M.Sc.. F.G.S., F.N.Z.Inst., Curator of the Canter-
bury Museum.

' Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 7th July, 1920 ; received by Editor,
31st December, 1920 ; issued separately, 27th June, 1921.]

Durine the Easter recess of the present year the author paid a visit of
several days’ duration to the country lying to the east and north of Lake
Tekapo, in the Mackenzie country, the visit being primarily to determine
the stratigraphical relations of the coal reported to occur in Coal River,
and its bearing on the origin of the Mackenzie intermontane basin. The
question of the origin of this basin, the greatest in the alpine region of
Canterbury, was discussed te some extent by Kitson and Thiele (1910, p. 431),
when these authors concluded that it was of structural origin, a conclusion
largely based on the observations of McKay on the Tertiary sedimentaries
which occur near Lake Ohau and in the lower part of the area. This
lower part, however, they do not appear to have visited; while the
structural origin of the upper part in the vicinity of Lakes Pukaki and
Tekapo, which they did examine, was stated ag a probability, without
giving distinct evidence. Largely influenced by the great weight of Captain
Hutton’s opinion, they concluded that the tectonic movements which
initiated its formation dated from pre-Cainozoic times; that a depression
of the land took place in mid-Cainozoic times, and that the sea then invaded
the valleys and deposited marine sediments; that the area was raised at
the close of the Cainozoic era with some slight deformation, and that the
resulting surface was modified by glacier erosion and deposition. This
is a brief summary of the position as far as the origin of the basin is
concerned.

Since their paper appeared there has been a general swing of mature
geological opinion in the direction of the hypothesis that the chief structural
movements in the alpine region of the South Island took place in late
Jurassic or early Cretaceous times, when the Alps were raised as a folded
mountain-chain and during a subsequent period of stillstand of the land a
peneplain was formed as the result of prolonged subaerial erosion ; that on
lowering this surface below sea-level a mor? or less continuous veneer of
Tertiary marine sedimentaries was laid down on it ; and that at the close of
the Tertiary cra an epeirogenic movement ensued, with attendant faulting,
warping, and, in some cases, of folding of the beds, which resulted in the
formation of an elevated tract known as the Southern Alps. Included in
this are several remarkable intermontane basins, of which the Mackenzie
country is one. The second hypothesis is the one favoured by the author,
and the visit to the district under consideration was made in order to
ascertain if the facts furnished by it fitted in with this hypothesis.

38 Transactions.

GENERAL PHysioGRAPHY. (See map.)

The district under special consideration lies to the north-east and north
of Lake Tekapo, which occupies the most easterly of the three main valleys
leading from the highest section of the Southern Alps out on to the sloping
plain region of the Mackenzie country, which owes its formation largely to
the aggrading action of the great rivers which formerly flowed from the
fronts of glaciers issuing from those valleys. The basin is bounded on the
east by the Two Thumb Range, which branches off the main divide of the
Southern Alps in the vicinity of McClure Peak (8,192 ft.), and runs south
without a break until it reaches the Ashwick Saddle and Burke’s Pass, whence
it continues southward as the Hunters Hills. The range is highest at its
northern end, where it is dominated by the great mass of Mount d’Archiac
(9,279 ft.); but high peaks are found farther south, such as Mount
Chevalier (7,910 ft.), the Thumbs (8,338 ft.), and Fox’s Peak (7,604 ft.) ;
while for long distances it is over 7,000 ft., and rarely sinks below 6,000 ft.
It. thus forms a thoroughly effective divide between the north-eastern part
of the Mackenzie basin and the valleys of the Rangitata and Opihi, which
lie to the east. From this range important ridges stretch down towards
Lake Tekapo, such as the Sibbald Range, which divides the Godley Valley
from that of the Macaulay, with Mounts Sibbald (9,181 ft.) and Erebus
as its leading peaks, and the Richmond Range, which reaches south-west
towards the middle of the eastern shore of Lake Tekapo. To the south
of the Macaulay lies Mount Gerald, which, though not very high, is a note-
worthy feature of the landscape.

The chief rivers feeding the lake are the Godley and the Macaulay,
the former rising in the main divide and the latter draining the country
between the Sibbald Range and the Two Thumb Range. On the western
side of the lake the chief streams are the Cass River and Mistake River ;
while on the eastern side the most important streams are Coal River and
Boundary Creek, both of which flow first of all south-west and then west.
The former follows along the northern flank of the Richmond Range and
enters the lake at its extreme north-eastern corner, while the latter follows
along the southern side of the range and enters the lake about the middle
of the eastern shore.

The surface of Lake Tekapo is 2,321 ft. above sea-level, and it is there-
fore the highest of the great lakes of New Zealand. It has a length of
about fifteen miles and a breadth of about three and a half in its widest
part, and is somewhat quadrangular in shape. Its general surroundings
are monotonous, and the country is now treeless except for the plantations
in the neighbourhood of station-homesteads. The shores, too, are flat
and wanting in bold features Only on the western side, in the vicinity
of Mount John and the Mistake Range, do hills closely approach the lake ;
and in these cases they rise precipitously from the water’s edge, and exhibit
all the features of vallev-walls whose bases have been sapped back by lateral
glacial erosion.

On the eastern side the country rises gradually from just above lake-
level to the foot of the spurs from the Two Thumb Range, such as Mount
Gerald and the Richmond Range; and the profile of these slopes 1s
evidently carried down to the bed of the lake, so that it has not the form
of a true glacial trough, but rather of a widely open groove or depression.
The lake is thus somewhat shallow—387 ft. was the maximum depth
obtained by Ayson—and two small ice-scoured islands with outlying reefs
near the lower end of the lake emphasize the fact that the solid bottom
does not lie far below a large area of the water.

SpricHT.—Geological Excursion to Lake Tekapo. 39

TheThumbs

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40 Transactions.

The whole country in the vicinity of Lake Tekapo has been heavily
glaciated. Extensive areas of the lower levels are masked by a veneer of
moraine ; large travelled blocks everywhere dot the landscape, and some
are exposed, partially submerged, along the shores of the lake. Owing to
the completeness of this covering, exposures of rock a site are rare below
the steep slopes of the mountains. Scoured and grooved surfaces and
smoothed landscapes are visible at higher levels. Numerous shelves of
comparatively sinall elevation are characteristically developed as the valley
widens out, especially on the section between Coal River and the Macaulay.
These are strongly reminiscent of those to be seen near the Potts River in
the Rangitata Valley, and near Lake Heron in the valley of the Upper
Ashburton. In these cases the type of sculpture is associated with the
erosion of a valley which has been at one time filled with non-resistant
Tertiary sediments. Farther up-stream, however, a modified form of this
sculpture is apparent where the ice has overridden the end of the spur
between the Macaulay and the main valley, the rock being entirely
greywacke, so that it is not dependent altogether on the presence of easily
eroded rocks. A feature similar to this is recorded by Park (1909, p. 19)
as occurring near Ben More, in the Wakatipu district. In this case,
however, he attributes the feature entirely to glacier erosion, whereas the
Tekapo occurrence seems partly due to erosion and partly to the deposit of
morainic matter on the shelves so formed.

The extreme freshness of the evidence of ice-action suggests that the
retreat of the ice was comparatively recent, a fact which is emphasized by
the modifications of the valley-sides. The youthful stage of the drainage of
some of the tributary creeks, too, with their deep, narrow, rock-bouna gorges
incised into the abraded surfaces, so smooth by contrast, strongly supports
the hypothesis that the ice has but recently retreated from this region.
This feature is specially well exhibited in the Waterfall Creeks, which enter
the Macaulay from the east, just at the point where it is emerging from the
rocky precipitous country on to the down area which lies on the flank
of Mount Gerald.

One somewhat surprising feature is the absence of halting-stages in the
retreat. There are no terminal moraines apart from the great one at the
foot of the lake, and the coating of angular material seems to be somewhat
thin. It is as if the ice disappeared simultaneously from long stretches of
the valley and dropped the covering of moraine which then masked its
surface. This loose material would be rapidly occupied by plants from
the adjoining open spaces, so that the formation of a plant covering
should not lag long behind the disappearance of the ice. The rapidity
with which a bare shingle river-bed is covered with vegetation shows that
no objection can be raised to the hypothesis of a recent rapid retreat of
the ice on the ground that plants would not have had time or opportunity
to spread and establish themselves on the glacier-swept areas. The
evidence of rapid retreat with few or no halting-places is observable in the
valleys of the other main rivers of Canterbury, especially the Rakaia and
the Waimakariri.

On the higher country the usual forms resulting from glacial sculpture
are to be seen, notably corries in all stages of complete and arrested
development and of destruction by present-day ice anc frost. The cirques,
originally heading them after the retreat of the ice, are attacked by these
agencies, the clear-cut walls disappear, the hollows becoming filled with
debris Especially is this the case when they are partially filled with snow.
Rocks roll down its frozen surface, especially in winter, and accumulate

SpeicHur.—Geological Excursion to Lake Tekapo. 41

at the lower margins of the hollows, simulating terminal moraines of the
glaciers which once filled them.

A most beautifully developed corrie, fully a mile broad, occurs at the
head of Stony Creek, a western tributary of the Macaulay. This is headed
by a well-marked amphitheatre or cirque with steep rock walls; at their
base are hollows now occupied by small ponds or swamps, the remains
of old corrie lakes. The lower part of the basin was once filled by a
deposit of Tertiary sands and clays with coal, but a great part of these
has been removed, so that now there is a double basin inside the limits
of the corrie. On the lower side, too, below the spot where the coal has
disappeared, there is the characteristic rock barrier, breached at one point,
and through this opening, in a deep narrow notch, the stream draining the
basin now flows. Before the coal-measures had been removed it must
have presented a thoroughly typical example of a coomb or corrie.

STRATIGRAPHY.

The great mass of the mountains of this region consist of greywackes,
argillites, and slates of the Maitai series, to which may be assigned a
Trias-Jura age. This time classification is based almost entirely on the
similarity of the lithological character of the rocks to those with undoubtedly
Trias-Jura fossils. This is, however, supported bv the author’s finding
a fragment of dark-coloured argillite in the high country between the
Godley and Macaulay Rivers which shows the unmistakable sculpture of
Monotis salinaria. Not only the primary and secondary ribs occur, but
also the peculiar and regular cross-sculpturing, so that the author has no
reasonable doubt but that it belongs to that important Triassic fossil, and
the find thus confirms the age of the beds as deducted from their litho-
logical character. The finding of this fossil, and other finds reported lately
from Arthur’s Pass and the Hawdon River, suggest a wide extension of
rocks of this age over the mountain region of Canterbury; but it must not
be inferred that all the rocks of that area are of the same age. The
presence of heavy bands of conglomerate containing pebbles of greywacke,
in close proximity to beds with these fossils and in apparent conformable
relations, suggests that there is an older set of beds ‘n the region of similar
lithological character which have furnished these pebbles, and therefore
lying unconformably under it. The contention of Hutton and others
that two distinct series of rocks occur in the mountains of Canterbury is
apparently correct, but much more field-work will have to be done before
they are definitely separated.

On the east side of Lake Tekapo, especially in the Richmond Range,
the rocks show a submetamorphic facies; and slaty shales with a somewhat
lustrous surface occur, and in all probability they grade into the true
phyllites exposed near Fairlie on the flanks of the Hunters Mills and in
the Kakahu Gorge, which resemble closely the phyllites of that belt of
Otago east of the schists. I have been informed by Mr. Pringle, owner
of Richmond Station, on Lake Tekapo, that marble occurs just over the
divide to the east of the lake, on the Rangitata slope ; and if the identifi-
cation of the rock is correct it means that the metamorphic belt extends
much farther north than has been recorded previously. Much less is
known of the geological features of the western side of the Rangitata
Valley than of any part of Canterbury, so that the occurrence of marble
may well have escaped observation. The beds to the north and east of
Tekapo have, according to the observations of the author, a general
nortt-and-south strike, with directions west of north occurring freely.

42 Transactions.

Two exposures of Tertiaries are recorded for the first time from this
district—(1) that in Coal River, and (2) that occurring on the western side
of the Macaulay River on the Sibbald Range.

(1.) Coal River.—Exposures of sands and clays with coal occur in several
places in the deep gorge which Coal River has incised in the down country
to the north-east of the lake, and chiefly in the vicinity of the right-angle
bend which the stream makes as it leaves the Richmond Range and
runs straight to the north-eastern corner of the lake. The exposures,
five in number, occur in places along the two miles of gorge stretching both
above and below the bend, but they are so masked by moraine that they
cannot be traced away from the stream, and the relations of the individual
outcrops to each other are obscure. The exposure lowest in the course
of the stream is distant about three miles from the road-crossing. Here
are exposed greyish-white sands of uncertain thickness, capped by gravels,
brownish owing to the presence of iron-oxide, which are apparently uncon-
formable ; above them lies morainic matter.

On the north side of the river, at the bend, occur sands and sandy clays
weathering white or stained brown. The strike is apparently N. 10° W.,
and the dip to the east 35°, but there is some doubt about this observation.
On the south side of the river, about 100 yards up-stream, are sandy clays
with carbonaceous shales; and farther up still, at the mouth of a small
creek coming from the Richmond Range, there is a patch of much-slipped
country showing sands and sandy clays, some with distinct greenish tint.

After the intervention of a barrier of greywacke, capped in places by
white sands, similar beds to those just mentioned occur nearly a mile
up-stream on the south side. The following sequence occurs here, in
ascending order: (1) White sandy clay, 41{t.; (2) clays with reddish
tinge, 8ft.; (3) impure lignite, with carbonaceous shale, 2 ft. 6 in. ;
(4) argillaceous sands, stained brown in the lower part, yellow above,
15 ft.; (5) whitish sands, thickness uncertain. These are capped by
brownish gravels, which may be conformable, but the exposure is so
limited that it cannot be determined for certain These are succeeded
unconformably by moraine.

The strike of the beds is north, with a dip to the east of 45°. This
patch of sedimentaries has a fault-contact on the south-east murgin with
the older beds, the fault running north-east and south-west, and _ its
continuation may account for the presence of the beds in the bend of the
creek, as their south-eastern border has the same line as the fault. This
patch owes its preservation, in ail probability, to having been faulted down,
and having thus been preserved from erosive agents. How far it extends
under the morainic material to the north and south of the river is quite
uncertain, but brown gravels similar to those occurring near the stream
are exposed farther north on the western slope of Mount Gerald, which
suggests a continuation of the beds in that direction.

(2.) Stony Creek Beds.—These beds lie on the floor of a corrie on the
western side of the Macaulay Valley, which is drained by Stony Creek.
They lie about 4,000 {t. above the sea. There are two occurrences, sepa-
rated by a barrier of greywacke. The lower one consists of the following
beds, in ascending order: (1) White argillaceous sand ; (2) greenish sandy
clay; (8) brown coal, 2ft. 6in. thick, striking north and south, and
dipping west 35° (the coal contains pieces of ambrite); (4) whitish sand,
with yellow stain; (5) white sand, very fine in grain, with small amount
of clay ; (6) grey sandy clay.

Spricur.—Geological Hxcursion to Lake Tekapo. 43

The country is much slipped and the deposit comparatively thin, so
that the true relations of the beds are uncertain, and their enumeration is
in all probability quite incomplete. This is emphasized by the fact that
pebbles of quartz, like those from the quartz drifts of Otago, occur in other
parts of the basin, but they were not noticed m the series given above.

About 200 ft. higher in elevation there is another outlier of uncertain
size, consisting of several seams of coal. This has a pitchy lustre,
conchoidal fracture, blackish-brown colour, and contains numerous pieces
of ambrite. Several of the seams are 2 ft. in thickness, and may be more.
They are interstratified with carbonaceous shales, and lie on green sandy
clays, which in turn lie on greywacke. The whole thickness of the beds
is at least 100 ft., and may be much more, as the surface is masked by
debris. The strike is north-east, and the dip north-west about 35°. It
was just below this occurrence that the fragment of rock was found
showing the sculpture of Monotis. The greywacke here strikes north-west.

These two patches are evidently the remnants of a much larger deposit
which filled a considerable part of the cirque, the great size of which is
evidently due to the fact that it was an area of easily eroded beds. The
remnant is a very small one, and is rapidly disappearing. This observation
is confirmed by the experience of Mr. Pringle, who accompanied us on our
visit to the spot and stated that since he last saw it, some twenty years
ago, the floor of the basin had completely changed and a great deal of
the beds containing coal had disappeared. In the great snow winter of
1895 he had packed down half a ton of this coal for use at the Lilybank
Station when supplies were short owing to the break in communication,
and he said that it burnt excellently. If it were not in such a remote
locality no doubt the deposit would have been used up long ago.

On both sides of the Macaulay between this and the lake are extensive
deposits of brownish gravels antedating the glaciation. The pebbles are
chiefly greywacke, but quartz is also an occasional constituent, although
no quartz-bearing rocks are now found in the locality. These are evidently
remnants of a much more widely extended sheet which has been swept
away by glaciation.

In none of these occurrences of Tertiary sediments were any marine
fossils found which might definitely prove that the beds themselves were
of marine origin. They resemble very closely the deposits described by
McKay (1882, p. 62) as occurring in the lower part of the Mackenzie
country near Lake Ohau and in the Wharekuri basin, and classified by
him as “ Pareora,” or of Lower Miocene age. As far as the deposits at
Wharekuri are concerned, considerable doubt has been thrown on McKay’s
account by both Park (1905, p. 499) and Marshall (1915, p. 380)—which
is unfortunate, seeing that the Wharekuri basin is in the same river-valley
as the Mackenzie basin, and the explanation of the origin of one might
support that of the other. However, the deposits laid down in the basins
of Central Otago, as described by Hutton (1875, p. 64) and Park (1906,
pp. 15-19, and 1908, pp. 31-33), are so similar that a common origin is
suggested. Hutton (loc. cit., p. 64) notes the similarity of the Otago
deposits to those at Lake Ohau, and thus incidentally confirms the resem-
blance of the Tekapo beds to those of Central Otago. He classifies the
latter as of Pliocene age.

There is thus a possibility that the beds occurring in the Tekapo
district are of Pliocene age, though it is possible that the age of the Otago
lacustrine (so called) beds has not been definitely determined up te the
present, and that this opinion may have to be revised.

44 Transactions.

McKay was correct in suggesting (1884, p. 62) that considerable areas
of his Pareora gravels and clays underlay the moraine which covered a
considerable area of the plains, seeing that remnants of this deposit have
now been located near their upper margin. Up to the present the valley
of the Tasmai River has yielded no positive evidence of the existence of
these beds, but the character of the slopes about Braemar is such that
similar Tertiaries might be located beneath them.

There is thus direct evidence of the structural origin of the basin,
apart from that suggested by its form; but the special point left to consider
is the date at which it took on this form—that is, whether it antedates or
postdates the time of deposition of the beds contained therein.

Hutton (1875, p. 64) was firmly convinced that the areas were basin-
shaped before the deposits were laid down in them—that is, they were of
pre-Pliocene origin—just as he maintained that the Canterbury intermounts
were pre-Tertiary (1885, p. 91). In this he was followed by McKay (1884,
pp. 76-81) and by Park (1905, p. 523; 1906, p. 9; 1908, pp. 17 et seq.), who
restated his position in his Geology of New Zealand (1910, pp. 141-44). The
latter evidently dates the formation of his block-mountain system of Otago
and the Wharekuri basin to pre-Pliocene times, although he gives in
numerous places instances of the beds concerned having been involved in
faults and other deformations which may well have originated or have been
attendant features of the formation of the basins.

On the other hand, Marshall (1915, pp. 8380-81) has expressed the opinion
that some of the basins, such as that at Wharekuri, were formed after the
deposition of the Tertiary sediments, and that the landscape as it now exists
has no resemblance whatsoever to the form of the surface when deposition
was going on. This opinion has been strongly supported by Cotton (1916,
pp. 316-17, and 1917, pp. 249 et seq.), who points out that the evidence for
the basins being filled with lacustrine sediments is extremely slight, and
that they were subjected to deformational movements after deposition,
and that the dominant surface-features result from the faulting-down of
blocks covered with a non-resistant veneer of Tertiary sediments which
were preserved in the low-lying basins resulting from this faulting, whereas
on the higher elevations it was completely or almost completely removed
by erosive agents. In this paper, too, he endorses the statement that the
upper course of the Waitaki River occupies a broad tectonic depression,
and apparently accepts Kitson and Thiele’s explanation of its origin,
although this conflicts somewhat with his explanation of the origin of the
basins of Central Otago.

The most important piece of geological evidence, apart from the physio-
graphical, is that furnished by the character of the deposits themselves.
There is a widespread absence of coarse sediments in the basal beds of the
basin—sediments suggesting « mature topography and the absence of high
land in the vicinity of the area of deposit ; and 11 this contention is correct
the landscape must have been entirely different from what it is now. It
is inconceivable that sediments could have been laid down in basin-shaped
hollows ag at present existing without, in some parts of the area, coarse
conglomerates forming an important element in the lower members of the
series. Again, the presence of numerous quartz pebbles in conglomerates
like those in the Macaulay Valley, evidently strangers to the district, cannot
be easily explained unless the drainage directions were considerably different
at the time of deposition from what they are at present. These geological
features are not explained on the hypothesis that the “lake-basins ’’ were
formed before they were loaded up with sediments.

Spricur.—Geological Hxcursion to Lake Tekapo. 45

Again, the height at which these sediments occur in the Tekapo region
is most striking. In Coal River they are 3,500 ft. above sea-level, and in
Stony Creek 4,200 ft.—that is, 2,700 ft. above the floor of the lake. These
deposits, especially the latter, could not have been deposited were the
form of the Mackenzie basin at all like that at present existing. If the basin
had been filled up to this level it would imply the removal of an enormous
amount of material by glacier erosion subsequent to deposition, and this
amount is too great to have been removed without leaving more than two
slight traces of its former presence in the Tekapo area, even if we grant
that glaciers have great powers of erosion. Some remnants other than
those would be present, tucked away in some sheltered corner of the
mountains out of the line of action of the ice-flood. If warping be called
in to modify the form of the basin this argument falls to the ground.
It is remarkable, however, that the remnants occur in a region where the
mountains are highest.

If due regard be paid to the character of the deposits it will be evident
that the Mackenzie country looks rather to Otago for its nearest relatives,
though similar areas occur farther north in Canterbury. In these, lime-
stones are a dominant geological feature; whereas in Otago they are almost
absent, the occurrence of patches like that at Bob’s Cove, on Lake Waka-
tipu, being quite exceptional. The occasional occurrence of marine shells,
however, shows that the sea extended over the area. The presence of
conglomerates at the close of the cycle of deposition indicates that fairly
high land was in existence at that time; and, as similar gravels are found
closing the Tertiary sequence over a great extent of country to the east
(e.g., the Kowai* series of North Canterbury) and to the west of the Alps,
as described in various bulletins of the Geological Survey, it is reasonable
to think that the movements which resulted in the final formation of the
Alps commenced towards the close of the Pliocene period and continued
into the Pleistocene, and therefore that the intermounts date from that
time. The final form of the landscape resulted largely from the influence
of glaciation on the structural features then formed.

Little evidence of the direction of the axes of deformation is afforded
by the Tekapo district. There is nothing to support the contention of
Edward Dobson that the orientation of the valley of the Godley was
initially determined by tectonic movements, although I came across nothing
against it. The axis of the valley, however, seems to correspond with the
general strike of the greywackes and associated rocks.

The latest observed deformational movements that the district ex-
perienced are on north-east and south-west lines. The strike of the coal-
beds in Stony Creek, and also the fault-line which bounds the occurrence in
Coal River, have this direction. From the limited and unsatisfactory nature
of the exposures in the latter locality the general strike of the beds cannot
be accurately determined, but the even and regular slope of the north-
west side of the Richmond Range suggests that ‘it corresponds with some
fault-line ; and, further, if such a line “be granted to exist, and its direction

* Notre.—I have retained the spelling for this term in the form as applied
originally by myself to the series developed in North Canterbury, although Dr. J. A.
Thomson has criticized it and replaced it by another spelling in his paper on the
“ Geology of the Middle Waipara and Weka Pass District” (Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 52,
p. 334, 1920). The spelling used by me is that originally used by Haast, and is also
that in official use for the past thirty years not only for the river, but for the district,
now merged into a county. It is that which appears on all recent maps issued by the
Survey Department. Further justification is, I think, unnecessary.

46 Transactions.

be followed into the Rangitata Valley, it is found that the steep tent-sided
face of the Ben Macleod Range, which forms the southern boundary of the
Forest Creek valley, is in actual alignment with it. This striking surface-
feature cannot be accounted for as the result of stream or glacier erosion,
but if faulting be granted it would also explain the subdued character of
the surface which lies to the south of the Mesopotamia homestead, this
having been lowered as a result of the earth-movement, and it would
also help to account for the form of the Rangitata intermount. Further,
if the line of the north-west face of the Richmond Range be continued
to the south-west across Lake Tekapo it will pass along the north flank of
the isolated Mount John, and bound the considerable area of flat country
which lies between that elevation and the Mistake Range, which may also
owe its form to having been faulted down. This is a pure speculation,
but the peculiar position of Mount John requires some explanation, and it
seems impossible to account for it as the remnant of a spur or extension of
the Mistake Range, with the connecting-ridge removed entirely by normal
glacial erosion.

In concluding, I should like to express my indebtedness to Mr. James
Pringle, of Richmond Station, who not only gave valuable information
with regard to the district, but also kindly provided means of transport
so that the most was made of the time at my disposal.

REFERENCES.

Corron, C. A., 1916. Structure and Late Geological History of New Zealand, Geol.
May., dec. vi, vol. 3, pp. 243 and 314.

— 1917. Block Mountains in New Zealand, Am. Jour. Sci., vol. 44, p. 249.

—— 1919. Rough Ridge, Otago, and its Splintered Fault-scarp, Trans. N.Z. Inst.,
vol. 51, p. 282.

Hourron, F. W., 1875. Geology of Otago, p. 64.

—— 1884. Origin of the Fauna and Flora of New Zealand, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.,

ser. 5, vol. 13, p. 425.

1885. Jdid., vol. 15, p. 77.

Kitson, A. E., and Turexs, E. O., 1910. The Geography of the Upper Waitaki Basin,
New Zealand, Geog. Jour., vol. 36, p. 431.

McKay, A., 1882. Geology of the Waitaki Valley and Parts of Vincent and Lake
Counties, Rep. Geol. Explor. during 1881, p. 56.

—— 1884. On the Origin of the Old Lake Basins of Central Otago, Rep. Geol. Haplor
during 1883-84, p. 76.

—— 1897. Report on the Older Auriferous Drifts of Central Otago, 2nd ed.

Marswat., P., 1915. Cainozoic Fossils from Oamaru, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 47, p. 337.

Park, J., 1906. Marine Tertiaries of Otago and Canterbury, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 38,

. 489.

—_— 1906. Geology of the Area covered by the Alexandra Sheet, Central Otago
Division, V.Z. Geol. Surv. Bull. No. 2.

—— 1908. Geology of the Cromwell Subdivision, Western Otago, N.Z. Geol. Surv
Bull. No. 5.

—— 1909. Geology of the Queenstown Subdivision, Western Otago, NV.Z. Geol. Surv.

Bull. No. 7.

1910. Geology of New Zealand.

SpricHt, R., 1915. The Intermontane Basins of Canterbury, Trans. N.Z. Inst.,
vol. 47, p. 336.

SpeicHr.—Modification of Spur-ends by Glaciation. 47

Art. V.—The Modification of Spur-ends by Glaciation.

By R. Spercut, M.A., M.Sc., F.G.8., F.N.Z.Inst., Curator of the Canter- |
bury Museum.

[Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 6th October, 1920; received by
Editor, 31st December, 1920 ; issued separately, 27th June, 1921.]

Plates VIJ—XI.

THE subject ot the changes which glaciers exert on the form of stream-
valleys is such an interesting one that special aspects are worthy of detailed
consideration. It has not, however, been fully considered so far as this
country is concerned, although Andrews in his classic paper on the glaciation
of south-western New Zealand (1905) has drawn attention to certain forms,
such as the total truncation of spurs, and the development of sitting-lion
and titan-beehive shapes, as well as the formation of a double slope on
the valley-sides and especially on the spur-ends. The present author has
pointed out certain other features (1907 and 1911), but observations made
during the past few years in the alpine region of the South Island of
New Zealand have suggested that still other forms exist. The faceting
of spur-ends as a general result of the overdeepening of glaciated valleys
and the formation of tributary hanging valleys has been dealt with in
various places by W M. Davis, G. K. Gilbert, de Martonne, and others ;
but apart from this, judging by the literature at my disposal, little
has been written. Davis has, however, insisted that the detached knobs
on the floors of valleys, either separated from or in close proximity to
the valley-walls, are remnants of a pre-glacial Jand-surface which have
escaped destruction. He says (1906, p. 274), “On entering the glaciated
valley of the Rhue it is found that the regularly descending spurs of
the non-glaciated valleys are represented by irregular knobs and mounds,
scoured on their up-stream side and plucked on the down-stream side ;
and that the cliffs formgd where the spurs are cut off are sometimes
fully as strong as those which stand on the opposite side of the valley.
The spurs generally remain in sufficient strength to require the river
to follow its pre-glacial serpentine course around them, but they are
sometimes so far destroyed as to allow the river to take a shorter course
through what was once the neck of a spur.” Again, on page 276 he says,
“Tt is seen that just before the complete obliteration of the spurs some of
the remnant knobs may be isolated from the uplands whence these pre-
glacial spurs descended. It is out of the question to regard the ruggedness
of such knobs as an indication of small change from their pre-glacial form,
as has been done by some observers. The ruggedness is really an indication
of the manner in which a glacier reduces a larger mass to smaller dimensions
by plucking on the down-stream side as well as by scouring on the up-stream
side. It is possible that knobs in other glaciated valleys than that of the
Rhue may be of this origin; they should then be regarded not as standing
almost unchanged and testifying to the incapacity of glacial erosion, but as
surviving remnants of much larger masses, standing, like monadnocks above
a peneplain, as monuments of the departed greater forms.”

48 Transactions.

The glaciated knobs of the Central Plateau of France that he notes
later on hardly come into this category, but on page 288 he refers to rocky
knobs seen in abundance about Ambleside and along the ridge separating
Thirlmere from St. John’s Vale, in the County of Cumberland, in Englana.
In this paper he everywhere emphasizes the potency of glacier erosion,
especially in valleys.

In a subsequent paper (1905, pp. 4-5) he again refers to knobs: “‘ The
knobs and ledges may be taken to be so-many unfinished pieces of work,
which would have been more completely scoured away had the glacial
action lasted longer.” This point he again emphasized in a paper on
“American. Studies on Glacial Erosion ”’ (1910, p. 423), and refers to it
slightly in the distussion on his account of the glacial features of North
Wales (1909), and also in an answer to a question on glacial knobs addressed
to him by M. Allorge.

This is a summary of Professor Davis’s position as iar as I can see from
the literature at my disposal. It will be noted, however, that nowhere
in the papers I have cited has he illustrated his point by showing the various
stages by which a spur actually develops into a field of knobs; and this is
somewhat surprising, as the method would be one entirely in keeping with
the way in which he so frequently presents a physiographic problem.

IT have examined other authorities, such as Hobbs and de Martonne,
and find that faceting is everywhere recognized, but no other forms are noted.
In the report of the Harriman Expedition to Alaska, G. K Gilbert deals
exhaustively with the origin of hanging valleys and faceted spurs, but
says little or nothing of anv other of the various stages of modification
However, I have examined the maps and illustrations and can see little
evidence of intermediate forms, with the possible exception in the case
of Nunatak Glacier (p. 59, and map), where the Nunatak appears to be
a detached knob or end of a reduced spur.

Since there is this absence of statements concerning intermediate forms,
I have attempted to supply some evidence as to their occurrence which I
have come across during years of intimate acquaintance with the alpine
region of the South Island of New Zealand. Incidentally this will be found
to support Davis’s contention that fields of knobs in the floor of a glaciated
valley represent the remnants of spur-ends.

The main effect of ice-action on valley-spurs is due to abrasion, although
no doubt plucking is very important at times, and especially in its more
mature stages, when the spur-ends have become faceted At this stage,
too, the excavating-power of a glacier has a dominating influence on the
resulting landscape-form. But the depth of the ice, its velocity, and the
time to which the surface has been subject to its action all exert important
influences ; and, further, the direction in which the tributary valley meets
the main valley also controls to some extent in its initial stages the result
of ice-action on the spur-ends.

As its dominating influences are those of thickness, velocity, and time,
the modification of valleys, and therefore of the spurs running into them,
will be different in different parts of the valley, being more pronounced in
the upper portions, owing to the fact that these agencies are there at their
maximum. Those parts of the valley where the ice is thickest, its velecaity
greatest, are just those parts which have experienced its action for longest
time, and therefore modifications will be carried further than in the lower
reaches, It will follow also that the character of the pre-glacial topography
will be most easily arrived at by a study at the fringe of the glaciated district,

TRANS. N.Z. Inst., Vou. LIMIT. Prats VII.

Fic. 1.—Lake Manapouri, looking east, showing notched spurs with islands formed by
ice moving across the spur from west to east.

Frc, 2.—Lake Manapouri, looking east, showing islands with characteristic profile,
remnants of dissected spurs,

Face yp. 48

MrRAnNs. Now. UNSE., Vor. LTE Prate VIII.

Fig. 1.—Lake Manapouri, looking west. Island in foreground with profile similar to
those in Plate VII, figs. 1 and 2, but more rounded. A still more rounded
form in the background farther west, it having been more exposed to
erosion,

Fic. 2.—Semi-detached knob, Thompson Sound.

SpeiaHr.— Modification of Spur-ends by Glaciation. 49

where the action has not been intense, owing to the thinness of the ice and
the shortness of the period during which the area has been covered. Also,
there will be a progression of phenomena, varying in intensity on moving
irom the outskirts of the glaciated area; and phenomena characterizing
the areas where glaciation has been intense, inexplicable in themselves,
may be elucidated from the intervening regions where glaciation has been
intermediate in its intensity.

The region of the South Island whence most of the instances to be
mentioned later are drawn had reached a submature stage in the cycle of
erosion before the incidence of the glaciation. Valleys had been cut in an
elevated area, and a well-developed stream-system had been established
with Ieng spurs trailing down into the main valleys; but the district was one
of alpine character, with peaks approaching in elevation, if not exceeding,
the present European Aips.

A most interesting case illustrating the nature of the slight modification
to which spurs may be subjected on the outskirts of a glaciated area is
furnished by Lake Manapouri. The chief complex of spurs entering the basin
occupied by the lake reaches down from the north, the spurs running in a
north-and-south direction, whereas the direction of the chief ice-stream was
from the west, and in its passage eastward it cut across the long trailing
ridges of the pre-glacial land-surface. Erosion was most marked in the western
reaches of the lake, where the ice was thickest and had acted for a longer
time, so that a great trough or hollow was formed, with precipitous sides
carried far down below the present surface of the lake (depth 1,458 ft.).
Not all of this is to be credited to excavation by glacier-action, but some
portion to the damming-back of the water by the morainic bar of the combined
Te Anau and Manapouri glaciers. While the ice has profoundly modified
the western portion of the lake and removed the spurs of the pre-glacial
valley-system, the change in the eastern spurs has been slight, merely cutting
them into a series of notches placed one below the other down the backbone
of the ridge, all with the same characteristic profile, and continued down
to lake-level, where exactly the same landscape-form is reproduced in the
islands that dot the lake. (See Plate VI, figs. 1 and 2.) These notches form
a kind of stairway with the treads inclmed backward so that the level of
the tread is lower at tae foot of the riser than on the edge of the tread (cf.
glacial stairway in a valley). The spur has thus been little modified, so that
its original form can be restored. The slight modification suggests that the
ice, though deep, as 1s evidenced by the height up the spur to which the
series of notches reaches, can have exerted its action for a comparatively
stort time or it would have produced a profounder impression. Although
sgns of ice-action are found some twenty miles to the east of these spurs,
the period of advance must have been quite short, or the spurs would have
been more profoundly modified. Traces of this peculiar landscape-form
are to be found on all the spurs to the eastern end of Manapouri where they
were likely to be exposed to the full force of the ice-flood, so that it can
hardly have been an accidental feature. Still farther eastward the spurs
are unmodified. In Plate VIII, fig. 1, which is a view of the lake looking
west, there are also signs of the same form, with a more developed knob
in the background.

The form of the modified spurs suggests another point. Judgimg from
the shape of the islands which lie off the ends of the spurs, it is clear that
before the ice-advance the spurs continued down below the present level of
the lake. It therefore negatives the idea that the hollow in which the lake

50 Transactions.

now lies has been entirely due to glacial erosion. In my opinion, the hollow
is primarily tectonic, but the surface so formed has been modified by stream-
action, succeeded by glaciation, and that now a new cycle of stream erosion
has commenced.

The form of the notches cut in these spurs is also characteristic of ice
erosion, since glaciers always appear to exert their maximum erosive efiect
at the base of the valley-sides or shelves along which they move. Thus the
notches have the backward slope which results from this mode of action.
When this becomes more pronounced and ice-action has been more prolonged,
the outstanding portions of the ridge tend to become rounded eminences.
If a stairway was attacked further the notches would become a string of
knobs, gradually getting higher as the spur is followed upwards. This
stage of development is seen in the Waimakariri Valley to the west of the
Cass River, where Mount Horrible and Mount Misery owe their rounded
form to the great Waimakariri Glacier crossing a spur which runs parallel
with the present Cass River and enters the main valley nearly at right
angles. (Plate IX.)

The formation of a well-developed series of notches generally occurs
where the spur has great length ; but if it is shorter in the pre-glacial stage
only one or two notches may be cut, and the resulting form becomes a semi-
detached knob or titan beehive noted by Andrews in the Sounds region.
(Plate VIII, fig. 2.) This form is typically developed in the Upper Rakaia
Valley at Mein’s Knob and Jim’s Knob, the latter being formed by
the Ramsay Glacier passing over the terminal spur of the Butler Range.
(Plate X, fig. 1.) Numerous illustrations in all stages of development can
be seen in the Upper Waimakarini Valley, especially where the action of
the main glacier has not been interfered with by the weight of the ice
issuing from a tributary comparable in size to the main stream. When
the tributary becomes large the modification of the spur is attributable
chiefly to its action, and not to the erosion of the main stream.

From the slight difference in the form of the notches in the higher part
of the series as compared with those at floor-level it is evident that all the
notches were cut during one period of ice-advance. Had there been more
than one ice-flood, reaching various levels, there would have been some
difference in the form of the higher members of the series from that of the
lower. As the lower members would have experienced more than one
ice-flood, their stage of erosion would have been more mature. Also, if the
ice had not reached so high in the later floods as in the earlier the exposed
notches or knobs at higher levels would show more the effects of subaerial
erosion, by rain, frost, &c. Hor example, if the first flood were the highest,
then while the lower levels were being subsequently glaciated the higher
and exposed levels would have been differentially modified by subaerial
erosion, and glacial erosion of the lower slopes would have been carried to
a more mature stage. If the last ice-flood had been the highest, the
modification of the higher levels would have been different in that the glacial
surface would have been juvenile, while the lower would have been mature.
If an intermediate flood had been the highest, a differential modification
partaking of both characters would have occurred, depending on the relative
importance of the two phases. But the only difference—and that is a very
slight one—is that which might have been expected in the lower parts
of a glacier, where, under the influence of greater weight of ice, abrasion,
plucking, sapping, and other glacial agencies are more intense.

The knobs of the Cass Range show very markedly the modifying effect
of frost erosion, as their plant covering is of the scantiest—in marked contrast

Prats IX.

SERANS ONG Ae UNSTEe) ViOleo ll Te

.

sqouy pepuno

I YM ands poroquowstp Ayernied Surmoys ‘oye A HMR YRUIV AA “OATY SS Jo ysom osuvyT

Face p. 50.)

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vou. LIII. PLATE X-

Fic. 1.—Jim’s Knob, Upper Rakaia Valley. A semi-detached knob, showing channel
where ice has attacked and cut down the termination of a spur.

Fic. 2.—Ice-cut bench on lower side of Bealey River at its junction with the
Waimakariri River.

TRANS NeZe UNST., Viot. Janie Prate XI.

Fic. 1—Jumped-up Downs, Upper Rangitata Valley. showing spur reduced to a field
of knobs. View taken looking down-stream.

Fic, 2.—Jumped-up Downs, Upper Rangitata Valley, showing spur reduced to a
field of knobs. View taken looking up-stream.

oa r i
PO aang? pas
-

‘
:

*
e
/

a

, , . tegh oar " i) x nee 7 r
=) th Zz a i - oe a - ¥

ty) Pre. ; (2 = ¥ Oa S's eee ONL

Spriaur.— Modification of Spur-ends by Glaciation. 51

to the forest-covered slopes near Manapouri; but it is noteworthy that
erosion has reached a similar stage in each individual of the series of knobs,
suggesting that they were all formed by the same ice-flood, as is the case
of those near Manapouri.

The fact that the series of notches in these spurs has been cut all at the
same time suggests that the shelves existing in valleys of the Kuropean
Alps may, in some cases, have been cut during one period of ice-advance.
These are referred to by de Martonne in his Géographie Physique (p. 641).
After describing the shoulders which are so characteristic of these valleys,
and the location of villages on them, he says, “ Les replats multiples indiquent
que Pérosion des vallées alpines est le résultat d’une série de phases d’érosion
glaciaire et d’érosion fluviale alternantes, produisant un enfoncement pro-
gressif du thalweg et un encaissement de plus en plus grand de la yallée,
malgré les efforts faits par le glacier pour reculer le pied du versant par
sapement & chaque période glaciaire!’’ Although it is dangerous to express
an opinion without having seen the locality, it seems possible that these flats
and shoulders may—in some cases, at all events—have been formed at one
glacial effort, like those at Manapouri.

An important factor which affects the resulting form of the spur-remnant
is the angle at which the pre-glacial valley of the tributary meets that of
the primary. It will be most convenient to take the simple case when they
meet at right angles or nearly so. Good illustrations of this case are fur-
nished by the Bealey and Hawdon Valleys at their junction with that of
the Waimakariri. The two tributaries come in from the north, whereas the
main stream runs from west to east. The tributary valleys are subequal
in size, and the size of the glaciers issuing from them at the height of the
glaciation, judging from the present cross-section of the valleys, would be
about one-fourth of that of the main stream. As a result of the greater
weight of the ice in the main valley, the tributaries were crowded over the
shoulder of the spur on the down-stream side of the tributary, with the
result that they have both a flattish shelf about 100 ft. above the present
floor of the valley and about 200 yards in length, formed by the cutting-down
of the end of the spur, so that it termmated in a kind of platform analogous
to the wide shore-platforms sometimes seen off a point on a coast-line
composed of moderately soft rocks. (See Plate X, fig. 2.) The two spur-
ends are so similar in position, shape, and extent that they might easily be
mistaken, and photographs taken from the opposite bank of the Waimakariri
are almost interchangeable. The similarity in form is no doubt to be
attributed to similarity in the conditions under which the spur-ends were
reduced by the glaciers as erosive agents.

If erosion proceeds further the shelf is cut down near its proximal end,
and the beehive form again results, but it is then flatter than that resulting
from the passage of the main stream at right angles over a trailing spur.

If the tributary meets the principal valley at an angle greater than a
right angle, as in the case of Harrison Arm and Milford Sound, or the Smbad
Valley with Milford Sound, then the form becomes accentuated. The
formation, not of a shelf, but of the couchant-lion shape, takes place,
but ultimately this must develop into the beehive form. This form is, of
course, subject to profound abrasion, and is liable to be reduced by attack
irom both sides and also on top, so that it ultimately becomes a mere
roche moutonnée, standing in the floor of a glacial trough, and apparently
without genetic connection with the valley-sides. In most cases, however,
such isolated rocks were once connected directly with the valley-sides, the

52 . Transactions.

connecting ridges having been completely removed by glacial abrasion. All
the different stages in the formation of such isolated rocks from spur-ends
can be seen in the valleys of the Southern Alps.

Worthy of special mention are the detached hills which lie in the angle
between the Poulter and Esk Rivers near their junction with the Wai-
makariri. They are the remnants of the spur which cnce came down
between the two former rivers, and whose end was dismembered by the
large glaciers which issued from the Poulter Valley and Boundary Creek
Valley, crossing it near its termination.

Spurs are eroded on the up-stream side in a somewhat different way.
There is no overriding except im the case of the main stream entering a
distributory valley, as in the case of the Rakaia branching off into the Lake
Heron Valley, or when a glacier crosses the mouth of a tributary valley
which is bare of ice. When, however, both are full of ice the end of the
spur 1s modified by an action which is analogous to the whirlpool that
forms when two rivers join, as a result of which the end of the spur is
ground back below the surface of the glacier, so that it presents a steep
face at the angle between the streams.

When the tributary meets the main valley at an argle less than a right
angle the spur-ends are cut back, though with less overriding of the end
than when the angle is greater. Narrow shelves, somewhat resembling
terraces, are the common resultant form. Excellent illustrations of these
can be seen at the junction of the Macaulay River with the Godley, and in
the angle between the Potts and the Rangitata.

When valleys are subparallel, then there can be little or no truncation
of the dividing ridges, but these are dismembered and cut into lengths as
the result of lateral corrasion, chiefly by means of small tributary glaciers
oi the corrie type whose heads ultimately meet and ‘ower the divide. Thus
we get the elongated rocky hills which are so frequent in our ice-enlarged
intermontane basins, which if submerged would produce elongated islands
in parallel or linear arrangement, such as those which add to the scenis
beauty of the West Coast Sounds, notably Dusky and Doubtful Sounds.

In the figures given by Davis illustrating partially destroyed spurs,
fields of knobs appear to be a common feature. [ have noticed occurrences
similar to these in places where spurs have been partially destroyed—e.g..
in the valley of the Harper River to the north-east of Lake Coleridge ; but
the most characteristic occurrence is in the valley of the Rangitata at the
place called by the somewhat striking name of the “‘ Jumped-up Downs.”
(Plate XI, figs. 1 and-2.) This is evicently the residual of a destroyed spu:,
and its irregular appearance is well described by the name given by the ear:y
settlers. Right out in the floor of the Rangitata Valley is an isolated rocky
mound in a line with the hummocky area; this is evidently the remnant
of a spur which reached a considerable distance into the wide basin now
occupied by the river.

The surface of these hummocks is characteristically worn into smaller
roches moutonnées, often well striated, forming rounded oval masses with
dimple-like hollows in between. When the general surface is flat, as is
frequently the case when shelves are formed from the terminations of spurs,
shallow rock-bound pools are formed containing the characteristic bog-
vegetation of these regions, which passes into peaty masses. Excellent
examples of these can be seen on the platforms at the junction of the
Bealey River with the Waimakariri, and on the reduced spur-ends farther
up-stream opposite the mouth of the Crow River.

Spercur.—Modification of Spur-ends by Glaciation. 53

REFERENCES.

Awnprews, C. E., 1905. Some Interesting Facts concerning the Glaciation of South-
western New Zealand, Rep. Austr. Assoc. Adv. Sci., vol. 10, pp. 189-205.

Davis, W. M., 1900. Glacial Erosion in France, Switzerland, and Norway, Proc. Bost.
Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. 29, No. 14, pp. 273-322.

—— 1905. Glaciation of the Sawatch Range, Colorado, Bull. Wus. Comp. Zool., vol. 49,
Geol. Ser., vol. 8, No. 1, pp. 1-11.

—— 1909. Glacial Erosion in North Wales, Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., vol. 65, pp. 281-350.

—-— 1912. American Studies on Glacial Erosion, Compte Rendu du XIme Congres
Géologique International, vol. 11, pp. 419-27.

DE MarTonNe, E., 1913. Traité de Géographie Physique.

Ginpert, G. K., 1904. Alaska, vol. 111, Glaciers and Glaciation.

Spriaut, R., 1908. Notes on some of the New Zealand Glaciers in the District of
Canterbury, Rep. Austr. Assoc. Adv. Sci., vol. 11, pp. 285-87.

—— 19il. The Mount Arrowsmith District, Part I, Physiography, 7’rans. N.Z. Inst.,
vol. 43, pp. 317-42.

Art. VI.—Recent Changes in the Terminal Face of the Franz Josef
Glacier.

By R. Spreient, M.A., M.Sc., F.G.S., F.N.Z.Inst., Curator of the Canter-
bury Museum.

[Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 6th October, 1920; received by
Editor, 31st December, 1920 ; issued separately, 27th June, 1921.

Plates XII, XIII.

In 1909 Dr. J. Mackintosh Bell, then Director of the New Zealand
Geological Survey, placed a number of pegs along the face of the Franz
Josef Glacier in order to enable its subsequent advance and retreat to be
definitely determined. Their position, and other particulars about the
glacier, were recorded in a publication issued by the Survey im 1910,
entitled “A Geographical Report on the Franz Josef Glacier.’ Since
then Mr. A. Graham, who is guide at the glacier and takes the keenest
interest in its varying moods, has from time to time recorded the move-
ments of the face, and a summary of his observations was published by
the present author in 1914 under the title, ““ Recent Changes in the Position
of the Terminal Face of the Franz Josef Glacier.”* Since the appearance
of this record the glacier has rapidly retreated, as will be clear from the
observations detailed below; but it is approaching a stage when an
advance may be expected, and it is therefore most important that its
present features should be placed on record as definitely as possible in
order to afford a sound basis for future comparisons. Mr. Graham has
most kindly assisted with observations, and a recent visit of the author to
the locality (February, 1921) enabled these observations to be confirmed
and brought up to date, Mr. Graham rendering most willing and valuable
assistance. It is somewhat difficult, however, to get precise records at
present, since ponds of water of varied width up to some 100 to 120 metres
le in front of the greater part of the face and prevent close approach to
it except by means of a boat, which was not available; and, further,

* Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 47, pp. 353-54, 1915.

5A Transactions.

these ponds cover extensive areas of submerged ice lying in position, so
that the precise location of the end of the ice is almost impossible.
Nevertheless, the observations conclusively prove that there has been a
marked retreat of the ice since 1914, and still more since 1909. In this
account reference will be made to each of the pegs in turn, and the
characteristics of the face in its vicinity recorded as accurately as possible ;
and for the purposes of ready comparison all measurements will be recorded
in metres. As the general trend of the front of the glacier is approximately

Sketch Map

Showing change in Terminal face ||

of
FRANZ JOSEF GLACIER

am Scale of Chains
et eat Na) 5 10 iS

-
~~

Se SS

east and west, the lme in which measurements were made from the pegs
was north and south, unless special reasons occurred for deviating from
this direction. It should also be mentioned at this stage that the principal
part of the Waiho River now runs from the eastern side of the glacier, and
that lying in front of its western edge is a complex of roches moutonnées,
evidently the remains of a spur of the pre-glacial valley, destroyed as
described in a paper published elsewhere in this volume (see p. 47).
The solid barrier presented by these rocks has no doubt caused the stream
to discharge near the eastern side where the lip of the obstruction is lower.

TRANG INEZ. INST... Vor. baile Pirate XII.

Fig. 1.—Ice-front viewed from Park Rock, looking south-west, showing pond with ice
continuing down below water-level. Freshly exposed roche moutonnée on
right.

Fig. 2.—General view of glacier, looking south from Park Rock, showing overthrust
upper layers in foreground and advancing pulse in background; Roberts
Point on the extreme left top corner.

face p, 54.)

RANS| INEZ. INST, Von. iii: Pirate XIII.

Fic. 1.—View looking east from Park Rock, showing part of pond fronting ice in the
foreground, with collapsed glacier ice to the right. Peg No. 7 is situated
on the rock- edge to the left “of the picture, at a height of 200 ft. above the
river. The Waiho River runs along the foot of the slope over ground from
which the ice has retired since 1909.

kta. 2.—View from pee}No. 7, looking south. showing source of the Waiho River, and
slightly advancing ice to the left; advancing pulse in the background.

SpeicHuT.—Changes in Terminal Face of Franz Joseph Glacier. 55

The circumstances of the ice in the front of each peg will now be taken
in turn, the chief features and points of interest being recorded on the map.

Peg No. 1.—This was placed on solid rock on the western side of the
valley, but it is now covered with moraine, and its precise location is
impossible without detailed survey. in 1909 the ice was 1 metre from
the peg; it is now 279 metres distant, the measurement being made
approximately parallel with the valley-wall to the point where the ice
meets it. The face is here quite low, but immediately to the east the
pool of water fronting the glacier commences, and the face is higher, some-
times overhanging; farther east the face again becomes low. The pool
is about 60 metres. broad on its western margin. The rapid retreat of
this part of the face was mentioned in the records issued in 1914, as
Mr. Graham then noted that the river had cut a wide gap between the ice
and the western wall of the valley. The movement has apparently been
much accelerated since the last observation.

Peg No. 2.—It was not found possible to determine the distance of the
face irom this peg in a satisfactory manner—first, on account of the pool,
about 50 metres wide, fronting the glacier, and, secondly, because the ice in
its retreat has exposed a large rock about 30 metres in height above the
level of the water. The pool now washes the southern face of this rock.
This rock was not exposed in 1914, so that its appearance and situation
give some idea of the great distance the ice has retreated and the change in
the condition of the face. (See Plate XII, fig. 1.) z

Peg No. 3.—This is situated on Harper Rock. When originally placed
the peg was at the ice-face. In 1912 it was 15 metres away, in 1914 it
was 37 metres, and now it is 160 metres distant. The ice is fronted here
by water 50 metres wide. (See Plate XII, fig. 1.)

The trend of the ice-front along the stretch just dealt with is slightly
east of north, and running in a line with Strauchon Rock. Between Harper
Rock and Park Rock another smaller rock has been exposed, and all three
present a face towards the glacier not suggested by the map attached to
Bell’s account. The southern faces of all three are in approximate align-
ment, the direction running EH. 30° 8., and being determined by the
dominant joint-planes traversing the schist of which the rocks are entirely
composed. They all present a steep face to the south, and do not exhibit
the efiects of glacier erosion to a marked degree, there being a tendency
to split both along the foliation-planes and also the joint- planes, so that
any glacial smoothing originally existing has disappeared as the slabs have
flaked off.

A low tongue of ice runs from the glacier into the pool (Plate XII, fig. 1),
between the large new exposed rock in front of peg No. 2 and Park Rock,
but ice occurs in position under the water of the pool, so that it extends
farther forward at this part of the face than elsewhere. The end of this
tongue is almost due west of peg No. 4, on Park Rock. The edge of the
pool reaches the south-west side of the rock, but the pool narrows to a
point, and there is a small stream issuing from it immediately to the west
of Park Rock. The southern face of Park Rock is reached by the ice, but
the rock has a much greater extent to the south-south-east and south-west
than is suggested by Bell’s map.

Peg No. 4.—This is on Park Rock. When originally placed it was
surrounded by ice except to the northward. In 1912 the ice was 23 metres
away, in 1914 it was 58 metres, whereas it is now 100 metres distant.
The face is also low, but the upper layers show signs of being pushed over
differentially. (See Plate XII, fig. 2.)

56 Transactions.

Opposite Strauchon and Barron Rocks there is a good expanse of water,
and the edge of the ice reaching down into it is low and irregular, pre-
senting embayments such as occur on a drowned coast-line, and no doubt
the ice extends forward below water-level. For these reasons it was not
considered advisable to measure the distance of the face from pegs Nos. 5
and 6, but the retreat from the line of the ice-front indicated on Beli’s map
certainly exceeds 160 metres, since the farthest exposed ice is at present
almost due east of peg No. 4, on Park Rock. The whole of this portion
of the face affords evidence of collapse, and the upper layers of ice show
shear-planes and have evidently been pushed over the lower layers, an
effect certainly due to differential movements ; but whether this is to be
attributed to the collapse of the glacier or to a definite thrust forward of
the upper layers of ice is quite uncertain. This phenomenon seems to be
more pronounced as Park Rock is approached. (See Plate XIII, fig. 1.)

By far the greatest volume of water issuing from the glacier runs out
of the north-east side of the pool which fronts the ice east of Park Rock,
but a very considerable stream issues from close to the eastern side of the
glacier and runs along between the ice and the wall of the valley for over
400 metres. In this part of the face the retreat has heen most marked of
all, as the measurements clearly show.

Peg No. 7 was initially placed 2 metres from the ice; by 1912 it was
14 metres away, by 1914 it was 24 metres, and now it is as much as 456
metres distant from the peg to where the ice abuts against the eastern
valley-wall near river-level. The front is very high, over 20 metres in
this section, and there is evidence of a small advance, since the ice 1s
crowding over lichen-covered rock at the side. This advance may be of
local character and therefore of little importance, but it may be sympto-
matic of a pronounced forward movement which is impending (See
Plate XIII, fig. 2.)

It will be evident from the foregoing records that the minimum retreat
of the face since 1909 has been 100 metres, and the maximum 456 metres,
and after making all due allowance for the form of the face the average
retreat of the front of the glacier is found to be approximately 180 metres.

As noted previously, there are evidences of approaching advance.
A pulse indicating a marked rise in the ice is strongly developed about half
a mile (800 metres) up the glacier, and the ice is pushing over the moss-
covered glaciated rock- surfaces of the valiey-walls at Roberts Point and
Cape Defiance, still farther up. (Plate XIII, figs. 1, 2.) If the rate of
movements of the glacier be that determined by Bell—viz., from 1 ft. to 2 ft.
(0-3 to 0-6 metres) per day 1 the terminal face in
from three to five years. If the rate of movement is faster, as it probably
is, the space of time will be correspondingly reduced, and it may be reduced
still more as the oncoming wave affects the ice immediately in advance of
it. A similar pulse is observed in the neighbouring Fox Glacier, and
Mr. Graham intends to place a mark in a good position on the Chancellor
Ridge near the glacier so that the rise of the ice-level may be correctly
determined.

Mr. Graham has also made observations to arrive at the rate of flow.
Selected morainic blocks lying on the surface of the ice below Roberts
Point have shown an average movement of 3ft. (1 metre approximately)
per day during a period of 200 days, and it is likely that at the base of
the first ice-fall the rate is much faster. Observations have been made since
November, 1920, but the results are not yet available.

Spricut.—Changes in Terminal Face of Franz Joseph Glacier. 57

An interesting point to consider is the possibility of periodicity in

advance and retreat. My first experience of the glacier was in the year
1905, when if was advancing. It was also advancing in 1909 when Bell
made his observations, and was retreating in 1912. I cannot determine
the precise year when this retreat commenced, but it had probably set in
during 1910, and has continued since that date, so that it has been falling
back for approximately eleven years. One cannot Beeciey at present when
this retreat will end, or what the total length of the cycle is likely to be.

There are one or two other points to which brief aliusion may be made.
First, the angle of the shear-planes near the present terminal face, especially
those near the eastern front of the glacier, suggests that a great thickness
of ice, probably to be measured in hundreds of feet, exists behind the rock
bar which stretches from the western wall of the valley towards the present
mouth of the Waiho between Barron Rock and peg No. 7. If, therefore,
the glacier should retreat farther, the lake along its face will probably increase
in size, and it will furnish a suggestion of what usually happens as the ice
retreats from a reck bar across a valley. Such conditions must have
occurred in the Rakaia, Wilberforce, and Waimakariri Valleys when the
ice commenced to retreat towards the heads of the valleys from the barrier
near the plains m late Pleistocene times.

An examination of the rock-surface recently exposed does not suggest
that glaciers have any marked power of erosion near their ends even when

advancing, slight abrasion being all that was noted on the roches moutonnées
recently exposed before the terminal face; but, of course, this does not
negative their power to erode their beds where the ice is thicker.

The presence of an apparent wave of high ice might have been credited
to the influence of an irregular bottom during a period of ice-decline,
analogous to the effect of obstructions in the bed of a river, masked as they
frequently are at high water, were there not definite proof that ice is
actually rising relative to the rocks at the side. In any case, the thickness
of the ice is very great even in times of Jower level ; all the same, there is
some suggestion in the alternating stretches of ice-fall with more gently
inclined surface, shown not only in this glacier but in the Fox as well, that
if the ice were removed the valley-floor would exhibit in a perfect form the
characteristic stairway developed in glaciated regions—as, for example,
those in Deep Cove and other valleys at the heads of the sounds of the west
coast of Otsgo.

In conclusion, I have to sues my indebtedness to Mr. Graham for
much valuable information and for ready help. He has promised to continue
observations and to take photographs of the face from already-selected
positions on Park Rock at the same time each year, so that changes in the
character and position of the terminal face can be accurately recorded.
itis important that they be taken during the same month of the year, so as
to eliminate any error due to variation between the summer and winter
heat.

58 Transactions.

Art. VII—-Notes on the Geology of the Patea District.

By P. G. Morean, 'M.A., F.G.S., Director of the Geological Survey of
New Zealand.

[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 27th October, 1920; received by Editor,
10th December, 1920 ; issued separately, 27th June, 1921.]

Previous INVESTIGATIONS.

Mr. JoHN BUCHANAN, in a paper read before the Wellington Philosophical
Society in September, 1869 (2),* mentioned the blue clay of Patea, which
he placed in the Wanganui beds, but expressed a doubt as to this being
its right position, It might, he thought, belong to a somewhat older
formation,

In January, 1884, Professor F. W. Hutton, accompanied by Mr. 8S. H.
Drew, of Wanganui, spent a day in the neighbourhood of Patea. In a
paper on the Wanganui system (3), he writes (p. 340),—

“On the sea-coast at Patea, south of the mouth of the river, blue clay
with fossils passes up gradually into a blue micaceous sandy clay, apparently
unfossiliferous. Upon this hes about 12 ft. of yellow sand; then cemented
gravel 4 ft. thick, followed by grey sands, and then red and yellow sands.
The upper beds form the cliff, and, not being very accessible, I did not
examine them closely, but I could find no fossils in the tumbled blocks.
The sequence is remarkably like that at Wanganui. The vellow sand is
distinctly separated from the blue micaceous clay upon which it rests, but
without any appearance of unconformity. ‘The number of species obtained
from the blue clay is twenty-six, of which 77 per cent. are Recent. Three
species of Pareora shells, not known from any other part of the Wanganui
system, have been found in the blue clay at Patea. They are Oliva neo-
zelanica, Struthiolaria cingulata, and a species of Cucullaea (fragments).”

In 1886 Professor James Park, at that time a member of the Geological
Survey staff, examined the coast-line from Kai-iwi to Patea (see 4, pp. 26,
55, 56, 57, &c.). He states that there are evidences of the existence of a
submerged forest between Wanganui and Patea, and describes a “‘ drift
formation”’ which ‘‘ extends as a maritime belt from the Ruahine Range
to the foot of Mount Egmont.” This formation is well exposed in the
cliffs between Wanganui and Patea (4, p. 59; see also 7, p. 414). From the
blue clays exposed near the mouth of the Patea River Park obtained the
following fossils: Malletia australis Q. & G. (listed as Solenella australis
Zittel), Atrina zelandica (Gray), Nucula nitidula A. Adams, Struthiolaria
cinguluta Zittel, and fish-scales.

* This and other numbers enclosed in brackets refer to list of literature at end of
paper.

Morcan.—Geology of the Patea District. 59

Mr. W. Gibson, of the Geological Survey, visited Patea in September,
1914, with the object of reporting on the ironsand deposits of the district.
His report (6) describes only the beach and dune-sands,

In 1917 Dr. J. A. Thomson published a paper (7) on the “‘ Hawera
Series.”” in which he makes reference to the geology of Patea. The
Hawera series, he states, is well exposed in the clifis between Wanganui
and Hawera. The mudstone or claystone (papa) forming the lower part
of the sea-cliff at Hawera is ‘‘ probably about the same age as the Patea
blue clays, which are placed by Park below the Ostrea ingens bed
of Waitotara. It is certainly older than Castlecliffian, and is probably
Waitotaran.””

The observations lately published by Marshall and Murdoch (10) on the
fossils collected by them at Wanganui, Kai-iwi, Nukumaru, Waipipi, &c.,
have an important bearing on the age of the Patea blue clays.

Last October the writer paid a brief visit to Patea, and made observa-
tions which are embodied in the following pages.

PHYSIOGRAPHTIC FEATURES.

The district surrounding Patea forms part of that decidedly complex
feature generally termed the Wanganui coastal plain, which, viewed broadly,
may be said to extend along the south-west coast of the North Island from
Paraparaumu in south Wellington to Opunake in Taranaki, and inland to
the slopes of Mount Ruapehu, while if Mount Egmont and the adjoining
volcanic ranges were removed the whole of Taranaki might be included in
the plain. The inland portion of the area just defined is for the most part
maturely dissected, and exhibits numerous irregular ridges of approximately
equal height in adjoining localities, separated by deep, narrow valleys.
The coastal belt, in marked contrast to the inland region, as a rule has a
nearly flat surface, sloping uniformly and gently towards the sea, where
it 1s ‘usually, at least from Wanganui north-westwards, ended by dune-
capped cliffs of considerable height. Inland of Hawera there are one or
two well-marked marine terraces “(e raised beaches ”’).

The principal streams north of the Manawatu River have cut deep,
rather narrow, steep-sided valleys in the soft rocks of the coastal area, one
result of which is that the railway from Wellington to New Plymouth has
to descend into and ascend out of each valley by a more or less steep grade.
The inland hills, as a rule, do not descend gently to the nearly flat coastal
belt, but rise with some abruptness from its inner margin. Thus the surface
of the coastal belt and the plane joining the tops of the inland hills and
ridges are distinctly unconformable. Hence the Wanganui coastal plain
(sensu lato) really consists of an ancient well-dissected coastal plain bordered
on its seaward side by a younger less-dissected coastal plain.

The physiography of the area immediately surrounding Patea does not
differ from that of other parts of the coastal belt between Wanganui and
Hawera, The gently sloping coastal plain, as elsewhere, ends in dune-
capped cliffs, here about 100 ft. high. The Patea River flows at grade
through the plain in a deep relatively narrow valley with cliffed sides.
A mile from the sea the river is slightly entrenched in the valley-bottom,
so that the small flats on either side are above ordinary flood-level. This
seems to indicate recent slight elevation of the land; but, as there also
seems to have been a slight depression in recent times, as shown by a
submerged forest at the mouth of the Waitotara River, another explanation

60 Transactions.

of the entrenchment seenis desirable. This may be found in the fact that
during the Recent period the sea, as shown by the cliff, has cut away several
miles of land, thus shortening the course of the Patea River, and allowing
it to deepen its channel for some distance above its present mouth.

GEOLOGY.

The stratigraphical geology of the Patea district is very simple. Almost
horizontally-bedded claystones, known in geological literature as the Patea
blue clays, are unconformably overlain by beds of gravel and sand belonging
to Thomson’s Hawera series. A small patch of gravel and sand forming
a low hill in the Patea Valley east of the town bridge is probably quite
distinct from the Hawera beds. Sand and silt form the surface of a low-
lying flat near the mouth of the Patea River. Of more importance are
the iron-bearing dune-sands that cap the sea-cliffs and extend for some
distance back from their margin.

Patea Blue Clays, &c.

The Patea claystones are of the type which throughout New Zealand
is popularly called “papa.” Like the Wanganui clays, they contain a
considerable amount of fine micaceous sand, which, according to the view
expressed by Marshall and Murdoch in their paper on the Tertiary rocks
of the Wanganui district (10, p. 118), was probably derived from the granites
of north-west Nelson. Some layers consist almost entirely of fine sand,
and in places these may be crowded with shells. The claystones are
exposed only along the coast-line and in the Patea Valley, where, as
previously mentioned, they form cliffs on either side. A thin bed of lme-
stone outcrops on both sides of the Patea Valley between Kakaramea
Railway-station and Pirinoa Pa. This is probably at a lower horizon than
the Nukumaru limestone.

During his visit to Patea last October the writer collected the following
fossils from shelly layers in the sea-cliff half a mile to a mile north-west
of the mouth of the Patea. The identifications have been made by
Mr. John Marwick. Living species are marked by an asterisk :-—

Ancilla sp. Phalium fibratum Marsh. & Murd.
Crepidula gregaria Sow. Polinices huttoni ther.

*Glycymeris laticostata (Q. & G.) _ *Verconella mandarina (Duclos)
Lucinida levifoliata Marsh. & Murd. Verconella cf. nodosa (Mart.)
Miltha sp. _ *Spisula ordinaria (KE. A. Smith)
Ostrea sp. )

Dentalium solidum Hutt. | Terebra sp.
|

In addition to the above the writer saw, but did not collect, Voluta sp.,
Flabellum sp., and plant-remains of various kinds. At one place worm-
casts such as are commonly called “ fucoids ’’ were exceedingly abundant.

At the brickworks quarry, on the south side of the Patea River, near
the bridge leading to the town, Atrina sp.—perhaps A. zelandica (Gray)—
was collected.

As already mentioned, the cliffs east of the Patea River were examined
by Hutton in 1884. He states that twenty-six species of Mollusca were
collected from the blue clays, of which 77 per cent. were Recent (3, p. 340).
His Wanganui lists mention the following twenty-five species, twenty of
which are Recent, as indicated by a prefixed asterisk :—

Morcaan.—Geology of the Patea District. 6]

*Verconella nodosa (Mart.) | Dentaliwm solidum Hutt.
Olivella neozelanica (Hutt.) *Mactra discors Gray

*Anciila australis (Sow.) *Mactra ovata (Gray)

*Ancilla depressa (Sow.) | *Mactra scalpellum Reeve

*Voluta arabica Mart. — *Zenatia acinaces Q. & G.

*Terebra tristis Desh. | *Gari lineolata (Gray)

* Natica zelandica Q. & G. *Chione mesodesma (Q. & G.), or per-
Polinices ovatus (Hutt.) haps C. marshalli Cossmann

*Cerithidea bicarinata (Gray) *Dosinia anus (Phil.)
Struthiolaria cingulata Zitt. *Dosinia subrosea (Gray)

*Calyptraea maculata (Q. & G.) *Divaricella cumingi (Ad. & Ang.)

*Crepidula costata (Sow.) Cucullaea attenuata (?) Hutt.

*Crepidula monoxyla (Less.) *Glycymeris laticostata (Q. & G.)

Hutton’s names have been revised so as to correspond with modern
nomenclature, and some changes in the specific names have been made
on the authority of Suter. In his paper on the Pliocene Mollusca of New
Zealand, published in the Macleay Memorial Volume (1893), Hutton gives
a list of Wanganuian Mollusca which broadly is the same as that published
by him in 1886, but, besides making changes in nomenclature, he omits
eight of the Patea records. It is hardly necessary to go into details.
Hutton’s lists, whichever may be taken, show a high percentage of Recent
species as compared with Marshall and Murdoch’s Waipipi list, and differ
still more in this respect from the list of fossils collected by the writer west
of Patea. HH all the fossil records are combined, a total of thirty-four
identified species is obtained, of which twenty-five, or 75 per cent., are
Recent.

Since there is reason to believe that the Patea claystones are at least
as old as the Waipipi beds, as shown by stratigraphical considerations,
as well as by the occurrence of a species of Cucullaea (C. attenuata *),
Denialium solidum, Phalium fibratum, and Muiltha sp., it seems likely that
several of the shells identified by Hutton and Park as belonging to species
still living really represented extinct species. Be this as it may, the Patea
beds clearly belong to the lower part of the Wanganuian formation—that
is, to the stage called “ Waitotaran”? by Thomson. By restricting the
definition of “‘ Waitotaran ” it would be possible to introduce a third stage
into the Wanganuian, and into this the Patea claystones would no doubt
fall.

Hawera Series.

As developed near Patea the Hawera series appears to be typicaily
30 ft. to 40 ft. in thickness. The lower layers consist of beach-worn
peebles mixed with much sand; the upper layers are almost wholly sand,
which in places is nearly black owing to titaniferous magnetite being
present in large quantity. Current-bedding is everywhere very noticeable,
and some of the black sand appears to be wind-blown. Along the sea-
coast the Hawera beds form the top of the cliff, and therefore cannot be
closely examined. On the sides of the Patea Valley their contact with
the Waitotaran beds is clearly marked by a sudden change from steep
grassy slopes above to claystone cliffs below, and by numerous small springs.
At one or two places near Patea, road-cuttings allow the Hawera beds and
their contact with the Waitotaran claystones to be closely studied. For
example, on the Wangaprui road, about a mile from Patea Railway-station,
brown weathered claystone (Waitotaran) is overlain by a thin layer of

62 Transactions.

gravel, above which comes 15 ft. of pebbly sand and 4 ft. or 5 ft. of loamy
subsoil and soil. The seepage from these beds supplies a water-trough.
On a branch road up a small valley south of the railway-station Waitotaran
claystone is seen to be overlain by 30 ft. or 40 ft. of sand, mostly dark-
coloured, the lower layers of which contain many pebbles of greywacke
and numerous fragments of claystone. Another water-trough indicates a
permanent water-seepage from the base of these beds.

Thomson (7, p. 416) explains the Hawera beds as having been deposited
upon a wave-eroded surface of the Wanganuian beds during an advance
of the sea. The writer’s observations, though entirely supporting most of
Thomson’s statements, lead rather to the conclusion that the Hawera beds
were formed wholly or mainly at a somewhat later stage—namely, during
the subsequent retreat of the sea, caused by land-eievation.

As has been shown by Thomson, the Hawera series is unconformable
to the Wanganuian formation. Since the Upper Wanganuian or Castle-
cliffian is of Upper Pliocene age, the Hawera series falls into the Pleistocene.
No shells were seen in it at Patea, but at Hawera Thomson collected a
large number of Recent species from a shell-bed at the base of the series.

The Hawera beds, as pointed out by Thomson, give rise to a rich soil
of great importance to the agriculturist.

Post-Hawera Deposits.

in the small valley south of the Patea town bridge there is a low hill
formed of fine gravel and sand, similar in appearance to the gravel and
sand of the Hawera series. Since this hill is far below the general level
of the Hawera series, one must suppose that the material of which it is
composed represents a rewash of the Hawera series.

The ferriferous sand-dunes capping the clifis have already been men-
tioned several times. The material of which they are formed has probably
been partly derived from the Hawera beds (as suggested by Thomson), and

Sandhills _ =

3, Hawera
of? :

Bess : nese godeele’? Series.

LFaten

Sandhill. ———

Section West oF Mout or Patea RIVER.

partly from an ancient belt of dunes formed on the old coast-line immediately
after the last elevation of the land had ceased. The prevailing wind is
probably from the south-west,* and hence as the sea attacked the land,
and cliffing advanced, the bulk of the ancient dune-sand was blown inland.
Wind-action is strong at the cliff-edge, and keeps it clear of loose sand.
Although some sand falls or is blown over the cliff, this loss is more than
counterbalanced by sand derived from the Hawera series. R. Pharazyn,
in 1870 (1, pp. 158-60), explained the present dune-sands on top of the
clifis along the shore of the Wanganui Bight as the remnant of a wide belt
formed before cliffing began, but the idea that the sand was blown inland
as the cliffs advanced was not clearly expressed in his paper.

* In summer there is a frequent sea breeze.

Moraan.—Geology of the Patea District. 63

The observations made by Thomson (7, pp. 415-16) and by the present
writer support the view that the ironsand of the dunes is mainly derived
from the Hawera series. The rich ironsand deposit found on the beach
between tide-marks west of the mouth of the Patea River may also be
ascribed mainly to material derived from the Hawera series—that is, for
the most part it represents a concentration of the material that falls or is
blown over the clifis.

Probably owing to the construction of moles at the mouth of the
Patea River, material is at present accumulating on the beach immediately
to the west of that river. Consequently cliff-erosion by the sea in this
locality has ceased, and a narrow strip of sandhills, perhaps half a mile
long, has formed close to the base of the cliffs, as illustrated by the annexed
section.

GEOLOGICAL HistoRY—GENERAL REMARKS.

The geological history of the coastal belt extending from Wanganui
to Hawera has been described by Thomson in his paper on the Hawera
series, and some of his statements are almost necessarily repeated in the
following paragraphs. At the end of the Castlecliffian stage (Upper
Pliocene) the whole of the Wanganui coastal plain (sensu lato) was
elevated, not uniformly, but with gentle flexures which, on the whole,
produced dips towards the southward. At Wanganui the uplift was
not great, perhaps only 400 ft. to 500 ft.; but if Marshall and Murdoch’s
data (10, pp. 118-19, 127) be accepted it must have been nearly 2,500 ft.
at Nukumaru, and not far short of 4,000ft. at Waipipi. At Patea and
Hawera the elevation was not less than at Waipipi, and inland, as a rule,
must have been much greater. Owing to the soft nature of the Wanganuian
rocks, erosion proceeded rapidly, and when elevation ceased the land was
no doubt maturely dissected. Slow depression followed, and the sea, as
it advanced over the land, eroded and swept away all material above its
own level, thus forming a plane of marine denudation. The great amount
of previous erosion and the softness of the rocks enabled it to accomplish
this task without difficulty. The plane of denudation, it is fairly obvious,
was not horizontal, but had a gentle seaward slope. Inland from Hawera,
as previously stated, it is terraced, but in most localities it has the one
uniform slope to the foot of the inland hills. Depression ceased when the
land was roughly 600 ft. below its present level, and elevation began,
apparently almost without delay. During the retreat of the sea the sedi-
ments deposited during the previous advance, or the greater part of them,
were reassorted, and in great measure swept away. The residue, with
new material brought down by the rivers of that time, forms the Hawera
series. It is a remarkable fact, perhaps more consistent with Thomson’s
explanation of their origin than with the writer’s, that the Hawera beds
seem to have been deposited almost uniformly over the whole of the
coastal belt from Hawera to Turakina. Towards Marton they disappear,
and their place is taken by fluviatile gravels; but the country between
Marton and the coast has not yet been examined in order to ascertain
whether they continue along the present sea-coast towards the mouth of
the Rangitikei River.

Klevation continued till the land was somewhat higher than at present,
for there is evidence of recent slight depression at Patea, Waitotara, and
Wanganui (Park and Thomson). At the last-named place the depression
may have been considerable. A paper by Henry Hill (5) on artesian
wells at Wanganui gives data that to some extent support this view.

64. Transactions.

The marine sand and gravel forming the low hill in the small valley near
the Patea brickworks presumably represent a rewash of the Hawera beds
deposited during a brief period of depression. Probably there were other
occasional minor oscillations during the last uplift, but there is no evidence
of prolonged periods of standstill.

' The marine planation of a wide belt of the Wanganuian beds is a
remarkable fact, which has a bearing on the geological history of other
parts of New Zealand. Had the upward and downward movements of
the Wanganui beds been uniform, the eroded surface would have been
almost or quite parallel to the bedding-planes, more especially if there had
been a hard stratum of, say, limestone just below the level of the sea at
the time of greatest depression. In that case the Hawera series would
have beén deposited on the Wanganuian without any visible unconformity,
and a contact similar to that of the Amuri limestone and the Weka Pass
stone in North Canterbury would have resulted.

According to Thompson’s view of the origin of the Hawera beds, their
upper surface must be wave-planed ; and this statement holds good in the
main, even if the present writer’s hypothesis of their deposition during a
negative movement of the strand be correct. The planation is not confined
to the area between Hawera and Turakina, but may be traced north-
westward beyond Cape Egmont, and southward, with some interruption,
to Otaki, and finally to the immediate neighbourhood of Wellington. The
gently sloping lowland at the foot of Mount Egmont extending trom
Hawera to Cape Egmont and thence northward to the Kaitake Range
has been wave-smoothed in the late Pleistocene. In places numerous
small conical hills of volcanic origin, formed almost in Recent times, stud
its surface, but evidence of planation by the sea remains. In the Shannon
district, and elsewhere south of the Manawatu River, aeolian sandstones,
probably younger than Castlecliffian, appear to have been planed by wave-
action, an interpretation of their topography partly supported by Adkin’s
account (9; see also his paper of 1911), but opposed to Cotton’s views (8).
At present only small portions of the Wanganui coastal plain have been
examined in detail by geologists. These examinations have been made
independently by various workers, at various times, and for various objects.
Some divergence of opinion is therefore to be expected, but this will
doubtless be eliminated when the results of detailed surveys over wide
areas are available.

LITERATURE.

_ BR. PoHarazyn, Remarks on the Coast-line between Kai Iwi and Waitotara, on the
West Coast of the Province of Wellington, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 2, pp. 158-60,
1870.

. Jonxn Bucnanan, On the Wanganui Beds (Upper Tertiaries), zhid., pp. 163-66.

F. W. Hutron, The Wanganui System, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 18, pp. 336-67,

1886.
James Park. On the Geology of the Western Part of Wellington Provincial District
and Part of Taranaki, Rep. Geol. Explor. during 1886-87, No. 18, pp. 24-73., 1887.
. Henry Hint, Artesian Wells at Wanganui, New Zealand, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 25,
pp. 348-50, 1893.
6. W. Gipson, Patea Ironsand, Ninth Ann. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. (part of Parl.
Paper C.-2), pp. 102-3, 1915.

7. J. A. THomson, The Hawera Series, or the So-called ‘‘ Drift Formation” of Hawera,
Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 49, pp. 414-17. 1917.

8. C. A. Cotton, The Geomorphology of the Coastal District of South-western
Wellington, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 50, pp. 212-22, 1918.

9. G. L. Apxry, Further Notes on the Horowhenua Coastal Plain and the Associated
Physiographic Features, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 51, pp. 108-18, 1919.

10. P MarsHatt and R. Murpocu, The Tertiary Rocks near Wanganui, Trans.

N.Z. Inst., vol. 52, pp. 115-28, 1920.

—

oo - wr

Parx.—Geological History of Eastern Marlborough. 65

Arr. VIII.—The Geological History of Eastern Marlborough.

By Professor JAMES Park, F.G.S., F.N.Z.Inst.

[Read before the Otago Institute, 9th November, 1920 ; received by Editor, 31st December,
1920 ; issued separately, 27th June, 1921.]|

CoNTENTS. Page

Introduction A cee he els
A Question of Nomenclature .. “is as he son. G8
Synopsis . Ee se - LO
Geological History .. ac ae oF Sona OT
The Post-Miocene Conglomerate 68
Relationship of Post-Miocene Conglomerate to Underlying Tertiary

Formations ve me OO)
Involvement of Post-Miocene Conglomerate sls ar yor 5 AU)
Newer Pliocene ar a se ts = fa tg
Conclusion .. eel. Tal

INTRODUCTION.

In two papers, published in 1917 and 1919, Dr. J. Allan Thomson champions
the views of Dr. C. A. Cotton (1913, 19144, and 19148) as to the genesis
of the physiographic features of eastern Marlborough and origin of the so-
called post-Miocene conglomerate. In the last of these papers he restates
at great length the observations of McKay made in 1886, 1890, and 1892,
and the opinions of Cotton, and disagrees with my view that the post-
Miocene conglomerate is morainic. With the zeal of an advocate he con-
tends that my “ hypothesis involves the formation of tbe great Clarence
and other faults in the late Notopleistocene, and is quite untenable.”
Why untenable ? Geophysicists recognize that the crust of the earth will
be subject to tensional stresses, fracturing, and faulting so long as the
denudation of mountain-chains and the piling-up of sediments on the sea-
floor continue.

The view I have always maintained is that the Clarence fault is of
considerable antiquity, and that the involvement of the glacial and older
strata was caused by a revival of movement along the old fault-plane.
Great faults are of slow growth.

As if doubtful of warranty for his extreme pronouncement, Thomson
adds, “In any case, the evidence for the fluviatile origin of the lower beds
of the series is overwhelming.” But even if partly fluviatile, this would
not invalidate my view that the great conglomerate is morainic. There
are moraines and moraines. The morainic matter carried on the back of
a glacier invariably consists of a tumbled pile of angular blocks of rock.
In such a deposit fluviatile material is usually absent. Curiously enough,
this appears to be the only type of moraine that Thomson recognizes as
undeniably glacial. But terminal moraines, of which we have in New
Zealand many fine examples, both ancient and modern, are invariably
composed of fluviatile drifts mingled to a greater or less extent with
tumbled ice-carried blocks.

During the past two years I have attempted to determine the relative
proportions of fluviatile drift and tumbled blocks in some well-known
terminal moraines in Otago and Southland, and I may say that the task
proved more difficult than I anticipated. The results obtained I can only
claim to be rude approximations, but they are sufficiently near the truth

3—Trans.

66 Transactions.

to demonstrate the conspicuous part played by fluviatile drifts in the
structure of such deposits. In all cases the observations were made at
points free from re-sorting.

The great Clyde moraine contains about 60 per cent. of silts, sands,
and gravels of fluviatile origin ;- the Queenstown Domain moraine, 55 per
cent.; the Kingston moraine, 55 per cent.; the Manapouri moraine, 65
per cent. The Clyde, Kingston, and Manapouri moraines appear to rest
on beds of fluviatile drift. I have not yet made a quantitative estimate
of the material composing the Tasman terminal moraine, but if my recol-
lection is not at fault I should say that fluviatile drift is conspicuously
represented. According to many independent writers, the Pleistocene
glacial deposits of Canada and the United States contain a large, or even
dominant, proportion of fluviatile material.

A QueEstion oF NOMENCLATURE.

Before going further I wish to express my Views as to some new
names that have been lately suggested by Thomson. In my paper
(1905, pp. 497-501) “On the Marine Tertiaries of Otago and Southland”
I recognized (a) that the main orographical features of New Zealand were
determined by an early Cretaceous diastrophic movement that folded and
elevated the Juro-Triassic and older formations, and (b) that the Upper
Cretaceous and Tertiary strata were laid down as “ marginal” deposits on
a platform that contoured around the early Cretaceous strand. These
views I reiterated in 1910 (p. 85). Thomson (1917 p. 407), in a discussion
of the younger covering strata, thought it “desirable for many purposes
in New Zealand geology to have a name which will embrace them all, a
name which will replace the earlier name of ‘marginal rocks’ used by Park
and myself, and the physiographic and structural term of ‘ covering strata,’
when an age significance is intended.”

I was the first to describe (1905) the late Cretaceous and Tertiary
strata as “ marginal,” and have no recollection that this term was used
by Thomson till many years afterwards. Apart from this, | am in
agreement with him that the substitution of a name for my “marginal”
strata is desirable. But the term “ Notocene,’” which he has suggested,
is inappropriate; and I agree with Marshall (1919, p. 240) that it is
unscientific. The suffix “cene” (from kainos = recent) is used as the
termination of the four epochs into which the Cainozoic era has been
divided, and to use it in the structure of a word intended to cover the
Upper Cretaceous and the whole of the Cainozoic would be certain to lead
to misunderstanding. Moreover, there is nothing recent about the Albian
and later groups of the Upper Cretaceous, in the sense that “cene” is
used in the words Eocene and Miocene. If it had not been previously
used in a much narrower sense—that is, as meaning Cretaceo-HKocene—
Hector’s term ‘Cretaceo-Tertiary ” would be quite satisfactory, but it
must also be ruled out on the score of possible confusion.

Following the precedent set by the Geological Survey of India, a
native group-name may be appropriately used for the marginal Cretaceo-
Pliocene strata of New Zealand. The name I now suggest is ““ Awatean.”*

For the post-Jurassic and pre-Albian N.E.-S.W. orogenic movements
that folded and elevated the Juro-Triassic of the main chains I propose
to use the term “ Rangitatan movement.”

* Awatea was the name of the great Polynesian deity who heralded the emergence
of the land from the void.

Park.—Geological History of Eastern Marlborough. 67

In 1916 Cotton gave the name “‘ Kaikoura movements ”’ to the Pliocene
uplift that affected eastern Marlborough. I was the first (1905, pp. 501-2,
and 1910, p. 110) to recognize and describe the differential character of
this uplift, and should prefer the name ‘“‘ Ruahine movement.” In the
Ruahine Range the effects of differential axial elevation are better dis-
played than elsewhere. Moreover, Professor Suess (1909) included the
Ruahine Range of New Zealand in his Third Australian Are of folding,
elevation, and vulcanicity, and used the name “ Ruahine”’ as representa-
tive of the uplift and vulcanicity of that region. I think the term
‘““Ruahine movement ” ought to stand.

SYNOPSIS.

My view is that the folding and elevation of the Juro-Triassic and older
rocks took place in the pre-Albian period of the Lower Cretaceous. This
orogenic movement, which | have called the “ Rangitatan movement,”
gave birth to the existing N.E.-S.W. axial chains of New Zealand. The
folding was accompanied by fracturing, faulting, and subsidence along lines
of structural weakness. The climatic conditions were pluvial, and the
denudation of the newly uplifted chains was relatively rapid.

During the Albian, while the peneplaining of the mainland was in
progress, the sea began to invade the Clarence depression, where it laid
down Albian sediments. At the close of the Albian the Cenomanian
transgression became general, and soon the sea encroached on the newly
formed peneplain, Tahora,* that everywhere fringed the remnants of the
main chains. On the surface of this peneplain, and on the Albian beds
already deposited in the Clarence depression, sediments were laid down
throughout the remainder of the Upper Cretaceous period.

Then followed the Eocene uplift, during which the weak post-Albian
beds were removed from the greater part of the uplifted Tahoran pene-
plain and from the Clarence depression. At the close of the Eocene began
the Oamaruian subsidence, during which the great Miocene formation was
deposited, in some areas on the slightly eroded surface of the surviving
Cretaceous strata, but mainly on the surface of the recently uncovered
peneplain.

At the close of the Miocene there began a differential uplift in Otago
and Auckland, pivoting on the Napier-Wanganui zone, where the move-
ment still continued downward, this arising from the thrust accompanying
the tilting of the ends of the main chains.

Before the advent of the newer Pliocene the Marlborough and north
Hawke’s Bay areas were raised above sea-level. In the Napier-Wanganui
zone the deposition of marine sediments continued till the close of the newer
Pliocene, when this region also rose above sea-level.

During the succeeding Pleistocene the alpine chains and the Kaikouras
were covered with ice-fields that fed the Clarence glacier, which, in my
opinion, formed the great post-Miocene conglomerate.

GEOLOGICAL History.

In Marlborough we are confronted with geological and physiographic
conditions altogether unlike those prevailing along the main axial chain.
The Inland Kaikoura and Seaward Kaikoura Mountains are well-defined
ranges composed of folded argillites and greywackes of Juro-Triassic age, in

* In Maori, tahora = great plains and low-lying maritime lands.
3%

68 Transactions.

many places intruded by a network of basic, semi-basic, and acidic dykes.
The post-Jurassic (or Rangitatan) diastrophic movement that folded the
ranges of the main axial divide was also responsible for the folding and
elevation of the Kaikoura chains, and the subsequent intrusion of the
igneous Magmas.

McKay (1886, p. 65) has shown that the rocks composing these chains
are arranged in two simple synclinal folds, separated by an anticlinal
fold, the crest of which runs parallel with the present course of the Clarence
Valley.*

The folding and elevation of the Jurassic and older rocks took place in
the pre-Albian stage of the Lower Cretaceous. The denudation of the
newly elevated folds of the main divide began immediately, and continued
throughout the whole of the Albian, resulting in the base-levelling of the
great peneplain elsewhere called Tahora. At this time the Seaward
Kaikoura chain existed as an island, or as a long narrow peninsula.

During the progress of the Albian base -levelling of the mainland, Albian
sediments were being deposited in the deep, clear waters of the fiord-like
Clarence Sound, that separated the Kaikoura chains. After the post-
Jurassic folding, and before the Albian, the crown of the.Clarence anticline
was deformed by powerful faults, the most important of which followed
the base of the Inland Kaikoura chain.

The floor of the Clarence Valley is occupied by a sheet of strata many
thousand feet in thickness, ranging in age from Lower Utatur (Albian) to
newer Pliocene or even Pleistocene. Two unconformities have been recog-
nized in this pile of material. The Lower Utatur strata are followed by
the Amuri limestone, which, according to Henry Woods (1917, p. 4), favours
the view that the latter is of Tertiary age, since the Upper Utatur (Lower
Chalk) beds that normally follow the Lower Utatur in India, Japan,
Madagascar, and Zululand are not known to be represented in New Zealand.
The second unconformity comes between the Awaterean marine clays and
a remarkable deposit which McKay (1886) called the ‘* post-Miocene
conglomerate.”

THE Post-M1ocENE CONGLOMERATE.

This deposit attains in places a thickness of 600 ft. It is mainly
composed of water-worn drift, derived from the Juro-Triassic argillites,
greywackes, and associated dyke-rocks that compose the Kaikoura chains,
mingled with a confused pell-mell of angular slabs and irregular masses of
Amuri limestone, “ gray marls,” and fossiliferous Awatere (older Pliocene)
clay-rock, some of the former of enormous size. Patches of this deposit
occur near the Marlborough coast, resting on an eroded surface of the Amuri
limestone. But its greatest development is in the Clarence Valley, where
it lies on the “ grey marls,” a clayey formation that conformably follows
the Amuri limestone.

McKay in his report on the Cape Campbell district (1876, p. 190) gives
a good description of this breccia-conglomerate. He says, “ These con-
glomerates are composed in chief part of well-rounded boulders, but have a
large percentage of angular blocks of great size, so that they often present
the appearance of old morainic accumulations. A great variety of rocks

* Thomson (1919, p. 305) expresses the opinion that the strikes observed by him
would tend to show that a strike west of north is prevalent in at least some parts of the
Kaikoura area; and Cotton (1913, p. 244), arguing from the variability of strikes and
dip, considers it probable that the older axes of folding make an angle with the general
N.E.-S.W. trend of the chains. In my opinion the meagre evidence produced by these
writers is not sufficient to invalidate the considered generalizations of McKay.

ParKk.—Geological History of Hastern Marlborough. 69

is represented in these conglomerates, including old slates and sandstones
and crystalline rocks from the inland ranges, voleanic rocks belonging to
the Amuri group, green sandstone from the ‘saurian beds,’ and great
masses of Amuri limestone, and large blocks of fossiliferous conglomerate
containing abundance of Awatere fossils; also blocks of sandy limestone
and fine-grained standstones with abundance of Awatere fossils. These
beds cannot be less than 200 ft. in thickness, and in places they rise to a
height of 850 ft. above the sea. Like the Awatere beds, the conglomerates
never pass to the eastward of the Amuri limestone, nor do they reach to the
lower grounds on the west side of the range; but, as they are but the
remnant of a formation that must once have covered a considerable extent
of country, other outliers of them will probably vet be found to the south
and west.”

Referring to the conglomerates at Heaver’s Creek, he says (1886, p. 115),
“ They are rudely stratified, at places showing that the beds are standing
nearly vertical; in the lower part are enormous blocks of Amuri limestone
and masses of soft marly strata, which it seems impossible to convey any
distance and deposit in the position in which they are found. . . . It
is impossible to give any description which will convey a correct idea of
the pell-mell manner in which the various materials of this conglomerate-
breccia are mixed together.” Further on he says some of the masses of
Amuri limestone in this deposit at Shades Creek “ are of such an extent
that at first sight they might be taken for an outcrop of this rock in situ.”

RELATIONSHIP OF Post-MiccENE CONGLOMERATE TO UNDERLYING TER-
TIARY FORMATIONS.

The stratigraphical succession of the formations represented in eastern
Marlborough is :—

(1.) Post-Miocene conglomerate.
(2.) Awatere clay and marly beds.
(5.) “ Grey marls.”

(4.) Amur: limestone.

(5.) Cretaceous strata.

(6.) Juro-Triassic basement rocks.

Near the coast the conglomerate-breccia rests on the Amuri limestone,
and in the Clarence Valley on the “grey marls.” It contains angular
masses derived from the underlying Cretaceous strata, Amuri limestone,
“ grey marls,” and Awatere beds. McKay (1886 and 1890) and Hector
(1886) considered it unconformable to the Awatere beds, a conclusion which
I had no difficulty in endorsing in 1910.

Cotton (1910), in a general account of the geology and physiography
of eastern Marlborough, expressed the view that the conglomerate-breccia
was conformable to the “grey marls,” and this opinion appears to be
supported by Thomson (1919). If this tumbled and confused deposit is
conformable to the “grey marls,’’ the question arises, what has become
of the Awatere beds? And in like manner, where it rests on the Amuri
limestone, we may ask, what has become of both the “ grey marls” and
Awatere beds? It may be suggested that the conglomerate-breccia is the
equivalent of the Awatere beds; but clearly this is impossible, as large
“mnasses of the latter are contained in the conglomerate.

Referring to the difficulty presented by the view of conformity, Thomson
(1919) savs, “ Cotton accounts for the peculiar features of the conglomerate
—viz., that it lies conformably on the ‘ grey marls’ but contains materials

70 Transactions.

of all the underlying Notocene [Cretaceous and Tertiary] beds—by assum-
ing that a neighbouring area was differentially elevated to the extent of
perhaps as much as 12,000 ft. without seriously disturbing the horizontal
attitude of that portion of the Notocene series which, a little later, had
the conglomerate deposited upon it.’ This hypothetic assumption does
not make the position easier. By all the criteria of stratigraphical geology,
whatever its origin, there must be a time-break between the conglomerate-
breccia and the “ grey marls.”’

INVOLVEMENT OF. Post-MrocENE CONGLOMERATE.

Along the base of the Inland Kaikoura Range the Cretaceous and
Tertiary deposits, including the post-Miocene conglomerate, are down-faulted
towards the north-west, and appear to plunge below the Juro-Triassic
rocks composing that chain.

There is no evidence that the Kaikoura chains were ever reduced to a
sea-level peneplain, and all surmises to the contrary are purely hypothetical.
At the time the Tahoran peneplain was being base-levelled the Kaikouras
existed as ridges, separated by the Clarence Valley, into which the sea
during the Albian stage gradually encroached. The advancing sea first
formed a basal bed of conglomerate, which is entirely composed of material
derived from the neighbouring mountain-walls. As the sea continued its
invasion of the Clarence Valley the bed of conglomerate spread slowly
landward, forming a deltaic deposit, on the emergent surtace of which
vegetation grew till destroyed and buried by sediments deposited by the
advancing sea.

If the sea advanced from the north-east, as seems to be indicated by
the distribution of the Cretaceous strata and Amuri limestone, the con-
glomerates laid down at the head of the sound should be coeval with the
fine marine sediments deposited in the deeper water near the entrance of
the sound. As the transgression progressed the conglomerates became
everywhere covered with the finer muds and sands of the Upper Utatur.

At the begining of the Cenomanian the advancing sea overspread the
base-levelled Tahoran peneplain and covered it with a sheet of Upper
Cretaceous sediments. During the Eocene uplift the newly formed Upper
Cretaceous sediments in the Clarence fiord, in north and west Nelson,
and throughout Westland, Southland, and south Otago, were completely
removed by denudation. Only in north Otago and Canterbury did some
remnants escape the general destruction of this period.

The Eocene uplift was followed by slow persistent submergence, during
which the Oamaruian and Awatere sediments were deposited. At the close
of the Miocene, differential uplift began along the axial chains, accom-
panied at the north and south by a tilting movement that pivoted about
a zone extending from Napier to Wanganui, along which submergence
continued till the close of the Pliocene, as witnessed by the newer Phocene
beds on the coasts of Hawke’s Bay and Wanganui Bight. The movement
was faster along the axial divide than at the east and west coasts, and
this generated crustal stresses which found relief by fracturing and faulting,
followed by the uplift and tilting of mountain blocks.

There was also, as already indicated, a general tilting of both ends of
New Zealand coeval with the axial uplift. This tilt was greatest in Auck-
land and Otago, and least in the Napier-Wanganui zone. As a consequence
of this unequal uplift the youngest marine strata known in Otago and
south Canterbury are late Miocene; in Marlborough, older Pliocene; and
in the Wanganui and Hawke’s Bay areas, newer Pliocene.

Park.—Geological History of Eastern Marlborough. 71

NEWER PLIOCENE.

As a further consequence of the pivotal (or differential) elevation, the
refrigeration which afterwards culminated in the glaciation of a large part
of the South Island and a small part of the North Island began in Otago
and Southland as far back as the early Pliocene, and in Marlborough in
the late Pliocene. The general advance of the alpine glaciers began
in the late Pliocene, and throughout the South Island this was a period
of intense fluviatile activity. In the early Pleistocene the high Kaikoura
chains were covered with permanent ice-fields that fed the Clarence glacier,
the terminal face of which reached the sea at the time of maximum
refrigeration.

It was during the early Pleistocene that the Marlborough fluvio-glacial
conglomerate was deposited. The piling-up of from 4,000 ft. to 12,000 ft.
of sediments and other rocky detritus on the floor of the Clarence Valley
disturbed the isostatic condition of the crustal strip lying along the Clarence
fault, and as a result of this disturbance there was a revival of movement
along the old fault-plane. McKay reported in 1886 that a distinct depres-
sion marked the line of the great fault, and this depression was said by
the settlers to have been formed by the historic earthquake of 1855, which
is also known to have opened gigantic earth-rents in other parts of Marl-
borough, as well as in Wellington.

I would suggest that it was the overloading of the Clarence segment
which caused the Inland Kaikoura chain to creep towards the south-west.
This and crustal weakness originated the overthrust which eventually
entangled the Cretaceous and Tertiary strata and post-Miocene conglome-
rate along the course of the Clarence fault. But this suggestion is purely
hypothetical and incapable of proof.

CONCLUSION.

Herbert Spencer has laid it down in his First Principles that no hypothesis
is capable of more than partial proof, and that of two rival hypotheses the
one that approaches nearest the truth is that which does least violence to
fundamental principles. I venture to think that Cotton’s titanic faulting
and stupendous walls of weak, unconsolidated sediments (vide fig. 2, Cotton,
1913) postulate conditions that appear almost impossible. Moreover, his
and Thomson’s contention that the post-Miocene conglomerate is conform-
able to the “ grey marls,” notwithstanding that it is composed of material
derived from all the underlying formations, is opposed to all the canons
of stratigraphical geology. The view of conformity did not even suggest
itself to Hector, McKay, or myself.

According to Cotton’s hypothesis, the faulting was a single catastrophic
movement of such magnitude as to expose the Tertiary and Cretaceous
strata in a stupendous fault-scarp from the steep face of which blocks and
vast slabs of the different beds, under the influence of gravity, fell or slid
into the valley below, forming the “ pell-mell”’ so well described by McKay.
But the blocks are contained in a matrix of fluviatile drift composed
mainly of the basement Juro-Triassic rocks. Evidently the Clarence Valley
was already drained by a well-established river-system. It seems incredible
that the titanic dislocation required by Cotton’s view could have taken
place without causing serious disarrangement of the pre-existing drainage-
system.

If it be conceivable that the faulting proceeded by a series of catastrophic
displacements that exposed in a steep escarpment first the Tertiary and

72 Transactions.

afterwards the Cretaceous strata in the order to their superposition, we
should expect to find the Awatere rocks, as the first exposed to shatter-
ing and crumbling, predominating in a stratum towards the base of the
great conglomerate. Above this stratum there should appear a succession
of layers dominated by blocks of “ grey marl,” Amauri limestone, and
Cretaceous rocks, and in the inverse order of their superposition. But the
blocks of the different formations do not occur in this orderly succession :
they are mingled in a confused jumble. Clearly this conception also fails.

It is generally recognized that all great faults are of slow growth. If the
growth of the Clarence fault were slow, the denudation of the newly uplifted
covering strata would result in the formation of the slopes normal to weak
strata, and there would be no dislocation of the established drainage-system.

The Tertiary strata were laid down on the floor of the-sea, and elevated
before the process of shattering and denudation began. Surely this uplift
and the geographical changes which it brought about must represent a
time-break between the post-Miocene conglomerate and the underlying
Tertiary strata which figure so conspicuously in its composition.

I do not know of any natural agency other than ice that could trans-
port and leave stranded among fluviatile drifts slab-like masses of soft
friable rock ranging from a few feet up to 70 ft. in length; and I can see
nothing unreasonable in my suggestion that high chains like the Kaikouras
could support ice-fields during the period of Pleistocene maximum refrigera-
tion. I do not suggest that my view is the obvious truth. My contention
is that it is a reasonable interpretation of the known facts. The* obvious
truth may often resemble a truism, which Carlyle has defined as an invention
for concealing the real truth. The uplifted hand may obscure a landscape ;
and a simple truth may be presented in such a manner_as to hide a whole
gospel.

REFERENCES.

Corton, C. A., 1913. The Physiography of the Middle Clarence Valley, New Zealand,
Geog. Jour., vol. 42, pp. 225-45.

—— 19144. The Relations of the Great Marlborough Conglomerate to the Underlying
Formation in the Middle Clarence Valley, New Zealand, Jour. Geol., vol. 22,
pp. 346-63.

—— 1914p. Preliminary Note on the Uplifted East Coast of Marlborough, Trans.
N.Z. Inst., vol. 46, pp. 286-94.

McKay, A., 1876. Report on Cape Campbell District, Rep. Geol. Hxplor., 1874-76,

p. 185-91.

—— 1886. Eon the Geology of the Eastern Part of Marlborough Provincial District.
Rep. Geol. Explor., No. 17, pp. 27-136, with map.

—— 18904. On the Earthquakes of September, 1888, in the Amuri and Marlborough
Districts of the South Island, Rep. Geol. Explor., No. 20, pp. 1-16.

—— 1890. On the Geology of Marlborough and the Amuri District of Nelson, ibid.,
pp. 85-185, with col. map.

—— 1892. On the Geology of Marlborough and South-east Nelson, Part I, fep.
Geol. Explor., No. 21, pp. 1-30, with map.

Marsnatt, P., 1919. Fauna of the Hampden Beds and Classification of the Oamaru
System, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 51, pp. 226-50.

Park, J., 1905. On the Marine Tertiaries of Otago and Canterbury, with Special
Reference to the Relations existing between the Pareora and Oamaru Series,
Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 37, pp. 489-551.

—— 1910. Geology of New Zealand. L

Tuomson, J. A., 1917. Diastrophic and other Considerations in Classification and
Correlation, and the Existence of Minor Diastrophic Districts in the
Notocene, Tans. N.Z. Inst, vol. 49, pp. 397-413.

—— 1919. The Geology of the Middle Clarence and Ure Valleys, East Marlborough.
“New Zealand, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 51, pp. 289-349.

Woops, H., 1917. The Cretaceous Faunas of the North-eastern Part of the South
Island of New Zealand, N.Z. Geol. Surv. Pal. Bull. No. 4.

Parx.—Birth and Development of New Zealand. 73

Arr. IX.—The Birth and Development of New Zealand.

By Professor JAMES Park, F.G.S., F.N.Z.Inst.

A

[Read before the New Zealand Science Congress, Palmerston North, 26th January, 1921 ;
received by Editor, 2nd February, 1921; issued separately, 27th June, 1921.)

THOUGH it contains in its fabric rocks of great antiquity, considered as a
geographical unit New Zealand is, geologically speaking, very young. We
must ever bear in mind that, though it may be built of stones of great
antiquity, a house is not older than its builder. And so it is with New
Zealand. Its framework is composed of an extraordinary pile of Palaeozoic
and Mesozoic rocks, but it was not till the Cretaceous epoch that these
rocks were built up into the mountain-chains and other land-forms
familiarly known to us by the geographical name ‘‘ New Zealand.”

The Palaeozoic sediments were derived from the denudation of a land
area that formerly occupied the greater part of the Southern Hemisphere.
This antient continent certainly existed throughout the whole of the
Palaeozoic era, and eventually became submerged some time in the Meso-
zoic. Like the larger continents of the present day, this Archaean land
was dominated by mountain-chains, tablelands, and plains, and its coasts
were deeply indented with bays and estuaries. Though no trace of this
Pacific continent now remains, the pile of sediments derived from the
wear-and-tear of its surface tells us that 1t was no arid land, but possessed
an abundant rainfall. Moreover, there is evidence that in the Cambrian,
Devonian, and Permian epochs its alpine chains were covered with an ice
cap from which tongues of ice reached down the mountain-glens towards
the sea.

The great rivers which drained the highlands built up mighty deltas
along the ancient strands, covering the floor of the seas where New Zealand
now stands with sands and muds many thousand feet in thickness. But
we must not assume that deposition was continuous in the New Zealand
area throughout the whole of the Palaeozoic. No rocks of Devonian or
Carboniferous age are known in New Zealand, and from this we infer that
during a great hiatus, the exact limits of which are not yet definitely
ascertained, there was a cessation of deposition on the floor of the seas
covering the area now contained within our borders. The cessation of
deposition on a sea-floor may arise from the profound submergence of the
land area providing the sediments, or from the uplift of the sea-floor as a
consequence of crustal folding or a recession of the sea. By submergence
the scene of deposition is shifted landward, and by uplift seaward. The
absence of Devonian and Carboniferous rocks leaves a tremendous gap
in the-geological history of New Zealand, and is ascribed to crustal folding
that raised the sea-floor, thereby enlarging the borders of the ancient
Palaeozoic continent.

In the late Carboniferous there began a general transgression of the sea
that submerged the coastal lands and permitted the deposition of the
Permo-Carboniferous Maitai series on the folded rocks of the Silurian and

74. Transactions.

older epochs. The succeeding Permian was an epoch characterized by
earth-movement, and the intrusion of granitic and dioritic magmas on a
gigantic scale.

The Palaeozoic formations contain an abundant marine fauna that in
many respects shows a curious resemblance to the contemporary faunas
of Kurope and North America; but of the Psilophytales—the rootless and
leafless land-plants of pre-Devonian Europe—and of the prolific Carbon-
iferous flora of the greater continents there is no trace in New Zealand.
For an explanation of this we must look to the land-movements that
brought about the great Devonian-Carboniferous hiatus. And this leads
to the surmise that the ancient continent on the shores of which the
Palaeozoic sediments of New Zealand were laid down had no direct land
connection with the Palaeozoic land areas of the Northern Hemisphere—
a surmise further strengthened by the absence of the typical Glossopteris
flora of the hypothetical Gondwanaland of the South Pacific.

But to return to the New Zealand area. After the cessation of the
Permian diastrophic movements already described, normal deposition con-
tinued without interruption throughout the Triassic and Jurassic epochs,
the sediments being derived from the denudation of the ancient continent,
which was now larger in area, having been augmented in size by the
addition of the uplifted Palaeozoic rocks of the New Zealand area. The
Mesozoic sediments consist mainly of alternating beds of deltaic sands and
muds, in places intercalated with marine beds containmg a rich assemblage
of fossil molluses that in general facies bears a striking resemblance to the
contemporary Mesozoic marine faunas of Europe. It is noteworthy that,
though beds of limestone are common in all the Palaeozoic formations, no
limestones occur among the Juro-Triassic strata of New Zealand. This
circumstance may possibly be ascribed to the prevailing deltaic conditions
of deposition, which, as we know, would not favour the growth of limestone-
building organisms.

Up till the close of the Jurassic epoch New Zealand had not come into
existence, but for a million centuries rocky materials had been accumu-
lating on the site it was destined to occupy. The early Cretaceous wit-
nessed the birth of the new land. At this time there began two syntaxial
crustal movements that folded and ridged the Mesozoic and older rocks
into great chains. Of these, the Rangitatan, a north-east and south-west
movement, produced the main alpine chains, and the Hokonuian the north-
west and south-east transverse chains. These movements built up and
gave definite form to the framework of New Zealand as we now know it.
They were accompanied by rock-shattering and faulting, and the extrusion
of igneous magmas, mostly of basic and ultra-basic types. This period
of intense crustal movement also brought about the foundering and sub-
mergence of the ancient continent that had existed in the south from
Archaean times, shedding the materials of which the Palaeozoic and Meso-
zoic rocks were mainly composed. The disappearance of the parent continent
was doubtless a consequence of the process of crustal adjustment, or com-
pensation, arising from the emergence of New Zealand from the floor of
the ocean.

The aphorism of Plato that a country is only as old as its mountains
contains more than a grain of truth, and in the case of New Zealand
is actually true. The mountain-chains came into existence in the early
Cretaceous, and it was in that epoch that the real history of New Zealand
as a geographical unit began.

Park.—Birth and Development of New Zealand. 75

The Cretaceous and Tertiary formations are marginal deposits mainly
composed of materials derived from the wear-and-tear of the axial chains.
The post-Albian history of New Zealand is a chronicle of denudation, sub-
mergence, uplift, faultings, vulcanicity, glaciation, and river erosion, all
of which have taken an active part in modifying and shaping the topo-
graphical forms with which we are familiar.

In the early Cretaceous the foothills, transverse chains, and even -the
lower parts of the axial chains became worn down to a peneplain that
bordered the coast on all sides. When the peneplain became submerged
by the mid-Cretaceous transgression of the sea, the area of the dry land
was correspondingly diminished. It is probable that the New Zealand
of this period was represented by a long narrow island, or by a chain of
islands, of moderate relief, deeply indented with bays and sounds, and
drained by numerous small streams. The submerged peneplain was now
a sea-floor, and on it accumulated the marginal pile of Cretaceous and
Tertiary sediments, which as partially consolidated and elevated strata
may now be seen fringing many parts of the sea-coast in both Islands, and
as down-faulted blocks on the flanks of the alpine chains. When we
speak of the marginal pile of Cretaceous and Tertiary strata we do not
wish it to be inferred that deposition was continuous. As a matter of
fact, we know that it was broken by a considerable hiatus in the early
Eocene.

The Cenomanian transgression was preceded by the deposition of deltaic
and estuarine silts and muds, on the emergent surface of which there
grew a dense jungle vegetation. The vegetable remains were subsequently
buried by the sediments laid down by the advancing sea, and afterwards
formed the coal-seams of our Upper Cretaceous measures. The Upper
Cretaceous strata constitute what is called the Waipara formation.

At the close of the Cretaceous there was a general uplift which lasted
well into the Eocene. During this uplift the greater part of the newly
formed Cretaceous sediments was removed by denudation, thereby uncover-
ing the pre-Albian peneplain.

Towards the close of the Eocene there took place another transgression
of the sea, which was preceded by the deposition of deltaic sediments
on the surface of the recently uncovered peneplain. <A jungle vegetation
flourished for some time on the emergent deltaic flats. Afterwards the
marine sediments laid down by the advancing Miocene sea covered and
preserved the vegetable remains.

The late Cretaceous and older Tertiary movements were unaccompanied
by crustal folding, and as a consequence the stratigraphical break between
the Upper Cretaceous and Lower Tertiary formations is generally insignificant.
But in New Zealand, as elsewhere, the close of the Cretaceous witnessed
momentous faunal changes.

The Miocene coal-measures and the associated marine strata that cover
them constitute the well-known Oamaruian formation.

In the central, or Cook Strait, area deposition continued uninterruptedly
till the close of the Pliocene, but in the north Auckland region and in that
part of the South Island lying to the south of the Trelissick Basin marine
strata of Phocene age are absent. So far as we know, the Tertiary succes-
sion of marine strata in the far north and south of New Zealand ended with
the deposition of the Awamoan beds, of Upper Miocene age. The Awamoan
is the closing member of the great Oamaruian formation as developed in
north Auckland, south Canterbury, Otago, and Southland. The abrupt

16 Transactions.

cessation of marine deposition in these parts is, I think, a good reason for
considering the Oamaruian a distinct geological unit in the chronological
succession of the Tertiary formations.

A cessation of deposition, or even an abrupt faunal change, is merely
the expression of a geographical change. The absence of marine Pliocene
deposits in the north and south of New Zealand must be regarded as a
consequence of a differential elevation that raised the sea-floor in these
parts till it became dry land, but did not affect the central region till late in
the Phocene.

At the close of the Pliocene the differential uplift became general
throughout the length and breadth of New Zealand, the movement being
more rapid along the axis of the main chains than towards the coasts to
the east and west. The unequal upward movement raised the marginal
cover of Tertiary strata high up on the flanks of the upraised axial chains,
and at the same time subjected the rocks composing these chains to stresses
that found relief by the formation of powerful faults. The major faults
run more or less parallel with the trend of the folded chains. Thus in
western Southland and in Otago they run north and south ; in Canterbury,
Marlborough, Wellington, Hawke’s Bay, and south Auckland, north-east
and south-west ; in eastern Southland, north Nelson, and north Anckland,
north-west and south-east.

The ancient peneplain, Tahora, which for a hundred thousand genera-
tions had exercised a powerful influence on the arrangement and distribution
of the younger formations, now became deeply dissected, and for the most
part almost obliterated, by the intense pluvial and glacial erosion of the
Pleistocene period. In almost all cases the lines of dissection followed fault-
planes, along which the rocks were, as a rule, shattered, and hence incapable
of offering an effective resistance to the turbulent mountain-streams and
the ponderous advance of the Pleistocene ice-sheet. The dissection of the
uplifted peneplain was preceded by the removal from its surface of the
covering strata, except along the coast and in the trough-faulted mountain-
basins, where they were in some measure protected from the full activities
of subaerial denudation.

The Pliocene uplift, elsewhere called the Ruahine movement,* gave the
finishing-touches to the structure of New Zealand. The crustal disloca-
tions and faultings which accompanied it determined the lines of the great
trunk rivers, already well established in their courses when the Pleistocene
refrigeration began. The Pleistocene glaciers descending from the alpine
chains ploughed out and deepened the valleys, smoothed the contours of
the mountain-slopes, and wore down to rounded hummocks the rocky
ridges lying in their path. Before their fmal retreat they piled up vast
moraines that will always remain as imperishable monuments of the iron
etip in which in the near past the great Ice King held this now sunny
land.

* See head of p. 67 of this volume.

MarSHALL AND Murpocu.—Tertiary Mollusca.

-]
-]

Arr. X.—Some Tertiary Mollusca, with Descriptions of New Species.

By P. Marsuatt, M.A., DSc., ¥.G.S., F.N.Z.Inst., Hector and Hutton
Medallist. and R. Murpocu.

[Read before the Wanganui Philosophical Society, 25th October, 1920 ; received by Editor,
31st December, 1920 ; issued separately, 27th June, 1921.]

Plates XIV—XTX.

Melina zealandica Suter. (Plate XIV, figs. 1, 2.)

M. zealandica Sut., N.Z. Geol. Sur. Pal. Bull. No. 5: Marshall and
Murdoch, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 52, p. 136, pl. 9, fig. 21; pl. 10,
fig. 20.

Complete valves of this fine species were recently obtained. They are
more oblique than appears in our figure of the restored valve, and there is
also considerable difference between the young or medium-sized individuals
and the large adult form. The latter is here illustrated by the photograph
of a right valve, and shows the dersal margin not markedly oblique to the
body of the shell, while in some smaller individuals it is most pronounced
and the posterio-ventral area considerably produced. But for the fact
that intermediate forms occur and that they are all found together they
might well have been regarded as distinct species. There also occurred an
imperfect smaller valve, which is clothed with a thick periostracum, almost
black.

Adult : Height, 150mm.; length of hinge, 135 mm.; length of body
across adductor-scar, 116 mm.

Locality: On the coast about three miles north of the Waipipi Stream,
Waverley. This species also occurs in the Trelissick Basin, and at Target
Gully, Oamaru.

Ostrea gudexi Suter. (Plate XV, fig. 1.)

N.Z. Geol. Sur. Pal. Bull. No. 5, p. 71, pl. 8, fig. 2.
Suter’s paratypes from Kakahu show a considerable variation in the
- number of radial ribs; the typical form has seven to eight, others fifteen or
more, excluding the small ribs on the posterio-dorsal area. Some specimens
which appear to belong to this species have recently been found at Pahi.
This (Pahi) form has nineteen to tw enty ribs, with an additional five or six
much smaller on tlie depressed posterio-dorsal wing.

Height, 30 mm. ; length, 25 mm.

Locality : Pahi. Collected by Marshall. Material, two left valves.

Thracea magna n. sp. (Plate XV, figs. 2, 3.)

Description derived from right valves.

Shell large, oblong, mequilateral, beak at the posterior third, the umbo
swollen and prominently curved inwards ; the anterior dorsal margin long,
shghtly curved and declining, the end rounded ; posterior dorsal margin

78 Transactions,

short, excavated below the beak, thence almost straight and slightly declining,
the end obliquely truncated, basal margin lightly curved, ascending a little
more rapidly to the anterior end ; the posterior area is defined by a broad
subangular ridge which descends from near the beak to the lower margin
of the truncation, a smaller ridge similarly proceeding unites with its dorsal
margin. Sculpture consists of fine growth-lines, irregular in places, and
more pronounced on the posterior area; there does not appear to be any
radial sculpture. Hinge without teeth, but with a strong inward-projecting
lithodesma; the pallial smus and adductor impressions obscure, the
posterior adductor apparently large and near to the end.

Length, 73mm.; height, 49mm.; diameter of a single valve, 14 mm.
Another valve: length, 68 mm.; height, 44 mm.

Type to be presented to the Wanganui Museum.

Locality: On the coast about three miles north of the Waipipi Stream,
in brown sand and blue sandy clay.

The material consists of two right valves and one left, the latter rather
fragmentary. In size it may be compared with Thracea sp. H. Woods,
N.Z. Geol. Sur. Bull. No. 4, p. 34, pl. 19, figs. 4a, 4b. It shows even greater
convexity than that species, and the beak is distinctly more posterior.

Miltha neozelanica n. sp. (Plate XVI, figs. 1, 2, and Plate XVII, fig. 1.)

Shell large, ovately subrotund, compressed, left valve distinctly more
compressed than the right; beaks small, curved forward, and nearer to the
anterior end; immediately in front of the beak is a small triangular area
of the margin sharply inflexed to almost half the depth of the hinge-plate ;
the anterior dorsal area narrow and inconspicuous, the margin convex,
declining, and forming a small distinct angle at the end, from this is a wide
uniform curve continued around the ventral margin and terminating in a
more pronounced angle at the posterior end; the posterior dorsal margin
convex and regularly declinmg. On the posterior dorsal area of each valve
one or two feeble corrugations following the curve of the margin. Sculpture
consists of fine concentric threadlets, somewhat irregular towards the ventral
margin, and rather more sharply raised on the posterior dorsal area ;
radiate striation is very obscure, indications of it in places only. The
hinge-plate wide with two cardinals in each valve, the anterior small,
separated by a narrow triangular pit; laterals consisting of a simple ridge
on each side, the posterior almost obsolete ; ligament and resilium deeply
inset. Adductors, the posterior small ovate, the anterior large and much
elongated, the lower end almost in a line vertical to the beak; pallial line
impressed and distant from the margin, the latter smooth. The disc is
more or less punctate and with small raised processes indicating attachment
of the mantle; all valves have a rather broad oblique sulcus on the
middle area.

Height, 94mm.; length, 91mm.; thickness of united valves, 32 mm.
A right valve: height, 64mm. ; length, 68 mm.

Type to be presented to the Wanganui Museum.

Locality: On the coast about three miles north of the Waipipi Stream,
in brown sands and in blue sandy clay; also in the sea-cliff near to the
Hawera County metal-pit, Whakina.

In the list of fossils occurring in the Waipipi beds this species is recorded
as Dosinia magna Hutton (Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 52, p. 124, 1920). In
large specimens the anterior and posterior angles are more or less obscure,

MarsHALL AND Murpocu.—T'ertiary Mollusca, 79

but in medium-sized examples are very distinct, and frequently the length
of the valve exceeds the height.

This is the first record of a species of Miltha in New Zealand. Its large
size and the fact that the Lucinidae are poorly represented in this country
make this occurrence noteworthy.

Miltha dosiniformis n. sp. (Plate XVII, figs. 2, 2a.)

Shell large, solid, subrotund, somewhat compressed, the left valve rather
less inflated ; beaks small, a little anterior, and slightly curved forward ;
the anterior dorsal area narrow and inconspicuous, the margin slowly
declining, uniformly curved around the end and ventral margin ; the posterior
dorsal margin slightly convex, declining, lightly angled at its termination,
the end subtruncate ; the posterior dorsal area with a well-marked ridge.
Sculpture consists of fine concentric threads, somewhat irregularly disposed ;
the specimen is slightly eroded, but there does not appear to be any radial
sculpture. Valves united and filled with hard matrix.

Height, 78mm.; length, 83mm.; thickness of united valves, 29mm.
Another example: height, 79 mm.; length, 81 mm.

Type in the collection of the Geological Survey, Wellington.*

Nore.—On the card accompanying a specimen it is recorded as
“ Dosinia sp. Age 4 to 6, Locality No. 257. Kawau Island.” In
addition to the two complete specimens there is a large fragment with
the valves partly united and showing the pallial line distant from the
margin; also two smaller fragments of right valves, one of which clearly
shows the small deeply inflexed area in front of the beak.

Miltha parki n. sp. (Plate XVII, fig. 3.)

Shell large and solid, ovately subrotund, compressed, the left valve
more compressed than the right ; beaks prominent, curved forward, nearer
to the anterior end ; excavate in front of the beak with the margin sharply
inflexed, thence rounded, the end subangled on meeting the ventral curve ;
the posterior dorsal margin convex and declining somewhat sharply, the
end apparently slightly angled. The posterior dorsal area faintly indicated.
Sculpture consists of fine concentric and radiate threads of about equal
strength, producing minute granules. All examples have the valves united
and are filled with a hard matrix ; ne description of the interior can therefore
be given.

Height, 77mm.; length, 75mm.; thickness of the united valves,
25mm.; the diameter of the right valve about one-third greater than
that of the left. Other examples: height, 70mm.; length, 70 mm.
Another: height, 64 mm.; length, 62 mm.

Type and co-types in the collection of the Geological Survey, Wellington.

Locality: No. 526, Okoko—Waipa—Kawhia Road.

The specimens were collected by Professor Park and listed as Dosinia sp.
(Geol. Rep., vol. 17, p. 139, 1885).

Note.—The three species of Miltha described may be distinguished from
each other by the following characters :—M. parki, by the promimence of the
beaks and the radial sculpture: M. neozelanica, by the anterior position
of the beaks and their marked forward curve; in large specimens the

* Fig. 24 is from the right valve of the type, prepared by Mr. J. Marwick.

80 Transactions.

height is greater than the width and the marginal angles obsolete, though
in medium-sized individuals the angles are very distinct ; the left valve also
is invariably much more compressed than the right: and M. dosiniformis
by the submedian position of the beak, the more equal slope of the dorsal
margins, and the more circular marginal contour. The two species are
nearly allied, and closely approach Phacoides (Miltha) sanctaecrucis Arnold
(U.S. Geol. Sur. Bull. 396, pp. 57-58, pl. vi, fig. 6, 1919) from the Coalinga
District, California, recorded from Lower to Upper Miocene and perhaps
Lower Pliocene.

A fragment of a Miltha was obtained by Dr. Thomson from the Mount
Donald beds. It is too small to determine definitely, but is certainly very
near to M. neozelanica.

A species of Miltha has recently (1919) been described by M. Doello-
Jurado from the Tertiary beds of the Argentine in the Entrerienne formation,
classed by von Ihering in the Miocene period.

Couthouyia concinna n.sp. (Plate XVIII, fig. 1.)

Shell minute, fusiform; whorls. six, rounded and somewhat abruptly
contracted at the sutures, apex minute, the two following whorls with fine
spiral and axial threadlets, thence the axial riblets prominent, narrower
than the interspaces, in places somewhat irregular and wrinkled, the spiral
striae very indistinct, Aperture ovate, outer lip almost uniformly curved,
basal lip very slightly produced; columella slightly curved, projecting, and
with a small groove separating it from the body-whorl except on the upper
third where the peristome is closely united.

Length, 2-6 mm.; width, 1-5 mm.

Type to be presented to the Wanganui Museum.

Locality: Target Gully. Collected by Marshall. - f

There is a single example only; it is near to the Recent species

C. corrugata Hedley.

Vermicularia ophiodes n. sp. (Plate XVIII, fig. 2.)

Shell small, apparently solitary, of about seven or eight volutions, which
are irregularly and obliquely spirally coiled and attached, with the exception
of about one-third of the last coil, which is free and projecting; the apical
whorl is broken and there appear to be internal septa, but there is no indi-
cation of septa in the terminal free portion ; the sutures undulating and in
places deep ; the dorsal surface of the coils except the last with small some-
what irregularly-rounded pustules, frequently perforate, and between these
irregularly granose. Viewed from the base the last coil produces a deep
and rather elongated umbilicus, the sculpture is small undulating longi-
tudinal threads, somewhat irregular and distinctly granular in places; the
aperture subcircular.

Greatest diameter of shell, 15mm.; greatest diameter of aperture,
4mm.

Locality: Target Gully. Collected by Marshall.

Type to be presented to the Wanganui Museum.

Cymatium suteri n. sp. (Plate XVIII, figs. 3, 4.)

Shell small, fusiform, aperture and canal shorter than the spire ; whorls
Six or seven, somewhat rounded, sutures impressed not deep, canal short ;

TRANS ING 2 INSIs \WOne nil = ; Prats XIV.

Melina zealandica Suter.

inigewsy, Il, 2

Face r. 80.)

TRANS. N.Z. Inst., Von. LIT. Pirate XV.

Fig. 1.—Ostrea gudeai Suter. Fias. 2, 3.—Thracea magna n. sp.

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vou. LIII. PrArH Novae

Miltha neozelanica n. sp.

Wek, UN 2

TRANS. Nez. Ins, Vou. HITT: Pratt XVII.

sp.

7 nN.

k

Fie. 3.—Miltha par

aw N. Sp.

A.—Miltha dosiniform

2

©
cor)

Figs.

Fic. 1.—Miltha neozelanica n. sp.

MarSHALL AND Murpocu.—Tertiary Mollusca. 81

sculpture consists of axial and spiral cords forming nodules on the crossings ;
they are equal to or rather wider than the interspaces; on the body-whorl
the axials are more distant and less marked especially towards the lip,
there are about thirteen on the penultimate whorl, growth-striae are well
marked in places and there are several prominent varices; of the spiral
cords there are six or seven on the penultimate whorl and fourteen or fifteen
on the last, with an occasional minute thread in the grooves, those on
the base and canal smaller and crowded, on each whorl the two spirals
immediately below the sutures are small and close together. Aperture
ovate, slightly oblique, the outer lip with a stout varex, somewhat
expanded and with several stout elongated denticles ; columella almost
straight, smooth, with a stout callus narrowing to the end of the beak,.
which is shghtly twisted.

Length, 183mm.; width, 6mm.; length of aperture and canal measured
on the angle, 7mm.

Locality : Waikopiro.

Type in the Wanganui Museum.

This small species came to light in the Suter collection. It is labelled

by him “n. sp.,” and it is only one of many with which he was unable to
deal.

Cymatium pahiense n. sp. (Plate XVIII, fig. 5.)

The specimen is embedded in sandy clay, and the front only is visible.

Shell of medium size, stout, shortly fusiform, aperture longer than the
spire ; whorls about five or six, the last large and narrowed to the short
anterior canal; apex missing, the lower spire-whorls convex, lightly angled
above ; sutures impressed, apparently not deep; the body-whorl with a
prominent varex to the left of the aperture. Sculpture consists of axial
and spiral cords, the latter more pronounced and forming rows of small
nodules, the separating grooves in width about equal to the cords; on the
penultimate whorl there are apparently four or five spiral cords. Aperture
slightly oblique and somewhat narrow, the outer lip widely expanded, thick
and with ten to a dozen stout lamellae, which curve into the aperture ;
inner lip with a broadly expanded thin callus not obscuring the spiral
sculpture; the columella almost straight, a few small lamellae at the
anterior end, four stout rounded plates on the middle area, and immedi-
ately above these narrowly and rather deeply excavated, thence curving
outward to the lp with the nodular spiral cords continuing into the
aperture.

Length, 40mm. ; width, 23mm. ; length of aperture and canal, 25 mm.

Type to be presented to the Wanganui Museum.

Locality: Pahi. Collected by Marshall.

The apical whorls are missing, and therefore the proportional length of
the aperture and canal to the total length is not as great as the measure-
ments given above would indicate. It is a somewhat peculiar form, and
placing it in Cymatium is not altogether satisfactory.

Cypraea sp. (Plate XVIII, fig. 6.)

Specimen very fragmentary. Spire concealed, aperture narrow above
and strongly curved, outer lip thickened and extending above the spire, the
margin incurved and dentate, inner lip with strong transverse teeth on the
posterior area and perhaps continued to the anterior end,

82 Transactions.

Length, approximately 30 mm.; width, approximately 20 mm.

Locality: Pahi. Collected by Marshall.

Appears to be distinct from other species recorded from our Tertiaries,
but is too fragmentary to determine definitely, The specimen to be lodged
in the Wanganui Museum.

Admete maorium n. sp. (Plate XVIII, figs. 7, 8.)

Shell small, shortly fusiform, spire short ; whorls five or six, prominently
shouldered, apical whorls smooth and rounded ; sutures somewhat impressed.
Sculptured with stout axial and spiral cords forming small nodules on the
crossings, both distinctly narrower than the interspaces, the axials are the
more distant and becoming more or less obsolete on the base, there are
twelve on the last whorl; of the spiral cords there are two on the spire-
whorls and eight on the last, the lower five small, gradually diminishing
anteriorly, of the three prominent cords the second and third are the more
widely spaced. Aperture ovate, slightly oblique, outer lip imperfect, the
margin no doubt crenulated ; columella almost straight, slightly twisted at
the extremity, narrowly but strongly callused, and with three strong evenly
spaced plates on the anterior half.

Longth, 8-5 mm.; width, 5mm.

Locality: Target Gully. Collected by Marshall.

Type to be presented to the Wanganui Museum,

Allied to A. sutert Marshall and Murdoch, but differs in the stronger
sculpture, less number of axial cords, and the position of the plates on the
columella.

Daphnella varicostata n. sp. (Plate XIX, fig. 1.)

Shell small, fusiform ; spire lightly turreted, its length nearly equalling
the aperture and canal; sutures somewhat impressed, narrowly margined
below, usually more distinct on the higher whorls ; whorls eight, the third
and succeeding whorls convex, rising rather abruptly at the sutures, the
last produced and gradually contracted to the beak; protoconch smooth ;
apex minute, whorls gradually increasing, thence with axial and spiral
sculpture, the axials very irregular, close and distinctly raised, or almost
obsolete in places, or broad and lightly rounded, usually feeble on the
body, and the lines of growth well marked ; the spirals small and variable,
the grooves narrow, more strongly marked towards the beak; there are
eight or nine spirals on the penultimate whorl. Aperture narrow, outer
lip with sharp margin, the posterior sinus smal], situated immediately
below the suture, distinctly marked by the growth-striae ; columella lightly
curved, the anterior end slightly deflected to the left, thinly callused, and
with small oblique threadlets corresponding with the adjacent spirals ;
canal short and fairly wide.

Length, 15mm. ; width, 6°25 mm.

Locality: Awamoa. Collected by Marshall.

Type and co-types to be presented to the Wanganui Museum.

There are three examples each varying slightly in the axial sculpture.
With these is another example having very minute close spiral lines, the
axials very feeble, almost suppressed, the sutures apparently not margined,
and the protoconch increasing in girth more rapidly. The two latter
characters are of some importance, but meantime it appears better to
record the form “var. A,”

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vou. LIITI. Prate XVIII.

Fie. 1.—Couthouyia concinna n. sp. Fic. 5.—Cymatium pahiense n. sp.
Hie. 2.—Vermicularia ophiodes n. sp. Fig. 6.—Cypraea sp.
Figs. 3, 4.—Cymatium suteri n. sp. Fias. 7, 8.—Admete maorium n. sp.

Face p. 82.)

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vou. LIII. Peat EX

Fig. 1.—Daphnella varicostata n. sp. Fre. 5.—Odostomia (Pyrgulina) pseudo-
Fies. 2, 3.—Huthria subcallimorpha rugata nN. sp.
n. sp. Fic. 6.—Turbonilla awamoaensis n. sp.

Fic. 4.—EHulimella awamoaensis n. sp. Fic. 7.—Hulima aoteaensis n. sp.

MarSHALL AND Murpocu.—Tertiary Mollusca, 83

Euthria subcallimorpha n. sp. (Plate XIX, figs. 2, 3.)

Shell small, fusiform ; spire equal to or shghtly longer than the aperture ;
sutures impressed, fairly deep; whorls five, the apex missing, convex, the
last rounded at the periphery, thence gradually contracted to the canal ;
sculpture—there are eight low rounded axials, more pronounced on the
spire-whorls, feeble on the base of the last and vanishing towards the canal,
they are rather narrower than the interspaces; the spirals consist of fine
close incised lines, forming lightly raised threadlets on the upper spire-whorls,
and with five or six on the canal more prominent. Aperture ovate, slightly
oblique, narrowed above, below produced into a short open canal; outer
lip sharp and with a number of small denticles within the margin, columella
almost vertical, slightly callused, smooth, beak slightly twisted to the left.

Length, 12 mm. ; width, 5-5 mm. ; length of aperture and canal measured
on the angle, 6 mm.

Locality: Target Gully. Collected by Marshall.

Type to be presented to the Wanganui Museum.

The only example has the axial ribs somewhat rubbed. It may be
distinguished from callimorpha by the absence of the keel on the spire-
whorls, the shoulder not excavated, the finer spiral sculpture, and somewhat
longer canal.

Hemifusus (Mayeria) goniodes Suter.
N.Z. Geol. Surv. Pal. Bull. No. 5, p. 23, pl. 3, figs. 15, 16.

Two examples of this species were obtained at Pahi and agree well with
Suter’s description. The keel on the spire-whorls is well below the middle,
the shoulder sloping and concave, the sutures somewhat impressed, sub-
margined below and with a few small spiral threads, the spiral sculpture
is distinctly developed on the anterior end only; growth-lines are some-
what prominent and appear to indicate a broad shallow sinus on the
shoulder. It appears doubtful if the genus Hemzfusus is best suited for
the species, but better material is necessary to settle the question.

Length (imperfect specimen), 63mm. ; width, 27 mm,

Locality: Pahi. Collected by Marshall.

Eulimella awamoaensis n. sp. (Plate XIX, fig. 4.)

Shell small, subulate, straight, and polished; aperture about one-third
of the total length; sutures distinctly channelled; whorls eight; the
apex of the protoconch broken, it is apparently oblique; whorls flattened,
narrowly subangled a little below the sutures, most marked on the higher
whorls, the last narrowly curved on the periphery and convex below;
sculpture consists of a number of irregularly-disposed feeble axial riblets,
spiral striae very indistinct ; aperture narrow above, outer lip straight,
columella rounded, narrow and straight, basal lip imperfect, apparently
somewhat produced.

Length, 7 mm. ; width, 2-°25mm.; length of aperture, 2 mm.

Locality: Awamoa. Collected by Marshall.

Type to be presented to the Wanganui Museum.

Notr.—In general form the species is near to EH. limbata Suter.

Odostomia (Pyrgulina) pseudorugata n. sp. (Plate XIX, fig. 5.)

Shell small, elongated, narrowly turreted; whorls seven, protoconch
smooth, heterostrophe, nucleus lateral, succeeding whorls slightly convex,

84. Transactions.

subangled a little below the sutures, the latter deeply impressed. Sculpture
consists of about seventeen rounded and slightly inclined - forward axial
ribs, extending across the base and rather narrower than the interspaces ;
these are crossed by fine spiral threads which form minute granules on the
crossings, a stronger and more distinctly nodular cord on the subangle and
a similar cord margining the sutures; there are about five spirals on the
penultimate whorl. Aperture imperfect (outer-lip broken), columella nearly
vertical, callused and with a stout plate above the middle.

Length, 3mm.: width, 1mm. Aperture slightly more than one-third
of the total length.

Locality: Target Gully. Collected by Marshall.

Type to be presented to the Wanganui Museum.

Closely allied to O. rugata Hutton, from which it differs in its narrower
form, slight but distinct nodular angle below the sutures, and the absence
of a pronounced cord on the base ; in O. rugata the basal cord is apparently
always present, although the axials are frequently extended below it.

Turbonilla awamoaensis n. sp. (Plate XIX, fig. 6.)

Shell small, subulate, whorls ten, protoconch missing, flattened or slightly
concave below the sutures, thence convex; sutures slightly impressed and,
on the lower whorls, with one or two fine spiral threads above; whorls
strongly axially ribbed, about fourteen ribs on the penultimate, including
an occasional broader varex, the axials narrower than the interspaces,
slightly flexuous and with a subnodular appearance immediately below the
sutures, absent on the base; the last with a number of smali undulating
spiral threadlets towards the base, obsolete on approaching the columella ;
aperture oval, the basal lip slightly effuse, columella slightly curved, narrowly
and stoutly callused.

Length, 1Omm.; width, 2-75 mm.

Locality : Awamoa. Collected by Marshall.

Type to be presented to the Wanganui Museum.

The sculpture readily distinguishes it from our other Tertiary forms.

Eulima aoteaensis n. sp. (Plate XIX, fig. 7.)

Shell small, subulate, straight, and highly polished ; varices very indis-
tinct, without sculpture excepting the microscopic growth-lines; whorls
eight or nine, almost flat, the sutures oblique and very lightly impressed ;
the aperture about one-third of total length; the apical whorl missing,
the next a little more rounded than the succeeding whorls, the last narrow-
ing and slightly produced at the anterior end; aperture slightly oblique,
very narrow above, lip almost straight, base rounded and slightly effuse ;
the columella almost straight, with a well-defined callus slightly spreading
on the middle area and narrowing to the anterior end.

Length, 65mm. ; width, 1-25mm.; length of aperture, 2mm.

Locality: Target Gully. Collected by Marshall.

Type to be presented to the Wanganui Museum.

This species had been submitted to Suter, and is labelled by him
“ Hulima n. sp.” The form of the aperture, together with the length of
the last whorl, appears to distinguish it from other New Zealand species.

MarsHatt and Murpoca.—Vfossils from Paparoa Rapids. 85

Arr. XI.—Fossils from the Paparoa Rapids, on the Wanganui River.

By P. Marswatt, M.A., D.Sc., F.N.Z.Inst., Hector and Hutton Medallist,
and R. Murpocs#.

| Read before the Wanganui Philosophical Society, 25th October, 1920 ; received by Editor,
31st December, 1920 ; issued separately, 27th June, 1921.]

No complete collection of fossils has yet been recorded from the strata
that crop out along the course of the Wanganui River. For the most
part the strata contain but few fossils, and in those localities where organic
remains are abundant the material in which they are embedded is pebbly,
or it has a concretionary nature, which makes it difficult to extract the
fossils in a condition that allows of exact identification. The most pro-
mising locality that is known at present is probably that of the Paparoa
Rapids, some twenty miles below Taumarunui. Park* was the first
geologist to make any collections here, and he recognized some thirty
species, the nature of which seemed to show that the strata were of a
distinctly lower horizon than any that he found on the coast between
Wanganui and Patea. A visit was paid by one of us to the locality in
January, 1920, with the object of making as complete a collection as time
and circumstances would allow. Two days were spent there, but the
collection that was made did not contain a very large number of species.
At the Paparoa Rapids the strata on the right bank of the river are almost
horizontal, but on the left bank they have been disturbed by an extensive
slip, and have locally a high easterly dip. The fossil- -bearing rock is a
fine, hard, bluish-grey sandstone, slightly concretionary in its nature, and
large fossil shells are very conspicuous in it. The actual material of the
sands is such as might well be derived from the rocks of Maitai age, of
which the main mountain- -ranges of the North Island are composed.

The following is a list of the species which were collected, the Recent
species being marked with an asterisk.

Ancilla sp.; apex only ~ Glycymeris subglobosa Sut.
*Calyptraea novae-zelandiae Less. Inmopsis zitteli Ther.

Chione acuminata Hutt. Luponia aff. ovulatella Tate
*Chione yatei (Gray) *Mactra scalpellum Reeve

Cominella ati. intermedia Sut. | Natica (Polinices) gibbosus Hutt

Conus sp.; a fragment only ~ Panope worthingtoni Hutt.

Corbula pumila Hutt. Paphia curta (Hutt.)

Crassatellites attenuatus (Hutt.) | *Pecten convexus Q. & G.

Crassatellites trailli (Hutt.) Pecten huttoni (Park)

Crepidula gregaria Sow. Struthiolaria cincta Hutt.

Cucullaea worthingtoni Hutt. Surcula att. fusiformis (Hutt.)

Cytherea ensyi Hutt. Turbo afi. superbus Zitt.

Dentalium solidum Hutt. | Turritella semiconcava Sut.
*Divaricella cumingi (Ad. & Ang.) | Verconella nodosa var. ; not Recent
*Dosinia anus (Phil.) _ Verconella aff. dilatata; fragment
*Dosinia subrosea (Gray) only

Epitonium lyratum (Zitt.) Voluta sp. ; not Recent

Gi peegmer is cordata (Heat )

* J. ParKx, Rep. Geol. lon during 1886-87, p. 173, 1887.

86 Transactions.

There are only thirty-four species in this list, and many of them are
represented by fragmentary material only, or they are filled with a hard
and tough matrix. The hinge-teeth and apertures of many of the species
are obscured, and this makes the identification a little uncertain. Only
seven of the species are certainly Recent, and the percentage of Recent
species therefore falls as low as 21. The small size of the collection, the
fact that large species only were in a condition to be collected, and the
uncertainty of identification in some cases make it unsafe to rely too closely
on this percentage in correlating the strata with those of other localities
in New Zealand.

The nature of the mollusca points rather to the Target Gully horizon,
for there are only six species that do not occur there, and these species
are found in horizons of much the same position near Oamaru or in the
Trelissick Basin. On the other hand, the fauna of this stratum is of a
distinctly older type than that of any of the coastal localities of the
district in which we have collected fossils up to the present time.

Art, XIl.—Tertiary Rocks near Hawera.

By P. Marswat, M.A., D.S8c., F.N.Z.Inst., Hector and Hutton Medallist,
and R. Murpocu.

[Read before the Wanganui Philosophical Society, 25th October, 1920 ; received by Editor,
31st December, 1920; issued separately, 27th June, 1921.]

In the last volume of the Transactions of the New Zealand Institute we
published lists of fossils from various localities on the coast-line to the
north-west of Wanganui. During the past year we have been able to
make collections on the beach at Hawera, some twenty miles farther along
the coast in the north-west direction. Throughout this distance the rocks
are of the same general nature as they are near Wanganui—in other words,
micaceous sands and clays (the papa rock). If anything, the material is
rather more sandy on the average than it is farther south. There is
perhaps rather less mica, and black grains are rather more numerous among
the quartz-grains. The strike of the strata changes a good deal. As
stated in our former paper, the strike between Castlecliff and Nukumaru is,
on the average, 70°. By the time Patea is reached it is as much as 100°,
and still farther north, at the mouth of the Tangahoe Stream, on the coast
opposite Mokoia, it is 145°. This shows clearly that there is a gradual
swing in the strike as one proceeds to the north-west. The dip is always
to the south-west and is always slight, and has an average of about 4°.
The direction of the strike and dip as related to that of the coast is
such that older and older beds are exposed as one journeys north until the
mouth of the Tangahoe is reached. At this point the trend of the coast
is parallel to the strike of the strata, and as one goes still farther north
younger and younger strata again begin to make their appearance. About
500 ft. of strata separate the lowest horizon three miles north of Waipipi
from the horizon at the mouth of the Tangahoe Stream. The Waihi beach

MarsHaLL AND Murpocu.—T'ertiary Rocks near Hawera. 87

is five miles to the north of the mouth of the Tangahoe, and the horizon
exposed on the beach at that point is about 100 ft. higher than the lowest
herizon at the Tangahoe mouth, and is therefore 400 ft. lower than the
Waipipi horizon, or, in other words, 4,200 ft. below the highest beds at
Castlecliff.

The great regularity of the stratification which is so noticeable to the
south-east of Waipipi is just as noticeable in the strata exposed along the
coast-line to the north-west of that place. There is no unconformity as
far as our observations went, and there is no evidence of a stratigraphical
disconformity. The similarity, too, of the molluscan faunas in the localities
that have been mentioned is also so great as to show clearly that there is
a palaeontological continuity.

Fossits From HAWERA.

Ancilla depressa (Sow.) Mactra scalpellum Reeve

Anomia huttoni Sut. *Melina zealandica Sut.

Arca novae-zelandiae EK. A. Smith | *Miltha zelandiae Marshall and Mur-
Atrina zelandica (Gray) doch

Calliostoma pellucidum (Val.) *Natica ovata Hutt.

Calliostoma selectum (Chemn.) | *Natica sagena (Sut.)

Calyptraea novae-zelandiae var. in-

Nuculana bellula (A. Ad.)

flata (Hutt.) | *Olivella neozelanica (Hutt.)
*Cardium spatiosum Hutt. _ Ostrea angasi Sow.
*Chione chiloensis Phil. Ostrea cucullata Born = corrugata
*Chione chiloensis var. truncata Sut. Hutt
Chione mesodesma (Q. & G.) | *Ostrea ingens Zitt.
Chione yatei (Gray) Panope zelandica Q. & G.
*Crassatellites aff. trailli (Hutt.) | *Paphia curta (Hutt.)
*Crepidula gregaria Sow. —*Pecten semiplicatus Hutt.
Crepidula monoxyla (Less.) *Pecten triphooki Zitt.
Cytherea oblonga (Hanley) _ Pecten zelandiae Gray
*Dentalium pareorense Pilsbry and *Phalium fibratum Marshall and
Sharp Murdoch
*Dentalium solidum Hutt. | Protocardia pulchella (Gray)
Divaricella cumingt (Ad. & Ang.) | Psammobia stangeri Gray
Dosinia lambata (Gould) | *Struthiolaria canaliculata Zitt.
Dosinia subrosea (Gray) *Struthiolaria zelandiae Marshall and
*Fulgoraria morgani Marshall and | Murdoch
Murdoch | Struthiolaria aff. papulosa (Mart.)
*Fulgoraria sp.; not Recent | Thais aft. lacunosa (Brug.)
*Rusinus aft. spiralis aff. dentatus Turritella carlottae Watson
(Hutt.) | Turritella rosea Q. & G.
Glycymeris laticostata (Q. & G.) | Turritella symmetrica Hutt.
*Glycymeris subglobosa Sut. _ Venericardia purpurata (Desh.)
*TLima waipipiensis Marshall and | Venericardia unidentata (Basterot)
Murdoch Verconella dilatata (Q. & G.)

*Lucinida levifoliata Marshall and Verconella mandarina (Duclos)
Murdoch _ Verconella nodosa (Mart.)

Macoma edgari Iredale _ Lenatia acinaces (Q. & G.)

Macrocallista multistriata (Sow.)

The species marked with an asterisk are extinct. There are sixty-one
species in this list, of which twenty-five are extinct: thus the percentage
of extinct species is 41.

88 : Transactions.

Our examination of the coast-line between Wanganui and the Wai-
ngongoro has now proceeded far enough to allow.us to discuss various
geological theories in the tight of the facts that have so far been disclosed.
We have now traversed the coast-line for nearly the whole distance of fifty
miles, and the following Opinions appear to us to be well established :—

(j.) The series of rocks represents a period of continuous marine
deposition.

(2.) The climate during this period of deposition was at no time colder
than at the present, but, on the other hand, during the greater
part of the time conditions were distinctly more genial.

(3.) There is no evidence of any sudden addition to the marine molluscan
fauna whilst the deposition was in progress.

(1.) ‘The first of these opinions has to be supported from the palaeonto-
logical, stratigraphical, and lithological facts that have been observed.
From the palaeontological standpoint the evidence at first sight seems to
be in favour of a decided break between the faunas of the two extremes—
Castleclifi and Whakino. So greatly do the faunas in these two localities
differ from one another that any geologist who saw the Castlecliff fauna
at one time and that of Whakino—Waihi near Hawera at another, without
examining any of the intermediate localities, would unhesitatingly come
to the opinion that they represented different geological periods. It
is, of course, true that several identical species occur in the two
localities; but it is also true that the dominant species in the one
locality are either absent from the fauna of the other or are there
reduced to an insignificant proportion. Collections that have been
made. at intervening points, from two of which we have already
published lists, show, however, a clear connection between the two
divergent faunas. We have found no locality where the change in
the faunas is so marked as to prove that there is a break in the palaeonto-
logical succession. The locality that we have found to be most suggestive
of such a break is at a point three-quarters of a mile to the south of
the Nukumaru boat-landing. Here we have found the last specimens
of Melina zealandica, Lutraria solida, Cytherea enysi, Lucinida levifoliata,
Mesodesma crassa, and Strutholaria frazeri. These species, however, do
not all disappear at the same horizon, but in a thickness of rock that
measures about 100 ft. There is also the additional fact that the horizon
in which all these species occur contains also as many as 76 per cent. of
Recent species, and the fauna is clearly related in the most definite manner
to that in the series of rocks that lies above it. For these reasons we do
not regard this horizon as indicating in any sense a palaeontological break.
On the other hand, there must be a most definite reason for the important
faunal change which is so conspicuous at this horizon. It is our belief that
this change is due to climatic conditions, or, at any rate, to a most important
change in the temperature of the ocean-water which washed these shores
at that time. The species that continued to exist after this time were,
however, as varied, and indicate a temperature of-sea-water at least as high
as that of the present Cock Strait. We are inclined to think—though on
this point there is room for much divergent opinion—that, on the one hand,
the Waipipi series and the Whakino series contain a fauna that is, from
the percentage of Recent species, and from the very nature of the fauna,
perhaps equivalent to the Upper Miocene of Europe ; but since it is probable
that in an isolated country like New Zealand faunal change was relatively
slow, it is undesirable, at the present time at Jeast, to place much reliance

MarsHALL AND Murpocu.—Tertiary Rocks near Hawera. 89

on any such correlation. On the other hand, the Castlecliff series contains
a fauna with such a high percentage of Recent species that it is in all
probability more or less equivalent to the Upper Phocene of Europe.
While we think that the extreme faunas show as great a difference as is
indicated by these periods, we also think that, divergent as they are, a
complete transition occurs in the strata between them from the one fauna
to the other.

This opinion as to the continuity of the rock -series is also strongly
supported by stratigraphical evidence, which may be summarized under
three heads :—

(a.) We can nowhere find an important stratigraphical break in the
line of cliffs, which is almost continuous throughout the distance. There
is, of course, a great deal of irregularity in the stratification, due to
tidal scour and to current-bedding, but the cause and nature of this is
at once apparent. The only place where we have found anything more
important is at a locality about two miles and a half to the north of Kai Iwi.
In this place, as mentioned in a previous paper, there is clearly an old land-
surface, which is indicated by a thin deposit of beach-worn pebbles, a layer
of carbonaceous matter, strata penetrated by roots, and borings of littoral
mollusca. On the other hand, this structure is not associated with any
distinct change in the species of mollusca, and it must, in our opinion, be
regarded as due to a merely temporary and local emergence of a coast-
line that was otherwise undergoing a submergence about as rapid as the
accumulation of sediment for a long period of time.

(b.) We have found no sudden change of dip and strike that has
extended through a thickness of more than 100 ft. of sediment. Through-
out the strata that are exposed on the coast-line the strike and dip are
remarkably constant. The strike swings round gradually from 85° at
Castlecliff to 125° near Whakino, but, except for a few local variations,
there is no sudden change. Perhaps the most marked of these sudden
variations is that which occurs at the mouth of the Waipipi Stream, but
in a few hundred yards along the beach the normal strike is restored.

(c.) Lithologically the sediments are very similar throughout. In
those few localities where there are embedded pebbles they are always
fragments of submetamorphic rocks of the nature of greywackes. Where
the sediments are of a finer nature they are always bluish-grey in colour,
and contain a great abundance of quartz and of muscovite mica. The
lithological nature of this fine sediment is so similar throughout that there
is little doubt that it has all been derived from one and the same source.
This conclusion points to the probability that the sediments were all
deposited while the areas of land and sea remained approximately the
same. and consequently there is a presumption that all the sediments were
deposited during the same geological period.

It may therefore be taken as a fact that palaeontological, stratigraphical,
and lithological evidence alike support the belief that the series of rocks
exposed on the coast-line between Wanganui and Hawera represents a period
of continuous sedimentation which in New Zealand geology may be said
to belong to the upper part of that great geological system which we, by
somewhat extending the classification of Captain Hutton, have called the
Oamaru system. We are of opinion that the Wanganui system must
now be regarded as having lost its individuality, and that it must in future
be looked upon as the upper strata of the great Oamaru system. We
consider it possible that the period of deposition of these rocks extended

90 Transactions.

over the period that in Europe elapsed between the Upper Miocene and
the Upper Pliocene, though we do not wish to insist upon this correlation.
It appears to us that under the peculiar conditions in New Zealand
which necessarily resulted from the prolonged isolation of this small land
the rate of organic change, so far as it is shown in the marine mollusca,
does not give a very satisfactory basis for the correlation of the New
Zealand sediments with those of Europe, so far at least as the Tertiary
rocks are concerned.

(2.) Climate: If it be accepted that the continuity of the strata in
the Wanganui coast is as precise as has been described, it at once becomes
evident that climatic conditions in New Zealand have been warm or mild
during the whole period of time that was occupied in the deposition of
the sediment. It has also been suggested that.this lapse of time is more
or less equivalent to the interval between the Upper Miocene and the
Upper Phocene in Europe. Whether this is the case or not, it may be
taken as certain that the period called by Hutton the “ older Pliocene ”’
is comprehended in this interval. All who have studied New Zealand
geology are aware that Hutton was of opinion that the great extension
of the glaciers of New Zealand occurred during this Upper Pliocene. We
hold that the evidence which we have been able to bring together shows
conclusively that the climate of New Zealand during this Upper Pliocene
period was at the least as genial as it is now, and that there can have
been no glacial extension relative to the present sea-level during that period.
There is, on the other hand, much evidence that the warm climate of the
early Tertiary has become a good deal colder during the late Tertiary in
this country. At least three genera which indicate warm conditions—
Melina, Olivella, and Miltha—have now disappeared. In many other
genera species of large size have been replaced by others of much smaller
dimensions. Large species of Melina are at present restricted to the warmer
tropical waters, and it may well be held that Olovella and the large species
of Multha indicate the prevalence of warm climatic conditions. This con-
clusion is enforced by the occurrence of large species of Cardium, Cytherea,
Pecten, Ostrea, Paphia, Natica, and Dentalium. It becomes evident that
climatic conditions in New Zealand between the Upper Pliocene and the
Upper Miocene, so far as these periods can be judged by the nature of the
marine mollusca now exposed on the cliffs of the north coast of Cook
Strait, were never colder than now, and during the greater part of that
time they were a great deal more genial. There is also evidence that
during at least the earlier portion of this interval the climate was a great
deal warmer than it is at the present day.

(3.) Change in fauna: We regard it as a fact that during the long period
of time that is represented by these sediments there has been no sudden
appearance of a new fauna. Everywhere the fauna contained in each
separate stratum may reasonably be regarded as the lineal descendant of
that in lower strata, though in each stratum there are perhaps a few
species or genera that are found sparingly elsewhere. In no case, how-
ever, is there such a change as to justify the opinion that a foreign element
has been introduced into the previous fauna. This idea of the continuity
of the marine molluscan fauna of the younger Tertiary rocks of New
Zealand may be carried a little further, for it is a fact that the fauna
of the highest beds that are exposed differs but slightly from the marine
molluscan fauna of the present day. It is certainly a fact that no
additional foreign element distinguishes the Recent fauna from that which
is contained in the Castlecliff beds.

MarsHALL AND Murpocu.—Tertiary Rocks near Hawera. 91

It has frequently been remarked before by one of us when speaking
of the molluscan fauna of the earlier portion of the Oamaru system—
notably that of Target Gully—that it was distinctly richer than that of
the present day. It is hardly correct to make this statement in speaking
of any comparison between the fauna of the Waipipi series and that of
the Castlecliff series. The fauna that has been collected from the former
locality up to the present time is not very extensive, and it is notably
wanting in the smaller species. These facts effectively prevent a complete
comparison being made. It can, however, be safely said that, while the
Castlecliff fauna contains a large number of species that are not found
at Waipipi. most of these additional species have been found elsewhere in
Tertiary rocks of greater age than those of the Waipipi series.

During the time that elapsed between the Waipipi and the Castlecliff
periods of deposition, perhaps Upper Miocene to Upper Pliocene, a period
elsewhere estimated as equal to a lapse of 690,000 vears, an important
change took place in the fauna. This change was not the result of the
introduction or addition of new species or of new genera, but was due to
the extinction of some genera which had been of importance up to the
middle of the period, and of numerous species that had given a definite
character to the earlier fauna.

As has already been remarked. the molluscan fauna of the Castlecliff
series differs in few respects from the Recent fauna. It is probable that
the difference is even less than a comparison of the lists would suggest,
for the Castlecliff beds were deposited at a depth that approached 100
fathoms, and we have at present an incomplete knowledge of the fauna of
the New Zealand sea-floor at that depth. Dredgings that were made
outside the Great Barrier in 1904 brought to light several species that had
previously been collected in the Castlecliff series, and had been thought
to be extinct. From our work on the mollusca of the beds on the Wanganui
coast-line we consider that we have a knowledge of at least the main features
of the New Zealand marine mollusca from the Upper Miocene to the present
day. Such a knowledge must shed an important light on theories that
have been advanced in regard to the relations or land connections between
New Zealand and other countries during this lapse of time. A number of
eminent authorities have written on this subject, but at the present moment
we wish to restrict ourselves to those who have made specific statements
in regard to these land connections during the period with which we have
dealt—namely, from the Upper Miocene to the present day. Hutton* has
definitely stated that during the older Pliocene New Zealand was in direct
communication with New Guinea. The statement is based mainly on the
occurrence of Diplodon aucklandicus in lignite-beds at the Dunstan, in Otago,
a species which is said by Hutton to have its nearest ally in New Guinea.
We consider it to be impossible that a continental extension of such a mag-
nitude should have occurred without having the greatest effect on the
molluscan fauna of New Zealand at that time, and of this we have not been
able to find any trace. Marshallf has stated that the great Pleistocene
elevation connected New Zealand with some of the northern tropical
islands, and provided also a shallow-water connection with Antarctica.’
This statement was based on older opinions of Hutton. It is sufficient

*F. W. Hutton, Index Faunae Novae Zealandiae, p. 18, Dulau and Co., 1904.
7 P. Marsuati, New Zealand and Adjacent Islands, p. 49, Carl Winter, Heidelberg,
1912.

92 Transactions.

to say that a comparison of the mollusca of the Castlecliff beds with the
Recent mollusca shows definitely that New Zealand did not at that time
receive additions of any importance whatever to its marine molluscan
fauna, and therefore that any extension of the area of New Zealand at
that time did not in any way impair its isolation.

Park* has stated that during the Pleistocene the area Wor New Zealand
was many times greater than now, that the whole of the South Island and
most of the North Island was elaciated, and in a map he shows the land
extending to New Caledonia The general similarity between the fauna
of the Castlecliff beds and the Recent fauna goes far to disprove the idea
of glaciation of this district, while there is no evidence known to us, so far
as the mollusca are concerned, that would show a Pleistocene extension
of New Zealand to New Caledonia. Hutton in various other publications
urged not only that New Zealand was greatly extended during the early
Pliocene, but also that it was heavily glaciated at that time. It is probable
that in the rock-series that we have described the Nukumaru series is about
the age of the early Pliocene. In these beds we have at once a proof that
this part of New Zealand was not elevated at that time, and we also have
distinct proof that the climate was no colder, but was probably a good
deal warmer than at the present day.

There are, however, clear proofs that New Zealand, or at least this part
of the country, was considerably elevated at the close of the time of deposi-
tion of the Castlecliff beds. Two of these may be quoted. Artesian wells
in the lower valley of the Wanganui River bed have reached a depth of
400 ft. without passing through the alluvial matter that the river has
deposited. The valley of the Waingongoro River had a bed that extended
to an unknown depth below the present sea-level, and had a width of about
half a mile at the present beach-level. In addition to these facts, the
strata of the series of rocks that has been described have all been elevated
and eroded off to a uniform level before the next series of rocks was
deposited. This upper rock-series rests in all cases unconformably on those
that we have described, lying directly on the Whakino-Waihi beds in the
extreme north of the district at which we have worked. The general occur-
rence of the sediments suggests that all the overlying beds were removed by
erosion before these Pleistocene sediments were deposited. As to the precise
age of this upper series of rocks we have at present no exact information.
They frequently contain a large number of molluscan fossils at the base,
but we have seen no extinct species of mollusca among them, and it is
probable that they are approximately equivalent to the Pleistocene of
Kurope. Thomson has lately proposed to apply the name “‘ Hawera
series’ to them. There is no particular objection to this, though the term
“ Pleistocene”. has long been used in New Zealand, and it has not yet
been shown that they are not a reasonable equivalent of the Huropean
Pleistocene.

It is perhaps advisable to recapitulate that after the Castlecliff series
had been deposited there was a prolonged period of moderate elevation
during which a great deal of erosion took place. Though this elevation
was considerable, it was not great enough to bring the New Zealand area
sufficiently close to any other country to allow of the introduction of any
new features into the marine molluscan fauna of New Zeaiand.

The work that has been done in recent years on the fossil and Recent
mollusca of New Zealand is now of sufficient amount and importance

DARK. eis of I New Zealand, p. 14, 1910

MarsHaLtn anp Murpocu.—Tertiary Rocks near Hawera. 93

to justify a consideration of the indications that they offer regarding the
relations of New Zealand to other land areas in past time. It is evident
that an accurate knowledge of the Recent fauna is of special importance
when one is dealing with the main facts of the Tertiary geology of this
country. Sir James Hector some forty years ago said, “‘ An accurate
knowledge of the affinities and distribution of the Recent shells of New
Zealand is a very necessary element in the geological survey of this
country.’* The application of this principle is as essential now as it was
then. Hutton, in the Introduction of his Manual ef 1880,7 states that the
better the fauna of New Zealand becomes known, the more prominently
does it stand out as distinet from that of any other country, and this is
particularly the case with its shells. Again, in his Introduction to the Index
Faunae Novae Zealandiae,t he summarizes the elements of our fauna, points
out the affinities with other faunal regions, and applies the test of geological
evidence to indicate the time of their appearance in our area and the
probable source from which they were derived. Hutton’s review of our
fauna, however much we may differ from many of his conclusions, does
most distinctly emphasize its ancient character and the long period of
isolation that is needed to account for many of its peculiarities.

Palaeontology in New Zealand has within recent years made a very
considerable advance, more especially in our knowledge of the earlier Tertiary
faunas, though there is still a rich field for further research. Hnough,
however, is now known to simplify many of the difficult problems that
beset Hutton in 1904,

At the first view it may appear that our molluscan fauna contains a
very considerable Australian element. According to Suter§ there are about
140 species common to both, a number that is about equal to one-eighth
of the total species that he records. Recent investigations show that many
of his determinations cannot be upheld, that others are very doubtful, and
others again, such as Tonna, are really varietal and not strictly identical
with the Australian species. But, admitting that there is a considerable
number of species common to both, including the Cymatiidae, a group of
large shells every New Zealand species of which occurs in Australian waters,
it is not necessary to imagine a bridge across the Tasman Sea, or even to
demand a close approach of the two land areas. The larvae of the marine
mollusca are free-swimming creatures. In some species this stage in their
hfe-history is brief, but in others it is of some length. Myriads of them
are, of course, carried out to sea and perish, but when aided by ocean cur-
rents and other favourable conditions they are able to travel long distances.
The southern portion of Australia, or at least Tasmania, may be said to
he in the region of the “ roaring forties,’ and the southern portion of the
Tasman Sea is constantly swept for a portion of the year by hard and
prolonged westerly gales, and with this aid from time to time some of the
larvae would be certain to reach our shores. We might reasonably expect
a larger and more important Australian element in our molluscan fauna
than we actually have. It is obvious that very few of the species that
survived the journey across the Tasman Sea would succeed in establishing
themselves in the face of a new set of natural enemies, as well as changes
in climatic and physical conditions. If the accession to our fauna had been

*In Hutton’s Manual of the New Zealand Mollusca, Preface, p. iii, 1880.

+ [bid., p. ii.

Hal W. Hutton, Index Faunae Novae Zealandiae, Introduction, pp. 13-19, 1904.
§ H. Suter, Vanual of the New Zealand Mollusca, pp. v, vi, 1913.

94 Transactions.

the result of a colonization across shallow water, or from a land close at
hand, we should have expected to find a compact assembly, and not the
more or less scattered fragments that are actually found.

Apart from the Australian element, the marine mollusca possess no
characters suggestive of recent accessions from other faunal regions, for
the Antarctic element is very largely a relic from older geological times.

The terrestrial and fresh-water mollusca require for their dispersal a
close approach of lands, if not an actual land bridge. It is true that
occasionally marine currents may bring some species to oceanic islands,
but if these were introduced in some far-off period it would be extremely
-difficult, if not impossible, to be certain as to their origin.

Of the land mollusca which have been grouped under the Flammulinidae,
Endodonta and Laoma comprise by far the greater number of our snails.
They are ancient inhabitants and a primitive race. The geographic range
of the group is almost world-wide, but palaeontology so far has found very
little record of them. Pilsbry* remarks that ‘“ the Carboniferous of Nova
Scotia has afforded a small helicoid which in form and sculpture can only
be compared with such Endodontidae as Pyramidula or Charopa.” In
support of our belief in the great antiquity of these helicoids, it may be
pointed out that a number of genera appear to have developed in our area
and are restricted to it, and that no New Zealand species has been recorded
from any other fauna] region. Of other groups, the Athoracophoridae may
perhaps have been developed in our region. The Rhytidae, which include
our large carnivorous snails, are of very ancient lineage. The operculate
group is in great measure peculiar to our fauna. Hedley+ remarks on this
when he discussed the relation of the fauna and flora of Australia to that
of New Zealand. Partly to account for the dispersal of Placostylus Hedley
constructed his Melanesian Plateau.t If that land area or archipelago be
granted a great antiquity it would appear to provide all the necessary
communications even for the most primitive forms.

The groups of fresh-water mollusca are in perfect accord with the land
mollusca. Gundlackia, Potamopyrgus, Lymnaea, Isidora, and Melanopsis
are all of ancient lineage, while Diplodon is recorded from our Cretaceous
beds at the Malvern Hills. Hedley.§ writing on the surviving refugees of
ancient Antarctic life, discusses many interesting problems of distribution.
He regards their advent as taking place by circuitous routes at wide intervals
of time, and thinks that they are of great antiquity.

In our younger rocks the percentage of Recent species is very high,
and in making comparisons between these we prefer to use the names of
definite horizons where the species have actually been collected, rather
than period-names, which may often involve incorrect correlation.

For the first of these we select the blue clays and sands of the coastal
cliffs near Castlecliff. The fauna of these beds differs from the Recent fauna
only in the presence of Ataxocerithium, and in the absence of a few obscure
genera and a few groups whose habitat is between tide-level or in very
shallow water. ‘The total of extinct species is here not more than 7 per
cent.

In the Kai Iwi beds, three-quarters of a mile south of the stream, the
fauna presents no distinctive features from that at Castlecliff, except

* Manual of Conchology, vol. 9, p. xxxix, 1894.

} Natural Science, vol. 3, p. 189, 1893.

t Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., vol. 7, ser. 2, pp. 337-39, 1893.
§ Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., vol. 29, pp. 278-86, 1895.

MARSHALL AND Murpocu.—Tertiary Rocks near Hawera. 95

perhaps a slightly higher percentage of extinct forms. Nukumaru beach,
from the boat-landing to a point one mile to the south of it, has a fauna
that shows a somewhat marked difference, not only in the greater percentage
of extinct forms and in the occurrence of the genera Melina and Lutraria,
but the assembly of species has changed notably. Some of the Recent
species are in great abundance, others have distinctly decreased, and others
are uniformly distributed ; and in addition to this several are characterized
by their unusually large size.

The Waipipi beds, from a quarter of a mile south of the stream to three
miles to the north of it, show a still more marked change of fauna. In
addition to the genera Melina and Lutrarva, there are Crassatellites, Muiltha,
Cardium and Olivella, a difference in the assembly of Volutes, Dentalium,
Pecten, and Struthiolaria. The abundance of the individuals of extinct
species is somewhat pronounced as compared with the Recent, and the
large species are in particular abundance.

The Whakino-Waihi beds, on the coast near Hawera, have a fauna
closely similar to that of the Waipipi beds. The percentage of extinct
species is only slightly greater, but there is a difference in the prominent
species. Lutraria has not been found; Melina, Cardiuwm, and Crassatellites
are scarce, while Pecten, Natica and Dentalium are in great abundance ;
Chione chiloensis is not uncommon. Of the Recent species, Atrina zelandica
and Ostrea angasi are in great abundance.

It has already been pointed out that from Castlecliff to Waipipi there
is an unbroken stratified series. We now extend that series to Waihi, and
note that within its limits we see a most marked faunal change within a
continuous series of deposits. Had it so happened that the beds that lie
between the different horizons that are mentioned above had not been
preserved, and that the several fragments had been so disturbed that
stratigraphical evidence was practically valueless, palaeontology would then
have been the only guide to their respective ages. It would have been
evident that Castlecliff and Kai Iwi were essentially of the same age. The
Nukumaru beds, on the other hand, might well have been regarded as a
formation of a different period, and in the Waipipi strata the faunal change
is so great that they would probably have been assigned a greater antiquity
than they actually possess. On the other hand, the Whakino-Waihi beds
are so similar in fauna to those at Waipipi that they would probably have
been placed in the same horizon, whereas they are actually separated by
several hundred feet of strata. The change in the fauna was slow between
the Waihi-Whakino and Waipipi stages, and between the Kai Iwi and
Castlechiff stages, but it was relatively rapid between the Waipipi and
Nukumaru stages. This rapidity, we think, marks a great change in the
physical or climatic conditions of the time.

It may fairly be claimed that there were no important accessions to the
fauna during the Castlecliff to Whakino-Waihi period of deposition, for,
as stated previously, the majority of the Recent genera are represented,
and usually by Recent species, and the extinct species that occur in any
abundance have already been recognized in earlier formations in New
Zealand. Even genera such as Couthouyia, Ataxocerithium, and Melina
occur at Target Gully, and a fragment of Muiltha, perhaps similar to the
Waipipi species, lias been collected at Mount Donald.

While.the Waihi beds are the lowest of the unbroken series of deposits
on this coast, and while the palaeontology of the Tawhiti beds as recorded
by Marshall, and the Ormond beds as recorded by Henderson and Ongley,
indicate a fairly close relationship, we cannot claim that the one would

96 Transactions.

directly succeed the other. It is, however, perfectly clear that there is a
far closer relationship between the Waihi and Tawhiti beds than between
the Waihi and Castlecliff beds. The change from the Tawhiti to the Waihi
beds does not in any way suggest that elements of a new fauna were
introduced between these periods. On the other hand, the Tawhiti fauna
is as Closely related to the fauna of Target Gully as it is to the Waihi fauna.
And, again, there is no indication of the introduction of new elements to
the marine molluscan fauna during that interval of time.

The various lists that have now been published of the mollusca of
many Tertiary horizons near Oamaru enable us to carry this review a
little further. These lists appear to indicate a gradually changing fauna ;
nowhere does there seem to be an inrush of additional types. The
genera that we have in our marine mollusca now were practically all pre-
sent at the time that the Target Gully beds were deposited. The fauna
of that time was certainly richer than the present one. The change that
has taken place since then has been of the nature of reduction rather than
of addition. We have, then, been forced to the conclusion that from
the time the Wangaloa and Hampden beds were deposited until the
present day the marine mollusca of New Zealand has shown a gradual
deveiopment without any important additions at any time from other
fauna regions. This, of course, implies that New Zealand has been com-
pletely isolated throughout this long interval of time.

The genera Murex and Trophon, that Hutton* refers to as having
reached New Zealand from the Australian region in Pliocene time, have
now been collected from Target Gully. The statement of Hutton that
Typhis is of Kocene occurrence in Australia and Miocene in New Zealand
needs revision, for the Australian Eocene is now generally classed -as
Miocene, while Typhis occurs as low as the Wharekuri beds in New Zealand.
Further and more careful comparison of Australian and New Zealand speci-
mens of Pectunculus laticostatus is necessary before any conclusions can
be drawn from the time of appearance of the species in the Tertiary rocks
of these countries. Dosinia greyi bas been recorded from Wangaloa by
Marshall. It is thus clear that the palaeontclogical proofs brought forward
by Hutton in 1904 of a Tertiary land connection with Australia fall to the
ground in the light of the fuller information that has since been acquired.

It has been frequently suggested that the resemblance between the
Miocene fossils of South America and those of New Zealand is so great
that it proves that those lands were either actually connected in the middle
Tertiary or were separated by a narrow stretch of water only.t Accurate
comparisons have shown that many of these identifications were inaccurate.
and the number of species common to the two lands has now been reduced
by Suter to six only. It is probable, however, that still further com-
parisons are required. It is, at any rate, noticeable that the six species
referred to do not occur in the same Tertiary horizon in New Zealand,
and that half of them occur in our lowest Tertiaries (Wangaloa and
Hampden), which are probably equivalent to the Eocene of Europe.
Recent work has shown that it is very noticeable that the Cretaceous
fossils of Seymour Island are far more similar to the Cretaceous of New
Zealand than the Tertiary fossils of the same locality are to those of this
country. The Navidad and South Patagonian Tertiary fossils also are

+ C. Cuitron, Subantarctic Islands of New Zealand, vol. 2, p. 805, Government
Printer, Wellington, 1909.

GILBERT.—Geology of Waikato Heads District. 97

Art. XIII.—Geology of the Waikato Heads District and the Kawa
Unconformity.

By M. J. Grrpert, M.Sc. (Rev. Brother FEreus), Sacred Heart College,
Auckland.

Communicated by J. A. Bartrum.

[Read before the Auckland Institute, 15th December, 1920 ; received by Editor, 31st December ,
1920 ; issued separately, 27th June, 1921.]

Plates XX, XXI.

CONTENTS.

Introduction.

Previous Work in the District.

The Coastal Area between Manukau Entrance and Waikato River.

The Area East of the Sand-dunes.
A Suggestion of Origin of the Sand-dunes and of the Lignite-beds.
Sub-recent Oscillations of Level: Origin of Manukau Harbour.
Mutual Relations of the Areas North and South of the Waikato River: an
Hypothesis of Major Faulting.
The Area South of the Waikato.
General Description.
Drainage of the Southern Area.
The Older-mass of the Southern Area.
The Marine Fossiliferous Shales or Belemnite-beds.
The Fossil-plant Beds.
Age of the Older-mass.
General History of the Coastal Area South of the Waikato River.
Relation between the Mesozoic Older-mass and the Younger-mass (or Notocene }
Beds.
The Younger-mass (or Notocene) Beds.
The Kawa Section.
Order of Ascending Sequence.
The Kawa Pumice-bed in Relation to the Waikato River.

Structural Plateau near the Coast.

Slipped Country above Waiwiri Beach.

Sinkholes.

Microscopic Characters of some of the Rocks: The Kawa Basalt; Waitangi Bay
Basalt; Pakau Basalt; Algal Limestone; Glauconitic Limestone; Marly
Limestone ; Globigerina Limestone.

Summary and Conclusions.

INTRODUCTION.

THE entrance to the Manukau Harbour and the lower part of the Waikato
River separate three notably distinct topographic and structural regions.
That to the north of the Manukau is characterized by a broad range of
hills of resistant rock, deeply dissected by streams. The middle area is
constituted by a line of ancient sand-dunes facing the ocean, and is con-
siderably worn by streams, moderately low country rising behind it to
the east. The third area, that south of the Waikato River, is a broad
minutely-dissected upland of more varied structure than the others, and
it, with the second or middle area, forms the subject of this paper.

Previous WorkK IN THE DISTRICT.

Hochstetter (1867) in 1859 collected fossils from the Waikato South
Head, as well as from the plant-beds near Oruarangi Point, some four

4— Trans

98 Transactions.

REFERENCE

Mesozoic

Lp

eee
ZL Seat :

aang
HIN
oe

aA

y
iy

a
ae

Fie. 1.—Geological map of Waikato Heads district.

GiLBERT.—Geology of Waikato Heads District. 99

miles farther south, and classed the beds containing them as Neocomian.
The sand-dune area was briefly described by him, and the structure illus-
trated by a section across the sand-dunes near the northern end.

Park (1910) alludes to the dune formation of the sandhills, and further
calls attention to the oxidation of the ironsand into hard bands of limonite.

Cox in 1876 journeyed south along the coast from the mouth of the
Waikato River, but so hurriedly that he appears to have failed to observe
a conspicuous unconformity in the Tertiary strata at the Kawa Stream
(fig. 11) and a less noticeable one at the Waikawau Stream (fig. 9), though
in his report he expressed the conviction that an unconformity existed
at the base of the beds he called the “‘ Cardita beds,’ and classed as
lowest Eocene in age.

Hutton (1867) had reported on the same district, and would seem to
be misunderstood by Cox (1877, p. 16) when the latter quotes him as
classing the Cardita beds with the Waitematas, in which he distinctly
says he could find no fossils (1867, p. 16). Cox’s report is somewhat
confusing.

One of the most valuable contributions to the knowledge of the geology
of Port Waikato district is that by the late E. A. Newell Arber (1917),
who allocated the plant-beds of the Mesozoic sequence to the Neocomian.
A feature of particular interest is his discovery of leaves of the angio-
sperms Artocarpidium Arberi Laur. and Phyllites sp., thought by him to be
amongst the earliest dicotyledons yet discovered, and, as Dr. L. Laurent
says, “it is hardly possible to attach too much importance to the
discoveries.”

Bartrum (19198) described a fossiliferous bed at the Kawa Creek, some
fourteen miles south of Waikato Heads. He published a list of fossils col-
lected from the bed, and described six new species discovered there by
him (Bartrum, 19194).

Almost the only other reference of any importance to the geology of
the area studied is one by Bartrum (1917) to the discovery of several
types of volcanic rocks in pebbles of conglomerates in the Mesozoic strata.*

Tur CoastaL AREA BETWEEN MANUKAU ENTRANCE AND WAIKATO RIVER.

From the Manukau Harbour to the Waikato River, in a belt averaging
five to six miles in width, stretch now deforested hills, which for twenty
miles form a straight coast-line of almost continuous cliffs averaging
500 ft. to 600 ft. in height, broken only by the narrow valleys of a few
streams draining to the west. Immediately behind these hills is a belt
of low country bordering the Waiuku Creek, and forming the Akaaka
Swamp in the south. East from this belt the land rises gently, forming
undulating country of subdued topography, the highest point being the
voleanic cone of Pukekohe Hill, some 710 ft. high.

The characteristic cross-bedding of wind-deposited sands is conspicuous
from top to bottom along the line of cliffs facing the sea (Plate XX, fig. 1).
The beds vary in texture from a fine to a fairly coarse sand, and many
consist of a large proportion of magnetite with grains of feldspar and some
quartz. Certain very fine beds appear to be pumiceous. The contained
magnetite has been oxidized to the brownish hydrated oxide of iron

* Whilst this was in press reference to the geology of the district appeared in
a report by Dr. J. Henderson on the Huntly Subdivision, which was published in
14th Ann. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv., 1920, and distributed early in 1921.

4*

100 Transactions.

(limonite), forming tough, resistant, anastomosing bands, or mote fre-
quently lens-like or irregular beds of considerable thickness, which con-
stitute the most resistant parts of the nearly vertical cliffs, and in a few
cases, as at the Fishing Rock, opposite Waipipi, form reefs running a
short distance out to sea.

From the general proximity of the watershed to the line of cliffs, and

the longer and more gentle easterly slope towards the Waiuku Creek, and
from the loftiness of the cliffs, which have been cut back by the waves
almost to the watershed, and the character of some of the lower beds, it
is evident that these hills at one time extended much farther seaward—
probably several miles at least. Except in the extreme south of this area
the sand of these hills is much limonitized and consolidated, while the
surface on the easterly (or landward) slope is decomposed to a yellowish-red
clay to a depth often of 6 ft., and is covered with a fairly good soil.
_ Near the Waikato River and the “gaps” or stream-valleys opening
west the surface is composed of loose sand travelling inland. This is
particularly well shown at Lake Pokorua. Only in a few places, such as
the Waiuku and Pokorua gaps, is there convenient access to the beach.

A mile south of Pokorua Stream outlet a bed of lignite outcrops for a
distance of 100 ft. at the foot of the cliffs. It is about 5 ft. above high
water, but rises gently to the south. The only other bed of lignite out-
cropping on the coast is a small one in a short stream-valley two miles
south of Manukau Heads. The only other lithologic feature deserving of
mention is a bed of sand from 3 ft. to 6 ft. thick, near the foot of the cliffs
close to the outcrop of lignite, which is a fine, light, white sand, evidently
pumiceous.

The Area East of the Sand-dunes.

To the east of the sand-dune range, bands of lignite 18 in. thick can
be seen on both sides of Waiuku Creek, just above or at high-water mark
Beds which are either pumiceous or of very fine light sandstone occur above
the lignite. On the east bank a coarse conglomerate sometimes occurs.
A short distance to the north of Awhitu Wharf a bed of lignite occurs
intercalated in sand. Stream-bedding is noticeable in most of these deposits
of sand along the Waiuku Creek.

Hochstetter (1867, p. 272) furnishes a section which seems too general-
ized in respect of the lignite formation. The occurrence of but two small
bands, the larger not more than 100 ft. long, in a length of sea-cliff
extending twenty miles hardly warrants the use of the name “lignite
formation ” to include the western lower beds on the coast range in which
these two bands occur. Their very frequent occurrence in the sand and
silt-beds along the Waiuku Creek, however, amply justifies the name so
far as it is applied to the low-lying area east of the coast range. The
undulating country east of Waiuku Creek and of the Akaaka Swamp
consists of an extensive deposit of basaltic breccia—the “ basaltic boulder
formation ” of Hochstetter (1867, p. 268), Hutton (1867, p. 7), and Cox
(1877, p. 17)—mixed with much red loam resulting from decomposition
of the breccias and tuffs.

The most extensive lava-flow is that at Waitangi Stream, two miles
from Waiuku; whilst the volcanic tuffs become very prominent in the
Koraka district, near Drury. On the south side of the Waikato River,
at Pakau Stream, and at Tauranganui, three miles to the north-east, lava-
flows occur associated with volcanic breccia similar to that forming several
small isolated hills in the Akaaka Swamp. Evidence of stream-bedding
has been observed in the tuffs and breccia at Tauranganui.

GiLBERT.—Geology of Waikato Heads District. 101

A Suggestion of Origin of the Sand-dunes and of the Lagnite-beds.

North of Manukau Harbour is a strongly resistant coast-line which has
retrogressed considerably owing to wave-attack. Similarly, south of the
Waikato River all evidence points to considerable sea-cliff recession. The
writer’s belief touches entirely new ground, and it is this: that regularity
of coastal outline was reached between Waikato Head and Manukau North
Head by spit or perhaps barrier-beach formation in the not distant past,
when the relative level of sea and land approximated the present, and
that a great estuary of the Waikato River was formed behind this barrier,
in which pumice-silts were deposited and bands of lignite formed. This
beach supplied the material raised by wind into lofty sandhills, which
have been cut into by the waves as the shore-line advanced towards
maturity.

Mr. J. A. Bartrum, in mentioning to me that this accorded with his own
view, called my attention to a fact which I have since been able to confirm—
namely, that there are similar sand-ranges west of Helensville, going north
along the western margin of the Kaipara Harbour. He further pointed out
that in that district there is every evidence of former uplift in elevated
erosion-plains.

This theory of the origin of the sand-ranges with an extensive estuary
of the Waikato River behind them readily accounts for the origin of the
pumiceous silts and the lignite bands west of the ranges, for it is believed
that the silts were formed in the estuary by the deposition of fine material,
largely pumiceous, brought down by the Waikato River from the great
pumice lands of the middle of the Island. There are pumice-silts at Mangere,
opposite Onehunga, at Otahuhu, and near Drury and Papakura. They
are thus very widespread round the shores of Manukau Harbour, the waters
of which cannot have supplied the material. The Waikato River, then,
appears to be the only source of origin that can satisfactorily account for
these silts. Well-borings in various places around Waiuku and the Aka-
aka Swamp support the view that an extensive estuary existed. The
lignites at and above high-water mark along the Waiuku Creek, and exposed
in railway-cuttings between Otahuhu and Papakura, would be formed in
this estuary by the accumulation of vegetable material in the swamps.

The two lignite bands at the foot of the sand-dunes on the coast contain
fragments of “wood, undecomposed or slightly carbonized, and, amongst
other vegetable remains, the abundant long leaves of the raupo (Typha
angustifolia). They were probably formed in shallow lakes or lagoons
occurring in the hollows of the sandhills in their early stages, just as the
remains of similar vegetation are accumulating at the present time around
the swampy raupo-covered margins of Lake Pokorua, north-west from
Waipipi, and other Jakes even in the shifting sand-dunes near the Waikato
River. It is possible, however, that they had an origin similar to that of
the Waiuku bands—that is, in the swamps marginal to the early Waikato
estuary, which have since been covered up by the inland advance of the
dune-belt, and then re-exposed by sea-cliff recession in conformity with the
general retrogression of the coast both north and south of this area.

Sub-recent Oscillations of Level: Origin of Manukau Harbour.

The bands of lignite exposed at frequent intervals along the banks of
Waiuku Creek are either at or slightly above high-water mark, and are
covered to a depth of from 5ft. to 20ft. by silts. They thus furnish
evidence of sub-recent minor oscillations of the district. In the arm of

102 Transactions.

Manukau Harbour that penetrates to Otahuhu—indeed, in most of the
harbour’s ramifications—similar evidence is available. These silts are now
being cut back rapidly by wave-action at high-water,* and present low cliffs
that rise to no great height above high-water level. i

= ;ea Level = =
jo J
ee

Fic. 2.—A. Manukau Harbour. B. Waitemata Harbour (Grafton Gully continuation).

The story they unfold is briefly as follows: After their deposition, uplift
over the whole Auckland area occurred, of which local evidence is found
also in the Waitemata Harbour.f Following the uplift the silts were dissected
by the various streams emptying into the Manukau Harbour, such as the
Waiuku, and the present channels thus formed. -Depression soon followed,
admitting the tidal waters into the stream-courses. (See fig. 2, A.)

Mutual Relations of the Areas North and South of the Waikato River: an
Hypothesis of Major Faulting.

It is believed that the northern shore of the Manukau is roughly coincident
with a fault-line running east and west, and that the Waikato River in the
last few miles of its course traverses another fault-line parallel with the
first, cutting the Mesozoic rocks at right angles to their strike. This latter
has been called the Waikato fault. The country between is deemed faulted
down at least 2,000 ft., leaving the eroded Mesozoic rocks on the south
standing 12,000 ft. above sea-level.

Fic. 3.—Coast section, Waikato South Head. a’, belemnite marly shales; a, sands
and shales; 6, sandy limestone; c, brown sands and silts; d, gray clays
and silts; e, red clays and sands; f, zone of comminuted shale; g, fault.

Though no conclusive evidence of the faulting could be obtained, the
south bank of the Waikato River presents the appearance of a deeply dissected
fault-scarp ; and, further, at the South Head there is a nearly vertical fault,

* Tidal interval at spring tides, 14 ft.

tI am indebted to Mr. J. A. Bartrum for pointing this out to me, and for a
sketch of the continuation of Grafton Gully into the harbour, which he drew from
data supplied by the Harbour Board, and which is reproduced in fig. 2. B.

GiLBERT.—Geology of Waikato Heads District. 103

heading 30° to the north and striking 30° north of east, roughly along the
line of the river, and traceable for some 50 yards. The limestones on the
north must be downthrown 200 ft. to 300 ft. at least. This fault may very
well be one of the step-faults of the zone of faulting referred to above.
Brown sands and sandy limestone are here brought in contact with Mesozoic
shales (belemnite-beds) dipping 45° south west and striking 30° west of north,
forming the southern (or upthrow) side of the fault. The shales are finely
comminuted in a band some 20 ft. wide along the line of the fault.

The most important reason for suggesting faulting is the abrupt
termination of the older rocks along a fairly definite line, and their
replacement by an area of much later sedimentation. Along the maturely
dissected scarp of the Waikato fault between Maretai Stream and the South
Head, wave-attack has in places produced typical sea-clifis, above which are
hanging valleys.

It is possible, though unlikely from their position, that river-planation,
and not wave-attack, was responsible for the wearing-back of these cliffs.

THe AREA SOUTH OF THE WAIKATO.
General Description.

The country to the south of the Waikato River dealt with herein is an
upland, 600 ft. to 1,200 ft. above the level of the sea, consisting of uniformly
resistant rocks, except along the sea-coast, where the upper portions are much
less resistant than the lower. This upland is deeply dissected by stream-
valleys running north-west and east from the main watershed, which sends
out numerous sharp spurs, so that the surface is very uneven and rugged,

Lie p

su ie
ae : . a o E

Fie, 4.—Section along line AB of map.

Fic. 6.—Section along line EF of map.

presenting few level tracts. The rocks consist of a basement (herein called
the “ older-mass”’) of symmetrically folded sediments, on the eroded and
weathered surface of which in many places the younger-mass beds* rest
horizontally, and therefore unconformably ; these latter consist of mode-
rately resistant marine sediment. They again are covered unconformably
along the coast by less resistant Pleistocene and Recentt clays and sands,

* Part of the Notocene of Thomson (1917, p. 408).
+ The Notopleistocene of Thomson (i917, p. 411).

104 Transactions.

Drainage of the Southern Area.

The Opuatia River, with its upper east-flowing tributaries, cuts across
the strike of the rocks of the Mesozoic older-mass where these are exposed
in its upper course. This indifference to the strike of the folded rocks can
be explained by supposing these streams to be superposed consequents.
On account of having had their courses shortened by coast-recession, the
streams flowing west from the watershed are shorter than those to the east.
Those flowing north-west, having maturely dissected the fault-scarp facing
the Waikato River, are obviously streams consequent on the deformation.
Their courses are short and their drainage areas small.

From Port Waikato the main watershed runs in a south-easterly
direction for forty miles or more.

The Maretai Stream, flowing north into the Waikato River, has cut its
way down to grade along what is believed to be a fault-line, on the west
side of which the beds of the older-mass are strongly downfaulted, the scarp
on the upthrow (or eastern) side being immaturely dissected. This fault
probably extends a long distance south-west. A sunken outlier of the
younger-mass at Newdick’s, on the western side of the stream-valley,
appears to owe its position to the effect of the faulting along this line.

Most of the streams flowing east or west are graded, and the Okahu and
Maretai Streams, flowing north-west, are similarly graded in their lower
courses. The Waikawau Stream, seven miles south from the Waikato
River, is graded for some two miles of its lower course. Its middle course
is between the high vertical walls of its limestone gorge, which soon widens
out to a broad valley, the floor of which is covered by flood-plain and delta
deposits.

The Kawa Stream, still farther south, has a comparatively bottle-necked
outlet to the sea. In its middle course it flows across extensive flood-plain
swamps, which cover a broad depression, believed to have originated in the
foldings and dislocations of the beds of the older-mass and younger-mass
alike, which are made evident in the coast sections from the Waikawau
Stream along the Waiwiri Beach to the Kawa Stream. Solution may have
played its part, as in the Waikawau and upper Huruwai valleys. The
writer’s first impression was that it represented a gigantic sinkhole.

The Older-mass of the Southern Area.

It has been pointed out above that the southern area consists strati-
graphically of a younger-mass unconformably overlying an older-mass.
The writer considers that the sediments of the older-mass are folded in
fairly symmetrical waves measuring four miles from crest to crest, the strike
of the axes of the folds being about 30° west of north. The limbs of the
folds have an average dip of about 30° and a maximum of 45°. The
average is that of thirty-two determinations in different localities. These
sediments are therefore not less than 7,000 ft. thick in those portions above
sea-level. The conclusion as to the symmetry of the waves is deduced
from the evidence of strike and dip of the beds along the Waikato River,
as well as from those along the Opuatia and Huruwai Streams and the
coast sections.

In the deepest part of the anticline, which is exposed in a good section
at the South Waikato Head, the lowest beds visible are the belemnite
shales—a fine, slightly calcareous mudstone containing some thin, light-
coloured, highly calcareous bands. In these, but more conspicuously in

Gitpert.—Geology of Waikato Heads District. 105

all the higher beds in this formation, plant-remains are abundant, though
rarely in other than fragmentary form. Tree and fern trunks and large
roots are abundant, more particularly two miles south of the Heads in a
very thick bed of concretionary sandstone.

The following is roughly the sequence, in ascending order, of the beds
as shown in the coast sections from south of the Huruwai Stream to the

Waikato Heads. (See Plate XXI, fig. 2.)

(1.) 700 ft. of dark marly shales containing marine fossils (Cox, p. 20),
and herein spoken of as the “ belemnite-beds.””*

(2.) Hard grey sandstone with shaly beds.

(3.) Thick beds of concretionary sandstone, containing tree-trunks in
abundance, amongst which could be recognized some resembling
tree-ferns. These beds thin out laterally, rapidly giving place
to thin bands of shale and sandstone.

(4.) Shales with bands of a hard, shiny, black, impure coal 1 ft. and
14 ft. thick, dipping seaward at an angle of 35° to west. These
outcrop on the strike coast near Hanwai Stream.

(5.) Alternating beds of hard shale and sandstone, the shale bands
outcropping at Oruarangi Point, about five miles south of Waikato
River, being rich in well-preserved plant-impressions.

(6.) Bands of shale interbedded with sandstone and containing thin
coaly bands.

(7.) Fine conglomerate.

(8.) Coarse sandstone, stream-bedded, with large fragments of wood,
outcropping on the beach south of Huruwai Creek.

Fig. 7.—Observed section north of Hanwai Creek. Height of section, 200 ft. ;
length, 100 yards. Mesozoics (strike 25° west of north, dip 35° to
west) overlain by horizontal Notopleistocene beds.

Though the strike of the main axes of the folds is 30° west of north,
it occasionally changes locally to north-and-south and east-and-west, for
there is much local distortion, notably in the axis of the syncline where
the Waimate Stream enters the Waikato River, about two miles above its
mouth.

* A similar series of shale-beds, though unfossiliferous, appears at the top of the
watershed between the Okahu and the Moewaka Streams, where deep weathering has
increased their friability.

106 Transactions.

A little north of Orairoa Point, six miles south of Waikato River,
the basal sedimentaries disappear under the seaward-dipping beds of the
younger-mass, and are not found again north of the Kawa Stream, though
they are said to outcrop farther south.

From the South Head to the Waikawau Stream the Mesozoic beds form
locally a prominent strike coast—.e., the coast follows the strike of the
seaward-dipping beds, leaving here and there a promontory of very resistant
sandstone beds presenting precipitous bluffs to the fierce attacks of the
violent Tasman Sea.

The Marine Fossiliferous Shales or Belemnite-beds.

As stated above, the shale-beds at the Waikato South Head contain
marine fossils. Cox (1877, p. 19) reported having obtained the following :
“ Aucella plicata, Inoceramus haasti, Inoceramus (sp. ind.), Belemnites
aucklandicus, Halobia sp., Placunopsis striatula, and other species not
determined.”

As the result of many hours of patient search, the writer recently
gathered from these shales numbers of belemnites, which are abundant,
and eight or ten other fossil species not yet determined, but the majority
apparently not previously reported from this locality. All that can be
said is that amongst the species found at Waikato Heads shales are
brachiopods, pelecypods, and gasteropods.* (See Plate XXI, fig. 1.)

The Fossil-plant Beds.

From 2,000 ft. to 3,000ft. higher up in the conformable sequence
occur the beds near Oruarangi Point first collected from by Hochstetter
(1867, p. 278). These are alternating sandstones and shales, and contain
abundant well-preserved plant-fossils.

Brow, SS —$—-*
Sands. Car = SS ee SS SSS SS
a — ee

Grey Sandy Ya nee (rel Oa 4
Limestone a ET eee | Ke
a neers Cae 9
eee ee a
Shelly SS SS Ss renee a rp 8
1 ee a SOT rea aoe
W AL ni ee RM
2 _ UU ee Se ee 8S
ae ae fe eg ee SS
fe at BE
ee ee ee Torn LE

Fic. 8.—Probable section at Oruarangi Point (near plant-beds).

Newell Arber (1917, pp. 18, 20) in a recent palaeontological bulletin
describes and figures a number of fossil plants from these beds.

After a careful comparison of the plant-fossils gathered on two visits
to these plant-beds, and of others gathered by Mr. J. A. Bartrum from

* Mr. J. A. Bartrum has informed me since the above was written that he forwarded
a selection of the fossils from these beds to Dr. C. T. Trechmann, of Durham, and
amongst them the following forms were determined by him (accompanying remarks
are those made by Dr. Trechmann): Arca (Parallelodon) egertonianus Stoliczka (found
in Spiti shales, India, and in Somaliland); Arca blandfordiana Stoliczka; Aucella
cf. spitiensis extensa Holdhaus ; Limea sp. (two); Pyrgopolon (?) (? a serpulid) ; Serpula
sp. (the Serpula is rather like Serpula convoluta Goldf. from the Dogger: see Zittel-
Eastman, p. 138); Trigonia sp. Several other forms, notably lamellibranchs and a
serpulid, though generically unidentifiable, furnish additions to the above list.

GiLBERT.—Geology of Waikato Heads District. 107

the same place, with those figured by Arber, a selection was made of types
that appeared to be new, and forwarded by Mr. Bartrum to Arber for
determination, but his death occurred before he was able to examine them.

On the banks of the Waikato River near Waimate Creek, at about
high-water mark, well-preserved plant-impressions can be obtained from
various beds, especially from one of fine white sandstone about 1 ft. in
thickness. Some 6 ft. above this bed occurs a bed of coal 12in. to 18 in.
thick associated with a similar fine sandstone. These beds, occurring in
the axis of a syncline, are not less than 2,000 ft. above the belemnite-
beds, from which they are distant two miles across the general strike of
the sequence, the effect of downthrow along the Maretai fault-plane being
taken into account.

Age of the Older-mass.

Arber (1917) classes the upper plant-beds at Oruarangi Point in the
Neocomian, as did Hochstetter (1867) originally. The fossil plants in
the beds mentioned above at Waimate, about two miles up the Waikato
River from its mouth, are apparently the same as those at Oruarangi ;
the beds comaining them are therefore Neocomian, and hence the lower
belemnite-beds are most probably of Jurassic age.

General History of the Coastal Area South of the Waikato River.

Mid-Cretaceous uplift and folding of the Jurassic and early Cretaceous
sediments (here spoken of as the “ older-mass’’) was followed by dissection
and by planation to a greater or less degree; depression then ensued, and
was succeeded by a long period of sedimentation, during which most of the
beds of the younger-mass were laid down. Subsequent deformation of the
older-mass, involving warping and dislocation of the beds of the younger-
mass, and general though unequal uplift, initiated a long period of erosion,
during which movements of elevation continued, and the younger-mass
was stripped from much of the higher portions of the uplifted area, whilst
the older-mass was deeply cut into by superposed consequent streams.
At the same time, too, the fault-scarp along the line of the Waikato River,
a product of the deformation which followed the conclusion of deposition
of the younger-mass, was maturely dissected.

During the period when the beds of the younger-mass were being laid
down slight uplift took place, at least in some localities, as at the Kawa,
where the movement was sufficient to bring about sea-planation of certain
impure limestones after they had been slightly warped. With slow depres-
sion, again, other beds were laid down unconformably above the warped
and planed limestones; local volcanic activity occurred, depositing beds
of ash and lava. These were again covered by swamp-silts, and, upon
uplift, by wind-blown sands.

Relation between the Mesozoic Older-mass and the Younger-mass (or Notocene)
Beds.

The Notocene beds, using the name suggested by Thomson (1917,
p. 408) for the “covering strata” or “‘ younger rock-series”’ of New Zea-
land, were deposited on the eroded surface of the folded older-mass. (See
figs. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8.)

An outlier of Notocene beds at Pa Brown, high up near the source of
the Moewaka Stream, a tributary of the Opuatia, is of great importance
as indicating the former greater extent of these beds. This small outlier,
covering about a quarter of a square mile, consists of 40 ft. to 50 ft. of
platy bands of an extremely hard limestone, containing abundant Jarge

108 Transactions.

oyster-shells, sharks’ teeth, and small indeterminate shell-fragments, under-
lain by a thick layer of calcareous sandstone, very similar lithologically
to that in the bed of the Opuatia Stream four to five miles farther east.
A short distance to the west the Mesozoic rocks of the watershed rise
100 ft. to 200 ft. higher.

An examination of the upper parts of the valleys of the Maretai, the
Huruwai, and the Waikawau Streams reveals the same phenomenon as the
Opuatia Valley—namely, that the Notocene suddenly appears deep down
in troughs in the Mesozoic older-mass. The lowest beds there observable
are calcareous sandstone, passing upwards into a hard, scantily fossiliferous,
platy limestone, which changes in facies with great rapidity. Again at the
Waikato South Head there is a downfaulted block of the Notocene beds
which owes its preservation to its resistant character. (See fig. 3.)

No shore-line deposits have been found in these valleys or depressions
to support the view that the Notocene beds were laid down in deeply eroded
valleys into which the sea penetrated when the land was depressed, although
fragments of Mesozoic rocks were found in a basal bed of the younger-mass
near Orairoa Point, half a mile south of the Huruwai Stream. The upper
Notocene beds are often of hard, pure limestone, and must have been
deposited in deep, clear water at a distance from land. Having in view
the fact that the Notocene beds have suffered very considerable erosion, the
final conclusion is that they covered the whole area—even the more elevated
tracts occupied by the Mesozoic rocks, where now no trace of them is left.
They covered a broadly truncated surface of the Mesozoic rocks, and when
later uplift set in would be removed most readily from the uplifted areas.
As pointed out, the Notocene beds in several places occupy valley-like
depressions in the Mesozoic strata, either as the result of faulting or owing
to involvement in the folding of the Mesozoic older-mass that occurred
subsequent to the deposition of these younger-mass beds. The latter
supposition appears the more probable explanation, although a more careful
examination of the district is needed to settle the point.

The Younger-mass (or Notocene) Beds.

The beds of the younger-mass dip slightly to the south along the coast,
and their sequence from their lowest upwards is not easy to determine.
The following is the probable upward sequence :—

(1.) At the base algal tabular limestone. It contains angular fragments
of the underlying Mesozoic rocks where it rests on the latter at
Orairoa Point, north of Huruwai Stream. This limestone seems
to rest on still lower blue sea-muds, and to lose both its tabular
and brecciaceous character.

(2.) Grey calcareous sandstone, 300 ft. thick in places such as the
Opuatia Stream valley and the upper Waikawau, changing to a
blue sea-mud at the base of the outcrops on the coast between
the Waikawau and Kawa Streams.

(3.) Tabular limestones. At the Waikawau and the Ruahine Streams,
and along the northern half of Waiwiri Beach, the upward suc-
cession is of alternating calcareous sandy beds, and thin, hard,
marly limestone, all becoming tabular, sandy, or even shelly
limestones farther back from the coast and south from the
Ruahine Stream. They appear as a pure, hard, coarsely crystal-
line limestone in a large cave two miles from the coast on the
north bank of the Waikawau Stream. Half-way up this series
of thin beds a discontinuity occurs in the Waikawau section.

GILBERT.—Geology of Waikato Heads District. 109

Minor faulting and some planation, probably by wave-action, occurred,
and was followed by the deposition of a dark-greenish sandy bed containing
many easily gathered marine fossils. Other similar but less fossiliferous
beds follow, being interbedded with thin, hard, closely-jointed, more cal-
careous layers, the whole attaining a thickness of 130 ft. to 150 ft.* They
are called the “ blue marls” or “‘ Cardita beds”’ by Cox (1877), from the
presence in them of “a large Cardita that cannot be distinguished from
‘ Cardita planicostata ’ of Europe [see Hector, 1877, p. viii], and are probably
of Lower Eocene age.’ They are correlated with what has been spoken
of earlier in this paper as the tabular limestones of Pa Brown and other
localities.

ult-Strife 10° W. of, Hade 4otok.
Fic. 9.—Observed section at South Head, Waikawau.

The exposures of the Notocene beds along Waiwiri Beach show some
warping and frequent faulting on a small scale, with possibly a much more
powerful fault at a point where the sea-cliffs are temporarily interrupted.

(See fig. 10.)

oruahine Pt

Fic. 10.—Coast section along Waiwiri Beach (two miles).

The beds of Koruahine Bluff, at the south end of Waiwiri Beach, which
could not be definitely correlated with others either north or south in this
section owing to the rapid changes in the facies of the limestones, furnished
numerous fossils, among which were abundant echinoids, a few brachiopods,
several species of Pecten, and abundant Foraminifera, with occasional sharks’
teeth. They are not like the fossils of the “ Cardita beds,’ which are
prominent along Waiwiri Beach, but rather resemble those of the shelly
bed at the Huruwai Stream and of the tabular limestone at Waikato South
Head. These beds probably correlate with the warped and sea-planed
beds of the syncline at the base of the Kawa section, for their fossil content
is somewhat similar. Thomson has expressed the opinion after examining
them that the brachiopods are typically Oamarwian.

* On revisiting the Waikawau in February of 1920 the writer found an immense
slip had recently occurred, obscuring the features of the section here referred to, but
facilitating the collection of fossils from a very fossiliferous band higher up the cliff
than the rubble-bed.

110 Transactions.

The glauconitic greensands of the south Kawa section (see fig. 11) were

not traced north of the Kawa Stream.

(4.) Above the tabular limestones appear fine light-coloured silts and
clays. These close the Notocene sequence.

(5.) Brown sands. As pointed out already, the Notocene beds show
folding, and on their eroded surface rest the younger beds.* In
most of the sections the brown sands follow the tabular lime-
stones unconformably. However, near the Hanwai Creek and the
Waikato South Head they rest on beds of fine light-coloured
silts and clays, called by Hochstetter (1867) “* Pleistocene silts,”
which contain no fossils. (See figs. 3 and 7.) The brown sands
show the characteristic irregular bedding of wind-blown sands,
except where bands of silt are interbedded with them in their
lower parts.

(6.) Shifting sands of recent date close the sequence.

THE Kawa SECTION.

The most important section shown along this coast is that to the south
of Kawa Stream, and referred to herein as the “ Kawa section.” The well-
marked unconformity in the sequence of its strata, the evidence of volcanic
activity, and the pumice-bed, 170 ft. to 180 ft. above sea-level, possibly

E ———— a = = = —_
ES EEPIY 15 sees ITE COR ED ee

50 ff =I Brown Sands
Se Sree

AN :
ae ni z
Sy asaltic| | 4
Koss, iy" + > +
\\ Z ava, +

SSS 2 2 SS Se ee ; ; =
N Paige Giauconitic or” Ss

Fig. 11.—Coast section south of Kawa Stream.

connecting these beds with the history of the Waikato River, are the features

which give it this importance. It was described in detail by Bartrum

(19198). The following brief description contains a few facts not recorded

by him.

Order of Ascending Sequence. (See fig. 11.)

1. Blue calcareous sea-muds.

2. Glauconitic greensands (15 ft. to 20 ft.).

3. Above the glauconitic greeesands come 50 ft. to 60 ft. of thin calcareous
sea-muds. These thin beds, after deposition, were affected by move-
ments of compression, resulting in faulting and gentle folding, and
accompanying uplift. Then followed a period of planation by the
sea which cut their upper surface into a plane of marine denudation.

4. Fossiliferous yellow sands to a depth of 36 ft. were now deposited by
the sea on the marine-planed surface of the slowly sinking land.
Mr. J. A. Bartrum has published a list of fossils from this bed and
has described some new species (Bartrum, 1919a and 19198).

* The Notopleistocene beds of Thomson (1917).

GitBERT.—Geology of Waikato Heads District. 111

5. Voleanic ash, breccia, and basaltic lava. The marginal portions of the
plug contain included fragments of the calcareous beds through which
it was extruded. The volcanic-ash bed contains large fragments of
the underlying calcareous beds, and varies from a coarse ash in the
north to a breccia or agglomerate as it approaches the neck of the
volcano. These beds are distinctly unconformable to the underlying
fossiliferous sands.

6. Stream-bedded sands, 30 ft. thick, follow ; they include a band of lignite
8in. thick. In proximity to agglomerate which is above the vol-
canic lava-plug they appear locally to overlie beds of included tuff of
which the upper limit is a sharply marked erosion-plane coincident
approximately with the upper level of the yellow fossiliferous sands.

7. Brown sands (30 ft.)*follow, whose lower layers are horizontally bedded,
whilst higher up they are composed of peculiar lenses encrusted by
limonitized ironsand. The thin encrusting layers show an inter-
lacing tendency typical of wind-blown sands where the winds change
direction frequently, and so form confused series of ripple-marks.
It is not easy to explain why the encrusting layers alone should
become limonitized, leaving the sand between loose and unaltered.

8. Pumice-bed (10 ft. to 20 ft.). This is a white, light, slightly plastic clay
band, its very thinly bedded nature indicating deposition in the fairly
still water of a swamp or lake. It is undoubtedly a fine pumice,
enclosing large fragments of the same material. Non-pumiceous silts
of irregular thickness replace the pumice to the south, above the
volcanic conglomerate which covers the remnant of the lava-plug.

9, 200 ft. of brown, oxidized, wind-blown sands rich in limonite concretions.

The Kawa Pumice-bed in Relation to the Waikato River.

The occurrence of this bed of pumice-sand, containing coarser fragments
of pumice, 180 ft. above high water, so far south of the mouth of the Waikato
River makes one hesitate to ascribe its origin to transport by that river
of material from the pumice plateau through which it flows for so much of
its upper and middle course. No other origin, however, readily suggests
itself, whilst this theory has several facts to support it :—

(1.) There is no other visible source whence the material may be derived.

(2.) The characteristic deposits made by the Waikato in the Bay of
Plenty district and in the Hauraki Plains are largely rhyolitic pumice-silt
which resembles the Kawa deposit.

(35.) Not only has the coastal area risen, but the whole country to the
east and south-east as far as the middle Waikato basin, including the
southern portion of the Hauraki Plains, across which the river flows in a
north-westerly direction, has also been elevated with reference to sea-level
since the course of the Waikato River was diverted from its old channel
leading through the Hinuwera Valley to the Hauraki Gulf. There has thus
been regional uplift. At the point below Maungatautari Gorge where the
river enters the middle Waikato basin the surface of the plain is 300 ft.
above sea-level. According to Henderson (1918, p. 60) this plain was formed
by loose pumice of fluviatile origin whilst the land was depressed. About
this time also the river changed its course from the Hinuwera Valley to the
north-west across its own alluvial plain. (See Henderson 1918, pp. 112-15;
and Cussen, 1889, p. 409, and 1894, pp. 401-10). The pumice of the Kawa
beds must have been brought down at that time and deposited in a depression
forming a swamp on the borders of a large estuary or low-lying coastal land
such as then existed. When elevation ensued the tendency would be for
the river to deepen its bed, and this has been done across the middle Waikato
basin, the deepening here corresponding approximately to the uplift of the

112 Transactions.

Kawa pumice-bed, above which all the beds are subaerial deposits. (See
Cussen, 1889, p. 413.)

4. It might be suggested that wave transport may have brought the
pumice from far-distant localities; but the nature of the material and its
bedding negative such a suggestion.

It may be mentioned that Mr. Bartrum (19194, p. 104) similarly is
inclined to ascribe the origin of this pumice-bed to the Waikato River.

STRUCTURAL PLATEAU NEAR THE COAST.

The Notopleistocene formations along the coast form a structural plateau
governed by the bedding of the horizontal sheet of limonitized sands forming
the uppermost beds and now acutely dissected by the westerly streams.
The residual ridges between these streams are all about the same height, and,
seen from the northerly geodetic station, Waihonui, they are remarkably
uniform. These divides are sometimes, as at Waihouni and Opura, small
tablelands, remnants of the old platform.

SLIPPED COUNTRY ABOVE WAIWIRI BEACH.

For a quarter of a mile back from the Waiwiri beach the country
has slipped along parallel lines, presenting seaward-facing scarps 10 ft. to
30 ft. or 40 ft. high. The whole area between these scarps and the sea-clifis
is tossed into hummocky mounds. Only the upper or sandy beds appear
to be affected, and these are being slowly pushed over the clifis on to the
beach. The scarps form a rude semicircle facing the sea for a distance of
over a mile. They are said to be as fresh-looking to-day as they were forty-
five years ago. The scarps reveal cross-bedding everywhere.

The composition of these beds is a light, dull, black sand, the blackness
not being due to grains of magnetite, which is not abundant, but to dull,
light grains of material probably owing its origin to the erosion of shale-beds
of the Mesozoics. They are unlike any of the other beds north or south
that occupy a higher horizon than the Cardita beds or tabular limestone.
The Cardita beds appear to have formed the base of a plain of marine
denudation in this locality, possibly contemporaneous with that at the
Kawa, or perhaps more recent, when the yellow and brown sands, &c.,
were removed by wave-action.

SINKHOLES.

Close to the ridge above the great area of slipped country are several
sinkholes, or swallow-holes, vertical cavities formed by the internal running
of the sands beneath the surface, which then subsided. Similar sinkholes
can be observed in the pumice lands near Hamilton. One at Pa Brown,
due to solution of the limestone beneath the surface, is of much larger
dimensions than those between the Ruahine and Kawa Streams.

Microscopic CHARACTERS OF SOME OF THE ROCKS.

The Kawa Basalt.—In a holocrystalline pilotaxitic groundmass consist-
ing of long microlites of feldspar, showing good flow-structure, with less
prominent prisms and grains of augite and olivine and very numerous fine
specks of magnetite, occur separate phenocrysts of augite and olivine, and
some glomero-porphyritic phenocrysts of olivine and augite with associated
chlorite. The augite is usually colourless, but sometimes has a pink border.
The olivine phenocrysts show the mesh-structure characteristic of alteration
to serpentine along lines of fracture and around the edges. A secondary
fibrous mineral, chlorite, is formed in numerous cavities. Large olivine
nodules, up to 2in. in diameter, are numerous in this basalt.

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vou. LILI. PLATE XX.

Fic. 1.—Showing the characteristic dune-bedding in the consolidated sands close to
the bed of lignite near the Fishing Rock, on the coast north-west of Waiuku.

Rie. 2:

Fic. 2.—Photomicrograph of algal limestone north of Te Orairoa Point. The section
shows the structure of the algae very clearly, but on so fine a scale that the
photograph reproduces it poorly. a, an alga (? Lithothamnion) ; b, Polyzoa ;
c, a foraminifer, probably Amphistegina. 24.

Fic. 3.—Photomicrograph of fine Globigerina limestone, Koruahine Point. 24.

(Photomicrographs by J. A. Bartrum.)

Facey 112.)

TRAINS © UNI Zio INST a0 ViOleeiinelele , Prate XXI.

Fra. 1.—Mesozoic shales and sandstones of the “ strike coast,” a little south of Okariha
Point.

Fic. 2.—The belemnite shales (Mesozoic) at the South Head, Waikato River.

GILBERT.—Geology of Waikato Heads District. 113

Waitangi Bay Basalt——A couple of miles to the north of Waiuku there
occurs a basaltic lava-flow which can be traced along the bed of the Waitangi
Stream. Elsewhere it is covered deeply in a ferruginous clay resulting from
the decomposition of basalt, so that its extent could not be ascertained.
At one time the rock was quarried for road-metal at Waitangi Bay, where
the stream enters Waiuku Creek. Here it is coarsely columnar. Examined
under the microscope this rock is seen to be quite similar to the basalts
common round Auckland City. It consists of a holocrystalline, pilotaxitic
groundmass of long feldspar laths and small granular interstitial augite
and olivine, enclosing numerous large phenocrysts of olivine and pale to
colourless augite. The feldspar is mainly a basic labradorite, some of the
twinned crystals being fairly large laths. Subsidiary iron-ore (magnetite)
is scattered about in short streaks.

The Pakau Basalt—About seven miles up the south bank of the Waikato
River is a lava-flow across which several streams, including the Pakau, flow
in relatively shallow valleys after leaving the deep, gorge-like valleys their
headwaters have cut in the Mesozoic rocks of the Waikato fault-scarp.

At a point about a mile to the east of the Pakau Stream, where another
stream forms a waterfall over the edge of the basaltic lava-flow, the Mesozoic
sandstones and shales are seen in direct contact unconformably underlying
the lava-sheet. This lava-sheet and the associated basaltic breccia to the
east are believed to be of the same age as the basaltic flows and breccias
spread over a wide area to the north of the Waikato River and eastward
of Waiuku, and to be more recent than the Kawa flow.

At the Opuatia Bridge and in the environs of Puke-o-tahinga the lava
rests directly on the Notocene calcareous sea-muds. Behind the Onewhero
store and Post-office is a circular basin one mile in diameter, originally a
crater and subsequently a lake, which has been insilted to the level of its
present floor and now forms good farm Jand. It was drained by a stream
through a breach in the north-eastern margin of the crater. This stream
exposes the original lava-flow beneath the tuffs of the lip and for a mile
farther on, till finally, where its waters tumble into a deep gully, the lava
can be seen to occupy a trough representing an old stream-valley in the
Notocene calcareous sea-muds.

The Pakau basalt, microscopically, consists of numerous large phenocrysts
of olivine with less important colourless augite, in a pilotaxitic groundmass.
The groundmass is made up of twinned feldspar microlites of basic labradorite
with abundant augite and olivine granules and subsidiary iron-ore scattered
about in large and small grains.

Algal Limestone——South end of Matuatua Beach. This limestone occurs
at the base of the cliffs less than a mile south of the Huruwai Stream, and
near Te Orairoa Point. Examined in microscopic section it is seen to
consist mainly of algal concretions, fragments of echinoid shells and shell-
plates and spines, corals, Foraminifera, and a good many polyzoans. (See
Plate XX, fig. 2.)

Glauconitic Limestone.—From same locality. Associated with the coarse-
looking algal limestone, and probably above it, is a glauconitic type, com-
posed of numerous grains of glauconite with tests of Foraminifera and a
few angular grains of quartz. Recrystallized calcite forms a finely granular
mosaic filling some of the interstices between the organic fragments.

Marly Limestone.—North Kawa Head. This limestone consists chiefly
of the tests of Globwerina, of which the chambers are frequently detached,
and other Foraminifera. Small granular calcite often fills the foraminiferal
chambers.

Globigerina Limestone.—Koruahine Point, south end of Waiwiri Beach.
Globigerina shells almost entirely constitute this rock, which may therefore

114 Transactions.

be considered a Globigerina ooze. In the section examined there were, in
addition, other foraminiferal remains, and an echinoid spine, together with
some grains of iron-pyrites. (Plate XX, fig. 3.)

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS.

South of the Waikato River occurs a folded older-mass of Mesozoic age,
on the broadly truncated erosion-surface of which was laid down a younger-
mass of Tertiary strata showing unconformity, or at least discontinuity
of deposition between some series, as at the Kawa.

North of the Waikato River is an area of younger (Quaternary) sedi-
mentary strata with a line of elevated sand-dunes fronting the coast.

Along lines of major dislocation coincident with the northern limit of
the Manukau Harbour in one case, and, in the other, with the line of the
lower Waikato River, considerable differential movements resulted in uplift
of the areas to the north and south relatively to the middle (or Manukau)
area. The latest considerable movement of the southern area appears to
have been uplift to the approximate height of 180 ft., and to have occurred
since the Waikato River began to discharge itself by its present outlet.*
Minor oscillations have occurred in sub-recent times, especially in the middle
area.

The Manukau sand-dune range originated in a spit or barrier beach
which created a broad estuary of the Waikato River.

The Manukau Harbour owes its origin to streams, during minor uplift,
cutting into the silts deposited in the former Waikato estuary, whilst
subsequently the area subsided shghtly, allowing the sea to penetrate into
these stream-courses and rapidly push back the low sea-cliffs cut in the
unconsolidated silts

The ages of the Tertiary strata and the importance of the physical uncon-
formity and stratigraphical discontinuity in the Kawa beds cannot be
decided definitely without further palaeontological evidence, which it is
hoped will be available in the near future.

REFERENCES.

Arper, E. A. Newetn, 1917. The Earlier Mesozoic Floras of New Zealand, N.Z.
Geol. Surv. Pal. Bull. No. 6 (n.s.).

Bartrum, J. A., 1917. Additional Facts concerning the Distribution of Igneous Rocks
in New Zealand, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 49, pp. 418-24.

—— 19194. New Fossil Mollusca, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 51, pp. 96-100.

—— 1919s. A Fogsiliferous Bed at Kawa Creek, West Coast, South of Waikato
River, New Zealand, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 51, pp. 101-6.

Cox, S. Hersert, 1877. Report on Waikato District, Rep. Geol. Explor. during 1876-77,

pp. 16-25.

Cussen, L., 1889. Notes on the Waikato River Basin, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 21,
pp. 409-10. :

—— 1894. Notes on the Piako and Waikato River Basins, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 26,
pp. 400-1.

Hector, J., 1877. Progress Report, Rep. Geol. Explor. during 1876-77, pp. 7-8.

HENDERSON, J., 1918. Notes on the Waikato Valley, near Maungatautari, NV.Z. Jour.
Sci. & Tech., vol. 1, pp. 56-60.

Hurron, F. W., 1867. Geology of the Lower Waikato District, Rep. Geol. Explor.
during 1867, pp. 1-8.

HocHSTETTER, F’, von, 1867. New Zealand.

Park, J., 1910. Geology of New Zealand.

Tuomson, J. A., 1917. Diastrophic and other Considerations in Classification and
Correlation, and the Existence of Minor Diastrophic Districts in the Notocene,
Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 49, pp. 397-413.

* This estimate is based upon the data furnished by the pumice-bed in the section
exposed south of Kawa Stream.

BartrumM.—Geology of Great Barrier Island. 115

Art. XIV.—Notes on the Geology of Great Barrier Island, New Zealand.

By J. A. Bartrum, Auckland University College.

[Read before the Auckland Institute, 15th December, 1920; received by Editor, 31st
December, 1920 ; issued separately, 27th June, 1921.]

Plates X XIT-X XVII.

In 1919 the writer spent a short holiday at the northern end of Great
Barrier Island, and found that the geology of that part of the island is
rather indifferently represented by Hutton’s paper of 1869,* which still
remains the only important account of that area. In many respects
Hutton’s work is admirable, for considerable difficulties attach even now
to a close study of some parts of the island, and years ago these must
have been even greater. Hutton’s chief error is that he failed to recognize
a large area of rhyolitic rocks as such, and mapped them as “ pinkish
slates.” This is, however, entirely excusable, for these rocks are very
finely banded, and in section resemble very finely granular sediments,
though upon examination with a first-class instrument they can be seen
to be in reality minutely microspherulitic rhyolites.

Park (1897), who deals with the geology of the central portion of the
island in his paper on the geology and veins of the Hauraki goldfields,
makes a similar error in classing them as banded sinters similar to those
he asserts form the higher portions of a mountain-mass near Whanga-
parapara, with a remarkable series of breakaway cliffs which give it its
local name, Whitecliffs Range. (Plate XXIII, fig. 2.) The Maori name for
it is Te Ahumata.

The writer’s visit served to yield him little more than an approximate
idea of the geology: one or two large areas to the north are terra incognita
to him, and the appended map shows very crudely sketched boundaries
between the various rock formations. He managed, however, to spend
a day or so at Mine Bay, on the north-west coast, where Hutton maps so
many interesting dykes intrusive into the shales and greywackes which
form the basement of the island, and to make a moderately careful study
of many of these dykes. The number of them is so great at Mine Bay
itself, along the coast both north and south from there, and in the valley
of Mine Bay Creek, that a full collection was out of the question, and no
map could exhibit their location unless published on a very large scale.

The writer made his headquarters at the house of Mr. Warren, of
Port Fitzroy, and cannot sufficiently thank Mr. Warren and all members
of his household for the assistance they gave him in numerous ways.
From there he made a number of excursions on foot and by boat, and
finally took a walk along the recognized foot route from near Cooper’s
to the top of Mount Hobson, thence by a devicus traverse to Awana Flat,

* Full reference is appended in a list of literature cited to be found at the end of
this paper.

116 Transactions.

f Needles Pt.

KATHERINE BAY )
aii|
qld
split

‘4
ll
Port ABercromBie “il wl!
°
Wellinglon He xp) QyNeusonl® Borser|\
| | | yr owen An

| CEOLOCICAL SKETCH-MAP
oF
CREAT BARRIER ISLAND

Scale

Miles ‘ a Miles
Reference
Older mass (Shales,Greywacke tc) (ZA
Andesilic Volcantcs m
Rhyolitic Volcanics =

Whileclifts Mass(Sinterac) EY
Sand-dunes&e( Swamps xy
Ceology partlyafterHuilon
Noe: Ceological BoundartesHighlyA pproxima ce.

Bartrum.—Geology of Great Barrier Island. 117

from which place he visited Oroville, in the Kaitoke Valley, and then
returned by the road and tracks along the east coast from Kaitoke Creek
to Harataonga Bay, whence he took the bush track, crossing the higher
country some distance from the coast, to Whangapoua.

In spite of the cursory nature of the writer’s examination of a large
portion of the area mapped, it appeared to him desirable to make such
provisional alterations and additions to Hutton’s account of its geology
as are now possible, instead of waiting perhaps a long time until an
opportunity presented itself for making a more thorough geological survey.

SCHEME OF PAPER.

The aim of this paper on the geology of Great Barrier Island may be

summarized as follows :—

(1.) To present a statement of the physiography and stratigraphy of
the island, and more particularly of its northern half:

(2.) To record the discovery in the basement (? Mesozoic) rocks of
some interesting conglomerate bands containing granite, peg-
matite, granulite, and other boulders:

(3.) To describe a little more fully than Hutton (1869) the rocks
intrusive into the basement:

(4.) To discuss briefly the origin of the copper lode at Miner’s Head.

PHYSIOGRAPHY OF GREAT BARRIER ISLAND.

Great Barrier Island is a rugged, elevated, much-dissected, probably
one-cycle mountain-mass, about twenty-four miles in length, and varying
up to thirteen miles in width. It is built largely of moderately resistant
rocks, amongst which well-compacted andesitic conglomerates and breccias
and rhyolite lavas figure most prominently. Hach of these two rock-types
builds its own characteristic terrain, recognizable with ease even at con-
siderable distance. The andesitic fragmentals often build the hill land-
scape best described as turreted, with successions of frowning blufis
breaking the monotony of gentler slopes. The rhyolites lend themselves
to the evolution of the weirdest pinnacled crags and sheer precipices,
which, with alluring whiteness, give a fascinating picturesqueness to the
landscape carved from them. (See Plate XXIV.)

The area of shales and greywackes at the north of the island lacks much
of the ruggedness of the more southerly portion, but is none the less steep
and topographically fine-textured. On the north-west it descends abruptly
to the sea in stupendous lofty precipices. (See Plate XXIII, fig. 1.)

Like its prototype the Cape Colville (or Coromandel, or Hauraki)
Peninsula, of which it is undoubtedly the former continuation, Great
Barrier Island represents the remnant of a maturely dissected, mountainous,
heterogeneous land-mass with imsequent draimage, which was depressed
with reference to sea-level in the not-far-distant geologic past, so that the
sea entered far into the deep, comparatively narrow trenches carved in
the earlier mass.

More particularly on the western coast, islets and reefs thickly fringe
the shore-line, representing extensions of this earlier land-mass which have
not yet been cut down by wave-attack. (See Plate XXII, fig. 1.) Youthful,
precipitous, lofty cliffs form this highly irregular immature coast, except
locally where bays such as Katherine, Blind, and Tryphena Bays exhibit

118 Transactions.

unimportant shore progradation, or where at Port Fitzroy the clifis are
interrupted temporarily by deep, narrow entrances to the wonderful and
beautiful harbour.

Delta - building is active in bay - heads entered by streams of any
importance, but there is a noteworthy absence, even in the landlocked
Fitzroy Harbour, of the mangrove-dotted mud-flats so common in most
of the North Auckland harbours. This is to be accounted for in part
because of the insignificant size of the inflowing streams, in part because
of the great depth of the sea-occupied trenches.

The eastern coast of the island differs very greatly from the western.
It is exposed to more vigorous wave-attack from the ocean, with the result
that it has been cut back until the coast-line is much more regular than
the western. Several large harbours similar to Port Fitzroy existed at
one time, but all have been shut off from the open sea by spits or barrier
beaches, and the resulting lagoons have in large part been obliterated by
blown sand and swamp or other filling. One of the best examples is
furnished by the lower Kaitoke area, in the central portion of the island
The earlier inlet has apparently been enclosed by a barrier beach. Land-
wards from this is a zone of low sand-dunes, and then comes a remarkable
area of swamps. (See Plate XXII, fig. 2.) At the Awana Stream, similarly,
swamps occupy an extensive tract within a flaring portion of the lower
valley, just above a bottle-necked outlet to the ocean which is due to the
close approach of two opposed spurs cut in resistant andesitic fragmentals.

Barrier Beaches or Spits.

In considering whether the former harbours of the eastern coast of
Great Barrier Island have been blocked off by barrier beaches or spits
one has many opposing considerations to weigh. The problem is_ best
considered by reference to the analogous physiographic conditions of the
Cape Colville Peninsula, where, in similar manner, the western harbours
remain open, whilst the eastern are largely shut off by wave-built sand-
accumulations.

There is undoubtedly a strong northward drift of the sea-waters, which
brings pumice, for example. from the Bay of Plenty around Cape Colville
and deposits it in such places as Whangateau (near Cape Rodney) on the
shores of the mainland; but this cannot have had any effect in creating
the present conditions at Great Barrier Island, for both coasts should show
similar features if this were so.

The fundamental reason undoubtedly is that which has allowed the
building of such typical barrier beaches as the somewhat complex one that
encloses the Katikati-Tauranga harbour, on the southward continuation
of the east coast of Coromandel Peninsula. There is abundant evidence
that the waves of the open ocean have in that district removed a very
considerable strip of land in cutting back the present sea-cliffs.

It is also to be observed that the depth of water off shore at the con-
clusion of the major movement of subsidence noted was shallow wherever
barrier beaches have been built, for in such localities the earlier land-
surface was invariably of low relief, often consisting of the flood-plains
of the now greatly diminished rivers, or of the flattish floors of their wide,
late-mature valleys. The initiation of the building of the beaches is
almost certainly to be correlated with sub-recent uplift of a few feet, which
is demonstrated by uplifted shore-terraces, wave-cut platforms, sea-caves,

TRANS. NeZ. Ins, Vou. line Pirate XXII.

[H. Winkelmann, phoio.

Fic. 1.—The rugged, youthful, western coast of Great Barrier Island. View looking
north-north-west towards the entrance to Port Abercrombie. The sea-
cliffs are cut in andesitic fragmentals.

[H. Winkelmann, photo.

Fic. 2.—Kaitoke Beach from the south, mid-east coast, Great Barrier Island. Mount
Hobson is visible in the centre-right distance.

Face p. 118.)\

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vou. LIII PratE XXIII.

'H. Winkelmann, photo.

Fic. 1.—The Needles, north-east coast of Great Barrier Island. Lofty sea-cliffs are
typical of the northern coast of the island. :

[H. Winkelmann, photo.

Fic. 2.—Breakaway cliffs of Whitecliffs Range, near Whangaparapara, viewed from
the north. Mine-workings in altered andesitic rocks can be seen below the cliffs.

BartrumM.—Geology of Great Barrier Island. 119

and other similar criteria observable at different portions of the coast-
lines in the mid-Auckland area; for, as D. W. Johnson shows in Shore
Processes and Shore-line Development, the disturbance of the equilibrium
of the graded off-shore profile by uplift is the most general cause of the
building of these off-shore bars.

In corresponding manner, at the Great Barrier Island, a graded profile
must have been established fairly early by vigorous wave-attack upon the
easily removed areas of low relief on the eastern coast, and barrier beaches
would soon come into existence upon any subsequent uplift taking place.

SUMMARY OF STRATIGRAPHY.

Great Barrier Island is constituted by a basement mass of folded sedi-
ments, largely shales and greywackes, and herein called the “ oldermass,”’*
which extend over the northern part of the island as far south approximately
as a line drawn from the head of Katherine Bay on the west coast to
Tupawai on the east, and which are again exposed in a small area near
Harataonga Bay, farther south. These rocks have been extensively eroded
and then covered in the Tertiary by a sheet of andesitic volcanics which is
probably well over 1,000 ft. in depth. These are in turn overlain by later
acid volcanic rocks, with accompanying sinters, in a central area around
and south of Mount Hobson.

The andesitic rocks are largely coarse fragmentals, with subsidiary
lavas ; they form the mass of the island south of the northern sedimentary
area, and are covered at higher levels by acidic rocks in the area mentioned.

THE BASEMENT SEDIMENTS, OR OLDERMASS.

The writer closely examined the outcrops of the older sediments for
fossils, but was unable to find any, in spite of the fact that (fide Sollas and
McKay, 1905, vol. 1, p. 146) Hutton discovered a coral. There is little
doubt that the oldermass of the island is comprised of rocks substantially
the same as those of Coromandel Peninsula which yielded a few Mesozoic
fossils south of Coromandel (Fraser and Adams, 1907, pp. 49-50). In
facies they are mainly shales, but with moderately frequent greywackes
which are sometimes—as, for example, at Harataonga Bay—finely inter-
banded with the shales. In the same locality, further, a small amount of
fine conglomerate is displayed, which recalls somewhat the conglomerate
of the comparable Manaia series of Coromandel Peninsula (Fraser and
Adams, 1907, pp. 48-62). In the headwaters of Mine Bay Creek there is
a coarse conglomerate with greywacke boulders.

One of the most striking features of the oldermass is the way in which
its rocks have been seamed by the numerous dykes mentioned in the
introduction above. A detailed account of their petrography will be given
in a later section

A most interesting and important discovery was made of bands of
coarse conglomerate with abundant granitic, pegmatitic, and granulitic
pebbles and boulders. Undoubtedly these yield very definite information
as to the character of the earlier (pre-Mesozoic) land-mass affording the
clastic material.

* A usage introduced to New Zealand geology by Cotton (1916).

120 Transactions.

Structure.

The structure of the oldermass in the northern portion of New Zealand
is still imperfectly known, so that a few definite observations of strike and
dip may prove of value. In the vicinity of the intrusive dykes intense
shattering has disguised the structure of the sediments. Plate XXV, fig. 3,
illustrates folding in these beds at Harataoaga Bay.

Observations —(1.) Immediately south of Miner’s Head a conglomerate
band strikes N. 35° W., with a dip of 70° to the north-east. (2.) In
the valley of Mine Bay Creek two conglomerate bands gave respectively
(a) strike north-west and south-east, dip 60° to the south-west ; (6) strike
N. 60° W., dip 70° to the south-south-west. (3.) Towards the head of
Mine Bay Creek: strike N 5° W., dip 30° to the east.

Conglomerate Bands in Basement Sediments.

Three outcrops of conglomerates were found—the first at the foreshore
near the adit crosscut of the old copper-mine at Miner’s Head, on the north-
west coast of the island; the other two not far distant’in branches of a small
tributary to Mine Bay Creek, which enters from the south about half a mile
up-stream from the foreshore. The first varies in width from about 8 in.
to a little over 1 ft., and contains large well-rounded beach-boulders ranging
in size up to 19in. in diameter. The material of the boulders is typical
coarse granite with conspicuous white mica, a biotite granite with
equally conspicuous biotite, and pientiful hard shales and other sedimentary
types.

The outcrops in Mine Bay Creek basin show a much more substantial
depth than the first mentioned ; both probably belong to the same band,
which has a width of about 7{t. The majority of the boulders are much
smaller and less assorted than in the other band, and there is an abundance
of arkositic matrix. A bi-mica granite, in boulders as large as 18 in. in
diameter, forms the bulk of the constituent boulders, but shales too are
plentiful, whilst granulites (some with garnet, some without), pegmatites,
and occasional andesite are also represented.

Sections were cut from a number of the boulders, but microscopic
examination did not add greatly to the knowledge gained by macroscopical
examination. One fact worth mention is that the biotite of some of the
boulders from the band near the copper-mine adit contains small zircon
crystals around which are intense pleochroic haloes.

The pegmatites are fine-grained, composed almost wholiy of graphically
intergrown orthoclase and quartz, with frequent small flakes of biotite.
The photomicrographs, figs. 1, 2, and 3 of Plate XXVII, adequately
exemplify a pegmatite and two types of granulite, one with garnet and
the other lacking it.

Significance of the Material of the Conglomerates.

The presence of rocks such as granulites in the basement shales and
greywackes of Great Barrier Island indicates the existence near that area
of a land-mass which had been subjected to intense pressure before the
deposition of those sediments, a question already considered in some detail
by the writer in a recent paper (Bartrum, 1920). The coarse, well-rounded
‘ nature of the boulders of the conglomerates, and their freshness, particularly
in the band near Miner’s Head, indicate that they were deposited near the
shore-line of a land-mass. They suggest a temporary movement of elevation

BartruM.—Geology of Great Barrier Island. . 121

of the area of deposition, followed by a continuance of depression. There
is, however, no evidence to show the exact location of the land-mass, but
we are undoubtedly beginning to know a little more of it than previously.
It certainly lies buried beneath the unmetamorphosed sediments of the
Whangarei district, for andesitic rocks intrusive into these sediments at
Parua Bay contain very abundant xenolites of hornblende-schists and
hornblende-epidote-schists.

The period of pressure causing this acute metamorphism of the rocks
of this pre-Mesozoic land probably was coeval with that causing the
granulation of granites in the central portion of the North Island (Park,
1893), and of dioritic rocks at Albany, near Auckland (Bartrum, 1920),
now found in Tertiary conglomerates in those districts. It is a fair inference
that this land was extensive both north and south of the city of Auckland,

Tue ANDEsITIC VoucaNic Rocks.

The andesitic mass resting upon the basement of eroded sediments,
and occupying the main portion of the island south of the northern area
of sediments, consists to a great extent of coarse fragmentals, breccias in
the main, though conglomerates are also abundant. Many of the rocks
here loosely called breccias are perhaps more strictly agglomerates, but the
writer had not an opportunity in the field of making the distinction. Lavas
of limited extent are frequently intercalated in the mass, but tufis are scarce.
Hutton (1859) records the presence of seams of black laminated shale in a
coarse soft tufaceous sandstone forming the base of the series at Onewhero,
in Maori (Katherine) Bay, a locality not visited by the writer.

Sollas and McKay (1905, vol. 1, p. 146) describe a hyalopilitic pyroxene-
andesite belonging to this series of rocks, and Park (1897), though he does
not definitely state that the propylites, or altered andesites, of the central
portion of the island, which carry gold-silver ves, belong to the series,
leads one to infer that he believes such to be the case, and records types
that “are augitic and generally contain hypersthene, which often occurs
in excess of the augite.”’

A number of sections were cut from flows in many diverse locali-
ties, and of some of the fragmental material. All indicate a remarkable
uniformity of facies. Hypersthene-andesites are very common, augite in
these being greatly subordinate to the hypersthene, or even absent. In one
slide the hypersthene has deep resorption borders of iron-ore, which is not
at all a common phenomenon ; this is well illustrated by the photomicro-
graph, fig. 4 of Plate XXVI. The other varieties of andesite can be classed
as pyroxene types, with both augite and hypersthene prominent.

In the majority of the sections there is surprising uniformity in general
_appearance. The clear-cut phenocrysts, embracing always plentiful feldspar
in addition to pyroxene, are spread in a very constant minutely crystalline
groundmass consisting mainly of tiny feldspar laths with a little pyroxene
and iron-ore. Sometimes it is so fine as to be practically irresolvable, and
in such cases it is perhaps to be considered hyalopilitic.

A boulder from a conglomerate at Port Fitzroy furnishes a good example
of intersertal structure : numerous small crystals of plagioclase, with other
coarser crystals of the same mineral and pyroxene, are interspersed closely
in a glass crowded with minute prisms of pyroxene and a few small crystals
of magnetite. Fig. 5 of Plate XXVI illustrates a typical portion of a
section of pyroxene-andesite.

122 Transactions.

Comparison with similar Fragmental Series.

There is little doubt that the andesitic mass of Great Barrier Island
is coeval with that so well exhibited in rocks possessing similar mode
of occurrence at Coromandel and elsewhere throughout the Coromandel
Peninsula. These are the “‘ Beeson’s Island” or “second period ” rocks
of earlier writers (cf. Fraser and Adams, 1907; Fraser, 1910), which are
considered Miocene in age.

Acipic Votcanic Rocks or THE ‘“‘ THrRD PERIOD.”’

In conformity with conditions on the Coromandel Peninsula, where the
latest volcanics are practically without exception rhyolitic lavas, breccias,
and tuffs, and cap an erosion-surface of the “second period” andesites,
there are on Great Barrier Island truly comparable acidic “ third period ”
rocks. The writer did not make as extensive an examination of them as
he desired, but visited them on the lower north-west slopes of Mount Young,
the western slopes of Mount Hobson, and examined them fairly thoroughly
along the ridges south-east and east of Mount Hobson which form the
long pmnacled divide between the headwaters of Kaitoke Stream and of
Awana Stream. The writer’s route from the top of Mount Hobson was an
irregular zigzag along this ridge, and across the upper basin of the Awana
Stream to Awana Flat. Along his route, and particularly west of it in the
circle of precipitous crags surrounding a basin-like hollow in the headwaters
of the Kaitoke Stream, these “third period” rocks are by far the most
conspicuous feature of the landscape, and the bizarre pinnacles and sheer-
walled bluffs are scarcely to be matched even in rugged regions such as that
of exactly similar rocks on the main divide between the Kauaeranga and
Tairua Rivers, south-east of Thames. (See Plate XXIV.)

The main portion of the mass of acidic volcanic rocks at Great Barrier
Island appears to consist of pinkish-grey rhyolitic lava with very fine wavy
fluxion-banding. There is breccia in several places, but it is apparently
not extensive. No important tufaceous beds were seen, but the topography
in the vicinity of Mount Young indicates their possible occurrence there in
quantity.

Hutton (1869) and Park (1897) deal with the rocks of this series, the
former excusably considering them “ pink slates,” the Jatter bedded sinter.
Undoubtedly Park was influenced by the occurrence of siliceous sinter
in large quantity on the Whiteclifis Range; McKay’s able description
leaves no room for doubt that there is here a considerable mass of sinter
(McKay, 1897). Park (1897) refers to the same mass, and adds an interest-
ing detail, which the writer can verify from examination of specimens given
him, to the effect that some of this sinter is oolitic. The oolites are about
gin. in diameter, and consist of concentric shells of very fine white mud ;
they imperfectly resemble the celebrated oolites of the Carlsbad springs.
A few sections were cut from rocks forming the fringe of the Whitecliffs
(or Te Ahumata) mass, and tend to show that all of it is not sinter,
but more or less silicified rhyolite and rhyolitic tufaceous breccia. The
silicification is perhaps a result of the hydrothermal activity manifested
by sinter in other parts of the mass; but this suggestion is at best a
surmise.

Park (1897, p. 105) refers in some detail to “‘a remarkable breccia,
which has been carved by subaerial denudation into the most fantastic
and grotesque features,” which, he says, is “‘ immediately east of the great

BartrumM.—Geology of Great Barrier Island. 123

siliceous deposit’ (? rhyolite), and forms the watershed between the
Kaitoke and Awana Streams. At every point where the writer examined
the rocks at this ridge they were of the usual rhyolite, but he admits that
certain portions of the ridge were not visited. Park continues, however,
‘This breccia is flanked or overlain by the siliceous deposit on all sides of
the Awana Flat. It is composed of a bluish-grey, shining, siliceous rock
embedded in a matrix resembling a fine ash or tuff. . . . On the low
spurs and ridges near the fantastically carved rocks overlooking the great
Kaitoke basin this breccia material is seen to decompose in a deep, yellow-
coloured, mealy, sandy clay. The origin of this breccia is evidently connected
with some of the volcanic outbursts of andesitic matter which preceded
the deposition of the great sinter deposit around this region.”

Whilst admitting that his visit afforded him but a cursory glance at the
geology of this district, and that he had not read Park’s statement in
advance of it, the writer is at a loss to understand the location of this breccia.
He would certainly doubt that it forms the “fantastic and grotesque ”
features of the ridges west of Awana Flat, and there is some uncertainty
as to whether or not Park actually means that it does so in this locality,
since he says that “‘ This breccia is flanked or overlain by the siliceous deposit
on all sides of the Awana Flat.” To the east and south-east of Awana
Flat the topography indicates that the rhyolitic rocks give place to the
andesitic, which are known to outcrop a very few feet below the level of the
flat on the south-western slope to the Kaitoke Stream from the flat, and
which form a wide strip along the east coast north from the mouth of that
stream.

The writer did, however, observe a most curious obsidian “* breccia ’’—
possibly a true breccia, more probably only such in appearance, and in
reality a weathered coarsely perlitic obsidianitic flow. This is exposed,
lying hard upon the andesitic rocks (mentioned above) outcropping a very
few feet below it, in a cutting of the track from Awana Flat towards
Oroville, the site of the now disused mines in the Kaitoke Valley. The
depth of the breccia actually exposed is insignificant, but it is possible
that its thickness is locally considerable, and that it represents some phase
of the breccia described by Park.

The obsidian discovered here explains the otherwise inexplicable occur-
rence of obsidian noted by McKay (1897) on Te Ahumata, which is, indeed,
a further argument in favour of the view that the upper portion of that
elevation—the sinter of McKay and Park—is largely rhyolitic. This mass
rests on andesitic material which is exposed on the lower slopes of the White-
cliffs Range, and which, in altered form—propylite—is the country of the
gold-silver veins (fide Park, 1897).

Petrography of the Rhyolites.

Petrographically the rhyolites examined from the acidic area north of
Te Ahumata show little variety. In hand-specimen none showed any notice-
able phenocrysts, and the majority, as already stated, have a very fine,
regular, but somewhat sinuous fluxion-banding. The colours vary from
greyish-white to pmkish. In thinnest section, using a microscope with
good resolving-power, the banded varieties show up as very minutely micro-
spherulitic. Phenocrysts are practically absent. Small druses of opal
may show up in section, and in the field a few larger opal- or chalcedony-
filled cavities were observed.

124 Transactions.

One section of a banded type shows dense somewhat axiolitic narrow
dark bands, between which are clearer bands largely of very finely
crystalline quartz. A few very small crystals of feldspar represent the
only phenocrysts.

An Acid Dyke in the Andesitic Fragmentals.

Before leaving the subject of the rhyolitic rocks, mention must be
made of a very striking dyke, apparently of rhyolite, forming a conspicuous
feature of the Jandscape on the northern wall of the Awana Valley. It
can be seen readily from the open country near the top of the ridge crossed
by the inland or “bush” track from Harataonga Bay to Whangapoua.
Seen from there at a distance of a little less than three-quarters of a mile
it appears a great vertical wall, probably at least 100 ft. high, built of
horizontal columns apparently of rhyolite, which outcrops near it to the
south, and piercing andesitic conglomerates clearly visible in the adjacent

blufis. (See Plate XXV, fig. 1.)

PETROGRAPHY OF THE DYKE COMPLEX IN THE BASEMENT SEDIMENTS.

Having read Hutton’s (1869) description of the Mine Bay area, the
writer had anticipated that his own visit would yield him petrographic
material of very great interest. He was not altogether disappointed, but
found that practically all the dykes he examined were greatly affected
by decomposition or alteration of some kind or another. This fact
militates against the exact deciphering of some of the varieties.

The list of rock-types examined includes (1) pegmatite or granite-
granophyre, (2) quartz-porphyry, (3) quartz-porphyrite and quartz-ande-
site, (4) porphyrites and andesites. Hutton’s original list includes diorite,
quartz-porphyry, and felstone. In a later paper (1889) he describes an
elvanite, or dyke-rock showing quartz phenocrysts in a felsitic ground-
mass. Apparently he did not examine the rocks microscopically, and_ his
identifications are therefore by no means sound.

Very few indeed of the rocks have escaped the prevailing alteration.
This is exhibited in the conversion of feldspars to kaolin, often with calcite
and quartz as additional products, and the hydration of biotite and ferro-
magnesian minerals generally to chlorite, sometimes with the addition of
calcite. The production, and often introduction, of calcite is most general,
and strings of it seam the dykes and adjacent sediments. Pyrite is a further
secondary mineral which is fee email: abundant. In several instances
metallization has proceeded along the walls of dykes, producing small
lodes in which the commonest minerals are chalcopyrite, sphalerite, galena,
and pyrite. It is possible that the general alteration of the dyke-rocks
is a result of the same processes as gave rise to the introduction of ore-
minerals, but it must be admitted that the wall- rock of the dykes appears
to give no evidence of any of the changes expectable on that hypothesis.

1. Peqmatite or Granite-granophyre.

This is a curious rock forming an intrusion on the south-east wall
of the copper lode at Miner’s Head, and surprisingly free from signs of
having been affected by the near passage of the solutions giving rise to the
lode. The minerals are equidimensional, and form a mosaic reminiscent
of that displayed by granulites Much of the rock shows graphic structure.

Trans. N.Z. Unst., Vor. LIL. PrateE XXIV.

‘H. Winkelmann, photo.

Typical rhyolitic bluffs, summit of Mount Young, looking north-west.

Face p. 124.)

PLATE XXV.

pans. NeZeallNsi. son. léleule

‘pur[s] Joldvg yvoiy) Jo 4SvOd ysvo ‘Avg vouoLZwIe] JO pud YPLOU ‘ssBULLEP[O JO s}UoUMIPEs poppoq-aUy poepfoy Alesojj—e “Diy
“puvIsy, Ioluaeg yor ‘Avg oury JO eOYS YZNOs ‘ssvuLIep[o Jo e[VYys posozzeYys Suipnajur soyAp MoweU Durdpruey—'z “17
(‘opt vw Fo sdoqaenb-saryy qnoqe yueyzstp yuiod vw Woay SUE, SNdOJ-3.104s
(WIM poudersojoyg) “wrong vueamy Jo Ao]PVA Jo [PVA ULoYJAOU UO soyvAOWIO[SUOD oTYISepue Surpnaqut ayAp plow snonordsuoa W— | “oy

5G SOL YE MT “T “DIOL

Prats XXVI.

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vout. LIII.

Fria. 1.—Graphie intergrowth of quartz and orthoclase in pegmatite. Boulder from
conglomerate in oldermass, Mine Bay Creek. Crossed nicols. 26.
Fic. 2.—Granulite with garnet (black, in centre) from conglomerate in oldermass, Mine
Bay Creek. Crossed nicols. 26.
Fic. 3.—Granulite from conglomerate in oldermass, Mine Bay Creek. Crossed _nicols.
S26:
Fic. 4.—Hypersthene with resorbed borders in ‘second period” andeside, Kaitoke
Valley. X 26.
Section of a typical “second pericd” andesite, showing a phenocryst of
hypersthene and the characteristic fine groundmass. 26.
Fic. 6.—Phenocrysts of zoned plagioclase and of quartz in quartz-porphyry from
headwaters of Mine Bay Creek. Crossed nicols. 26.

oe

Fic. 5.

ATPASE INI Ag lbsGings Wore. JOVUDL,

Prats XXVOTL.

Fic. 1.—A porphyrite from the dyke complex of Mine Bay. Part of a large plagio-
clase crystal is recognizable, and the irregular nature of the coarse ground-
mass can just be discerned. Crossed nicols. 26.

Fie. 2.—Sagenitic pseudomorph after biotite in porphyrite from Mine Bay area. 150.

Fie. 3.—Quartz-mica-porphyrite from intrusion near old copper-mine. Phenocrysts
of biotite and plagioclase can be seen. Crossed nicols. X 26.

(Fie. 4.—A quartz phenocryst from a hornblende-biotite-quartz-porphyrite forming
intrusion a little south of Miner’s Head. The crystal shows a distinct
corrosion border. Crossed nicols. 26.

sic. 5.—Pilotaxitic andesite from dyke in oldermass of Mine Bay Creek. Crossed
nicols. X 26.

Bartrum.—Geology of Great Barrier Island. 125

Quartz forms about half the bulk of the minerals, though cryptoperthite
is fairly plentiful along with orthoclase. The only other minerals are a
little plagioclase and some flakes of biotite. It is possible that this rock
is the “true dyke of granite” mentioned casually by Hector (1870) in
his paper on mining in New Zealand.

There is some uncertainty in the writer’s mind as to the exact classi-
fication of this rock; the structure is typical neither of pegmatites nor
granophyres, .

2. Quartz-porphyry,

Several dykes of this type are recorded by Hutton (1869), as well as
a number cf an allied rock called by him ‘“‘felstone,’ and defined by
Hector (1870) as a rock lacking phenocrysts, but otherwise similar to
quartz-porphyry. Many of Hutton’s quartz-porphyry dykes seem to be
in reality porphyrites with quartz.

The quartz-porphyries so called by the present writer have rather
finely granular groundmass and large phenocrysts of quartz and weathered
orthoclase and plagioclase, with a few flakes of altered biotite. The
groundmass seems largely feldspar, so that the classification is perhaps
uncertain in the absence of chemical analysis. Dykes of this rock are
rare; only three were found, all of them close together in the headwaters
of Mine Bay Creek.

Many of Hutton’s “felstone ”’ dykes are very doubtfully acidic. The
groundmass approaches the felsitic, but the phenocrysts, if present, are
rare ones of feldspar. The alteration is so intense that exact identification
is almost impossible. In the field these dykes may ramify in intricate
fashion, as can be seen from Plate XXV, fig. 2.

The photomicrograph, fig. 6 of Plate X XVI, exhibits a typical quartz
phenocryst, along with zoned plagioclase, in a quartz-porphyry forming
a narrow finely banded dyke in the headwaters of Mine Bay Creek.

3. Quartz-porphyrites and Quartz-andesite.

b)

The distinction between the terms “‘ porphyrite ”’ and “‘ andesite” when
applied to dyke-rocks is at best an artificial one. Those here classed as
porphyrites show rather coarse feldspar phenocrysts in hand-specimen,
along with prominent biotite or else hornblende, or chlorite pseudomorphs
after those minerals; they have a coarse groundmass lacking the usual
structures found in andesites. In the Great Barrier dykes these latter
rocks are very typical representatives of their class; feldspar is their
only common prominent phenocryst. Fig. 1 of Plate X XVII illustrates the
coarse irregular structure of the groundmass of a type best classed as a
porphyrite.

Porphyrites and andesites are by far the commonest of the intrusives ;
some contain quartz and some are without it. All show the prevailing
alteration, though in a few instances this is not intense. Two good examples
of comparative freshness are furnished by a quartz-biotite-porphyrite forming
a massive intrusion near the adit of the old copper-mine, and by a wide
intrusion in a small bay just south of Miner’s Head, which is mapped by
Hutton as a diorite, but is in fact a quartz-porphyrite, rich in both
biotite and hornblende.

The majority of the quartz-porphyrites are types with altered biotite,
usually with chloritic, sometimes with sagenitic, pseudomorphs after that

126 Transactions.

mineral. An excellent example of such a sagenite pseudomorph is afforded
by fig. 2 of Plate XXVII.

In a section cut from a greatly altered porphyrite-like rock there are
nests of chalcedony and some phenocrysts still recognizable as micro-
perthite in spite of their being largely replaced by calcite and quartz. In
the rather fine-grained groundmass there are laths of plagioclase, whilst
a little of the quartz appears to be primary.

In the quartz-porphyrite from near the copper-mine the phenocrysts
are mainly basic andesine, with a moderate number of flakes of biotite.
The groundmass is fairly coarse, and consists mainly of plagioclase with
abundant small shreds of biotite and a certain amount of quartz; it
contains occasional radial structures. Occasional pseudomorphs after horn-
blende are recognizable. Fig. 3 of Plate X XVII illustrates a typical portion
of this porphyrite, whilst fig. 4 portrays a quartz phenocryst in the
hornblende-biotite type which has already been mentioned. In this latter
rock the biotite is very fresh, and is perhaps in excess of the greenish-
brown somewhat chloritized hornblende ; a few large phenocrysts of quartz
are visible, typically corroded, but andesine is again the most abundant
phenocryst. There is quartz in the groundmass. Zircon, apatite, and
iron-ore are present in small amount.

The only andesitic dyke-rock containing phenocrysts of free quartz
outcrops in the bed of Mine Bay Creek about a mile above its mouth. It
contains ilmenite with associated sphene.

4. Porphyrites and Andesites.

Porphyrites and andesites are amongts the commonest of the intrusive
rocks represented. A mica type, always greatly altered, is the most
prevalent of the porphyrites. The only other variety noted is a coarse
highly feldspathic one, almost lacking in ferro-magnesian minerals.

The andesites are varied. Even when appearing fairly fresh macro-
scopically, all are found in section to be altered to a greater or less extent.
Some are highly feldspathic, some noticeably pilotaxitic (see photomicro-
graph, fig. 5, Plate XXVII). Many are altered beyond recognition of variety.
It is possible, however, positively to identify the following varieties: Mica-
andesite from a small tributary to Mine Bay Creek about half a mile above
its mouth, augite-andesite from a prominent dyke at the north end of
Harataonga Bay, and an andesite with brown hornblende from a dyke
near the north head of Mine Bay. In the augite-andesite the structure of
the groundmass is unusual, for the plagioclase laths are enwrapped pseudo-
poecilitically by a clear mineral resembling quartz.

Comparison with Intrusives of Coromandel Peninsula.

The presence of abundant porphyrites and andesites in the basement
rocks of Great Barrier Island is another evidence of the close similarity
of that area to the Coromandel Peninsula, where even greater variety is
shown in dykes of the same petrographic character, which are intrusive
especially into the Moehau series of pre-Jurassic age (Fraser and Adams,
1907, p. 22). Particularly on the western flank of the Moehau Range
intrusions are both numerous and varied, but all are basic intermediate
in character (Fraser and Adams, 1907, pp. 87--93).

It is impossible in Great Barrier Island to form any estimate of the age
of the intrusions, or indeed to correlate the basement rocks themselves

Bartrum.—Geology of Great Barrier Island. 127

with the divisions accepted by Fraser and Adams for those beds in the
Coromandel Peninsula, but these authors adduce several arguments in
favour of the view that many of the similar intrusions in the district referred
to must have been pre-Tertiary (1907, pp. 88-89). There can be little
doubt that those of Great Barrier Island are substantially contemporaneous
with these latter.

ORIGIN OF CopPpER LODES.

Unfortunately the writer has not had the opportunity for a very close
study of the copper deposits; the main lode has been worked out, and
only a few remnants of the lode-material are visible here and there in the
workings. Such information as is available makes Hutton’s view of the
origin of the deposit untenable, in spite of the fact that he had the advantage
of examining the lode whilst mining operations were in progress. Hutton
(1869) considered that it originated superficially as a breccia filling a surface
fissure.

The present writer’s view is that the lode is due to the metallization
of an irregular shatter-zone trending approximately north and south. The
solutions depositing the cupriferous material were almost certainly genetic-
ally related to the numerous porphyrite intrusions near by. This view has
very weighty support from the presence of small veins of mixed sulphides
—largely chalcopyrite with galena, blende, and pyrite—which are exposed
actually on the walls of porphyrite dykes in old prospecting-drives on
the north shore of Mine Bay, and up a rill entering Mine Bay Creek
from the north about 15 chains up-stream from its mouth (the “ New
Lode ” of Hutton’s map).

In the deposit at Miner’s Head the ore-minerals are mainly chalcopyrite
with its oxidation products; these have been deposited in the crevices
of the shattered vein-filling, which is predominantly a somewhat altered
argillaceous rock. Hutton considered that the presence of fragments of
‘* diorite”’ in the vein-fillng showed that the intrusions were earlier than
the lode, and therefore had no genetic relations to this latter. He apparently
failed to appreciate the possibility that the intrusions are not all absolutely
contemporaneous.

List oF LITERATURE CITED.

Bartrum, J. A., 1920. The Conglomerate Band at Albany, Lucas Creek, Waitemata
Harbour, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 52, pp. 422-30.

Corton, C. A., 1916. The Structure and Later Geological History of New Zealand,
Geol. Mag. (n.s.), dec. 6, vol. 3, pp. 243-49 and 314-20.

Fraser, C., 1910. The Geology of the Thames Subdivision, V.Z. Geol. Surv. Bull.
No. 10 (n.s.). ,

Frasmr, C., and Apams, J. H., 1907. The Geology of the Coromandel Subdivision,
N.Z. Geol. Surv. Bull. No. 4 (n.s.).

Hector, J., 1870. On Mining in New Zealand, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 2, pp. 361-84.

Hutton, F. W., 1869. Report on the Geology of the Great Barrier Island, Rep.
Geol. Explor. during 1868-69, pp. 1-7.

— 1889. The Eruptive Rocks of New Zealand, Jour. and Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W.,
vol. 23, pp. 102-56.

McKay, A., 1897. Report on the Silver-bearing Lodes of the Neighbourhood of
Blind Bay, Great Barrier Island, Auckland, N.Z. Parl. Paper C.-9, pp. 75-80.

Park, J., 1893. On the Occurrence of Granite and Gneissic Rocks in the King-country,
Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 25, pp. 353-62.

—— 1897. The Geology and Veins of the Hauraki Goldfields, New Zealand, Trans.
N.Z. Inst. Min. Eng., pp. 1-105.

Sotuas, W. J., and McKay, A., 1905. Rocks of Cape Colville Peninsula, vols. 1 and 2.

128 Transactions.

Art. XV.—A Conglomerate at Onerahi, near Whangarei, Auckland,
New Zealand.

By J. A. Bartrrum, Auckland University College.

[Read before the New Zealand Science Congress, Palmerston North, 27th January, 1921:
received by Editor, 21st February, 1921 ; issued separately, 27th June, 1921. |

Plate XXVIII.

INTRODUCTION.

THERE are certain conglomerates intercalated in Tertiary and earlier strata
in various parts of the North Island of New Zealand, amongst the con-
stituent pebbles and boulders of many of which there is material showing
evidence of having been subjected to far more intense pressures than have
any of the rocks constituting the basement of that Island, with the
exception of some at Whangaroa (Bell and Clarke, 1909, p. 44). At this
place schistosity is locally developed upon rocks described by Bell and
Clarke as altered igneous types, but the cause is ascribed by them to
shearing-stresses along a fault-zone.

In a recent paper the writer summarized the recorded occurrences in
the North Island of conglomerates containing granitic or dioritic material
showing acute pressure-effects, and described a variety of rocks from an
occurrence near Albany, in the vicinity of Auckland (Bartrum, 1920).
In a second paper he described granitic and granulitic boulders from a
conglomerate in the basement rocks of Great Barrier Island.*

The present note, published here by permission of the Director of the
New Zealand Geological Survey, describes interesting pressure-affected and
other rock-types from a conglomerate at Onerahi, near Whangarei, which
furnish additional evidence of the widespread nature of this pre-Mesozoic land.
It is believed that it was not wholly destroyed until after mid-Tertiary times,
for the boulders of the Tertiary conglomerates seem too free from decom-
position to be merely a rewash of Mesozoic conglomerates. These latter,
in any case, are scarce in relation to the wide extent of basement rocks
now uncovered for examination.

In a paper read before the Melbourne meeting of the Australasian
Association for the Advancement of Science in January, 1921, the present
writer adduced arguments in favour of the correlation of the rocks of the
pre-Mesozoic land-mass of the North Island with those of the Aorere
system, so well developed in the South Island.

GENERAL AND PETROGRAPHIC DESCRIPTION OF ONERAHI CONGLOMERATE.

In December, 1919, in company with Mr. H. T. Ferrar, of the New
Zealand Geological Survey, the writer discovered a conglomerate intercalated
in greensands exposed between tide-marks a short distance east of the
wharf at Onerahi, near Whangarei. The series of beds of which it is part is
probably Tertiary in age, and is considerably disturbed by folding. The
beds below the conglomerate are not visible, but above it come about 20 ft.
of greensands, and then a gradual passage to an argillaceous limestone

* See this volume, pp. 119-20.

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vou. LIL. Prare XXVIII.

Fig. 1.—Granulated (?) quartzite from conglomerate at Onerahi. Crossed nicols. X 20.

a ¢ alee ips , . + to =n 5 : : Re ATS
Fic. 2.—Perthitic feldspar from gneissic granite from conglomerate at Onerahi. Crossed nicols. X 25.
awe : ; 5 E =
Fie. 3.—Plagioclase phenocrysts in granophyre from conglomerate at Onerahi. Crossed nicols. X 25.

9e°

Fig. 4.—Granophyrie matrix of rock illustrated by fig. 3 above. Crossed nicols. 133.

Fig. 5.—Spherulitic structures in matrix of acidic (?) tuff from Onerahi conglomerate. Crossed
nicols. X 133.

Fic. 6.—Quartz phenocryst from acidic (?) tuff from conglomerate at Onerahi. It contains rounded
fragments of finely granophyric hornblende-feldspar rock. Crossed nicols. X 133.

Face p. 128.)

= rh wf th rae Om
pes ie cen

Bartrum.—4A Conglomerate at Onerahi. 129

similar to the very extensive limestone of the North Auckland area usually
spoken of as the ‘“ hydraulic limestone.’ The question of its age is still
unsettled.

The band of conglomerate is lensoid, ranging up to about 5 ft. in depth,
and is exposed standing steeply on edge for about 15 yards. Its pebbles
and boulders are well rounded, and, though mainly small, vary upwards
in size to 3in. or more in diameter. The material is chiefly greywacke
and shale, with other types of sedimentary rocks, but interesting igneous
rocks are also frequent. One other type was also found : it is a quartz-rich
granulite, which probably represents a granulated and partially recrystallized
quartzite. The rocks of igneous origin include :—

1. Gneissic granite.
2. Acid intrusives—
(a.) Quartz porphyries ;
(b.) Granophyre.
3. (2) Tufaceous acidic rock.
4. Andesitic tuff.

DETAILED PETROGRAPHY.

Granulated (7?) Quartzite. (Plate XXVIII, fig. 1.)

Macroscopically this rock resembles hornfels. In section it is seen to be
almost wholly quartz showing highly prominent shadow-extinction, with
a little untwinned feldspar and perthite. Granulation has been intense,
and the minerals form a mass of somewhat interlocking, coarse, partially
recrystallized grains with granulated borders.

There are occasional grains of epidote, whilst minute shreds of muscovite
are present, mainly in the granulation-products.

Gneissic Granite. (Plate XXVIII, fig. 2.)

This is a very curious granitic rock showing gneissic structure distinctly
in hand-specimen. Quartz makes up about half the bulk of the rock, the
rest consisting of a very little acid plagioclase and of the coarse perthite
SO prominently displayed by the photomicrograph.

The only other minerals are rare sphene, a few tiny flakes of muscovite,
and some irregular patches representing alteration-products, probably of
biotite.

The perthite is on a very coarse scale, and at first glance resembles
graphically intergrown quartz and orthoclase; occasionally the crystals
may actually be such intergrowths, but in the majority of cases there is
very minute albite-lamination crossing the coarse perthitic striping of the
mineral.

The gneissic structure visible macroscopically appears in section as
zones of shearing.

Quartz Porphyries.

These are conspicuously porphyritic rocks, somewhat dark in colour,
showing feldspar and occasionally quartz phenocrysts in hand-specimen. —

Nearly all the sections show a fairly finely holocrystalline granular
groundmass, in which are abundant large acid plagioclase phenocrysts.
Occasionally there are plentiful orthoclase and quartz crystals. Biotite
is present in greatly inferior amount; it may be fresh or represented by
alteration pseudomorphs. The groundmass typically consists of quartz
and orthoclase in subequal amounts, but where quartz occurs as a

5—Trans.

130 Transactions.

phenocryst the groundmass shows correspondingly less of that mineral.
It is sometimes so coarse that the rocks then deserve to be classed as
granite-porphyry.

In one section there are a few spongy crystals of brown hornblende,
which enclose several quartz-grains ; in the same section there is a xenolite
which is apparently a fine weathered granodiorite.

Granophyre. (Plate XXVIII, fig. 3.)

This rock has occasional fairly coarse idiomorphic phenocrysts of plagio-
clase in a groundmass which contains a moderate amount of plagioclase in
laths enwrapped pseudo-poecilitically by quartz crystals which sometimes
are large. A very great portion of the matrix, however, consists of micro-
pegmatite, as is well exemplified by fig. 4, Plate XXVIII. There are a few
minute flakes of greenish-brown biotite.

The occurrence of granophyres in New Zealand is rather limited. Sollas
and McKay (1906, vol. 2, p. 182) describe them from a conglomerate
outcropping on the east shore of Palliser Bay, near Wellington. A rock
collected by Smith (1908) from river-gravels in Westland, and described
by him as granite-porphyry, seems equally to merit the name “ spherulitic
granophyre.”

(?) Tufaceous Acidic Rock,

A difficult rock to classify. It is decidedly fragmental in general character,
but appears to have the fragments enclosed in a matrix which is unlike
that of a tuff. It is a finely granular mixture of feldspar, green hornblende,
and probably quartz, with frequent spherulitic and micropegmatitic inter-
growths (see photomicrograph, Plate XXVIII, fig. 5). In it there are large
broken crystals of plagioclase, a few of orthoclase, many coarse ones of quartz,
and some biotites which are generally chloritized. There are also very small
fragments of finely micropegmatitic material, of very fine-grained andesites
(some with a little green hornblende), and of an exceedingly fine-grained
rock made up of green hornblende and feldspar along with a little
micropegmatite and probably quartz.

An interesting phenomenon is the enclosure of micropegmatite and of
some of this last-mentioned rock by quartz crystals. In some instances
(see Plate XXVIII, fig. 6) there is a very definite band-like margin to the
inclusions.

These inclusions, and the nature of the matrix, furnish grounds for
suspecting that the rock is not a tuff, but an intrusive in which fragments
of intruded rocks have been entangled. Marginal resorption could readily
explain the rounded forms of the rock-fragments.

Andesitic Tuff.

This is a compact fine-grained rock having an andesitic matrix in
which are enclosed small particles of very fine-grained trachytic rock, either
trachyte or trachyandesite.

REFERENCES.

Barrrum, J. A., 1920. The Conglomerate at Albany, Lucas Creek, Waitemata Harbour,
Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 52, pp. 422-30.

Bet, J. M., and Crarke, E. de C., 1909. The Geology of the Whangaroa Subdivision,
N.Z. Geol. Surv. Bull. No. 8 (n.s.).

Smiru, J. P., 1908. Some Alkaline and Nepheline Rocks from Westland, Trans. N.Z.
Inst., vol. 40, pp. 122-37.

Soruas, W. J., and McKay, A., 1906. The Rocks of Cape Colville Peninsula.

Corton.—Warped Land-surface at Port Nicholson. 131

Art. XVI.—The Warped Land-surface on the South-eastern Side of the
Port Nicholson Depression, Wellington, N.Z.

By C. A. Corton, D.Sc., F.N.Z.Inst., Victoria University College,
Wellington.

[Read before the New Zealand Science Congress, Palmerston North, 28th January, 1921 ;
received by Editor, Ist February, 1921; issued separately, 4th July, 1921.]

Plates XXIX-XXXIV.

CONTENTS. Page

The Problem ce Sic sia LUB3Ih
The South-eastern Boundary ot the Depression aD no RU
General Tectonic Features of the Depression 50 Sp iB?
The Evidence a. sis ae Sic se ag. ley
Summary : 60 Bic a5 so Weue
Tilted Coastal Platforms ss he sc sg B35

The Platforms farther West .. 135
Platforms of the Eastern Side tilted tow ards the Depression 136
Evidence from Drowned Valleys .. 36 ae cio LIB 3s}
Evidence from Regraded River-valleys .. .. 140
Appendix: The Problem of the Turakirae Coastal Plain: ae 42
List of Papers referred to .. oe ais nie 50 Hlétes

THE PROBLEM.

In 1912 the writer described Port Nicholson, the harbour of Wellington,
as occupying an area of subsidence with somewhat indefinite boundaries,
and later, in 1918, in a brief account of the coastal features of New Zealand,
termed it “a locally downwarped and embayed area.” It had previously
been described by Bell (1910) as a complex graben. The present article
is concerned with evidence of warping on the south-eastern side of this
area, which is here termed the “ Port Nicholson depression ’’—warping
that is of interest not only from a geological point of view, because of its
sharpness, but also from the viewpoint of geography, since it forms a
boundary of one of the finest natural harbours in the world (fig. 1).

The South-eastern Boundary of the Depression.

Bell appears to have regarded the eastern boundary of the Port Nichol-
son depression as a fault-scarp, and eastward of the harbour—between it
and the Rimutaka Range—his map and profile indicate the presence of a
narrow fault-bounded block standing lower than the block forming that
range (1910, pp. 537, 539). No mention of tilting of this step-like inter-
mediate block was, however, made by him.

The writer, in 1912, inclined to the belief that either the original
boundaries of the subsided block were flexures rather than faults, or, on
the other hand, the original subsidence had taken place so long ago that
topographic evidence of faulting had been destroyed. The distinct and
prominent scarp of the Wellington fault along the north-west side of the
harbour was regarded as of much more recent origin than the depression
as a whole, aes. though it must have been deepened, was not initiated
by the late insinking along this fault. Field-work having been mainly
confined to the area on the western side of Port Nicholson, the question
of the eastern, or south-eastern, boundary of the whole depression was
then left open (p. 262), but reasons were given for rejecting the fault-scarp

5*

132

Transactions.

theory in explanation of it (pp. 261-62). It was pointed out that the
slope descending to Port Nicholson is maturely dissected, and that the only
facet-like forms and blunt-ended spurs more or less in line cccur where
clifing by marine erosion has been recently in progress, and this slope as
a whole was ascribed without hesitation to the work of normal erosion
guided by structure, it being an erosion-scarp along the outcrop of a
resistant highly-inclined stratum.

It may be added that the eastern side of the harbour is now distinctly
a shore-line of submergence (Plate XXIX, fig. 1) modified by marine
erosion, especially at the southern end, where waves driven into the harbour-
entrance by southerly winds still retain considerable energy and have cut
a continuous line of cliffs with a height in places of 300 ft. The embay-
ments produced by the submergence are small, but this is because of the
steep declivities of the drowned
ravines which dissect the erosion-

| Q | ae
| UJ ' searp. Similar embayments,
H oa 2 z
| —_: filled with alluvium, are present

; !
farther north-east along the edge
| ( of the Hutt River delta, which
| : / partly fills the Port Nicholson de-
ae Pe iS pression (Plate X XXIII, fig. 1),
3 E
| es & and also still farther north-east,
; SNE ar Cy Aes where the depression widens again
=. AAD , SW / sae :
Cae g ee Kaunau alter a constriction 1s passed,
ee ey SEEMED RO and is occupied by a basin-plam
( We E Z PINGAHAURANGA : : :
No) Sighs lila eh ey PoRT in which lie Trentham and Upper
/ y {7 SYRKAIWARRA

———,
4
Sa

/
Ls =: }
| pe e/ KARORIO city) NICHOLSON
é af } oF (CoA or F
a / 5
) <=
/NELLINGTON) = BS f

SINCLAIR,

v
LAKE KOANGAPIRI PIRI

HEAD LAKE KOANGATERAY

qe
S MIEES =

Hutt (Plate XX XIII, fig. 2).
The coincidence of the trend
of the erosion-scarp forming this
eastern shere-line, and also of
nearly all the major drainage-
lines in the district. with the
strike of the folded rocks, suggests
not only that the features are
subsequent, but also that they
are guided by an alternation of
weak and resistant beds in the

Fie. 1.—Locality map of the Port Nicholson

CAPE
TURAKIRAE _

highly-inclined series of grey-
wackes and argillites forming the
bed-rock of the district. The
contrast between the weak and
resistant zones appears to be due in reality to the relative freedom from
joints and planes of shearing in the rocks of the latter, and to the jointed,
sheared, and sometimes completely crushed condition of the former, which
are perhaps best termed “ shatter-belts.” These belts, however, with one
notable exception—the line of the Wellington fault (Cotton, 1914)—are
parallel with the strike, and appear to be the result of thrust-faulting which
occurred as an accompaniment of the folding of the strata (post-Hokonui
orogeny). (The positions of several fault-zones, or shatter-belts, in the
Wellington Peninsula, west of the depression, were indicated by Broad-
gate, 1916.) Thus the ridge which bounds Port Nicholson and the Hutt

area, New Zealand.

Valley on the south-east, along with the straight and parallel valleys of

the Mangaroa Stream (a tributary of the Hutt River) and the Wainui-
o-mata and Orongorongo Rivers, and the ridges of the Rimutaka Range,

Corron.—Warped Land-surface at Port Nicholson. 133

to the east, whether or not each is confined to the outcrop of a single
formation, inay be described with perfect propriety as subsequent in origin.
Prior to the formation of the Port Nicholson depression it appears that
the whole district was maturely dissected by the subparallel streams of
the system just described, and by their numerous small insequent tribu-
taries, with a relief of about 1,500 ft.

The erosion-scarp descending to the shore of Port Nicholson and to
the Hutt Valley, as will be shown below, is not the boundary of the whole
depression, this being found to be a relatively broad strip of strongly-
warped land-surface.

The other boundaries of the depression call for passmg reference only.
On the north-western side the immaturely dissected scarp of the Wellington
fault, mentioned above, meets the warped eastern slope obliquely in the
Hutt Valley, which is thus a fault-angle depression. South-westward this
fault-scarp extends inland about a mile and there dies out, and thence
southward to the sea-coast the western side of the depression is apparently
a warped surface, though evidence of the exact nature and extent of the
warping has not yet come to light. Seaward, to the south, the depression
is open to the Pacific Ocean.

General Tectonic Features of the Depresswn.

The foregoing features of the Port Nicholson depression, taken in
conjunction with the observation that the Wellington fault-scarp follows
a pre-existing line of weakness—a very prominent shatter-belt extending
north-east and south-west, somewhat oblique to the system of subsequent
features previously referred to, and marked by prominent subsequent fault-
line valleys (Cotton, 1914)—would seem to indicate that faulting must
be regarded as merely an incident in the formation of the depression.
The principal event appears to have been the sharp downwarping of a
belt of land about thirty miles long elongated in a north-north-east and
south-south-west direction (and extending an unknown distance farther to
the south-south-west beneath the sea). The depth of downwarping that
must be assumed is variable, the maximum being perhaps in the neigh-
bourhood of 1,500 ft., or perhaps rather more, where the broadest part of
Port Nicholson now is. The width of the strip affected also varies in
different parts, but is at least ten miles where Port Nicholson is widest.
Both depth and width diminish, though irregularly, to the north-east up
the Hutt Valley.* It is as though the sagging-down in synclinal fashion
of an ill-supported superficial flake of the lithosphere crossed fortuitously
by the shatter-belt marking a pre-existing fault had resulted incidentally
in the formation of the more modern Wellington fault, the scarp of which
replaced part of the warped border of the depression.f | When the evidence
of the features of the neighbouring coasts are taken into account, however,
it appears unlikely that the harbour-depression can be accounted for so
simply as by mere downward sagging owing to lack of support. The
deformation of the ancient strand-lines may be ascribed to compressive
folding, or the warping of the land to the east and south-east may be described
as tilting of an earth-block, for, as shown below, the warping or tilting has

* Tf, as Adkin (1919) has suggested, the drowning of Porirua Harbour and the
formation of Port Nicholson are due to the same movement, the downwarped strip must
become wider northward, or must send out a branch towards Porirua Harbour.

+ Similar synclinal warping with one side partly replaced by a fault occurs in the
Aorere district, in northern Nelson (Cotton, 19168).

134 Transactions.

taken place about a hinge-line, depression being confined to the western
side of this, while to the east there is evidence of uplift only. The tilted
block affected by this movement is elongated in a north-north-east and
south-south-west direction, and is bounded on the east by a well-marked
fault-scarp which forms the eastern front of the Rimutaka Range (Cotton,
1916. p. 318) and the fault-coast of Palliser Bay.

As will be shown below, this movement took place very recently. Such
strongly differential movement of a small earth-block in very recent times is
unusual even in New Zealand, though it was common enough in somewhat
earlier times when the mountain masses were blocked out and the river-
courses determined by the movements to which the name “ Kaikoura’ has
been applied (Cotton, 1916). Since the Kaikoura orogenic movements took
place throughout New Zealand a very great deal of erosion has occurred,
but in the Port Nicholson area, on the other hand, the later stages at least
of the tilting, warping, and faulting deformed and dislocated a land-surface
the relief of which had already become very nearly that of the present day.

The features here described may perhaps be correctly ascribed to a
modern local recrudescence of the Kaikoura movements. It is interesting
to note in this connection that the latest movement which affected this
area—that which accompanied the earthquake of 1855—tilted a block of
considerably greater width, though bounded on the eastern side by the same
fault, and that the whole district here described was uplifted, mceluding
the previously depressed harbour area (Lyell, 1868). It is as though the
events which led to the formation of the harbour-depression were a belated
reversion to the Kaikoura type of movement, resulting in strong local
deformation of the surface, interrupting the more stately movements of
larger blocks now in progress throughout the New Zealand region. The
fact that the 1855 movement was of the latter type has led the writer to
suspect that even in the Port Nicholson district such movements are now
normal, and to formulate a working hypothesis that a succession of nearly
uniform uplifts preceded the warping and tilting that formed the Port
Nicholson depression. The real succession of movements has not yet been
worked out with certainty, however, and some puzzling features still
remain unexplained. c

It is highly probable that the warping or tilting responsible for the
features here described did not go on continuously and rapidly as a single
event, but was broken by pauses of considerable length. Little more than
the general evidence can be considered at present, however, as it has not
yet proved possible to separate satisfactorily the evidence of successive
movements.

THE EVIDENCE.
Summary.

The evidence of tilting and warping on the eastern side of the Port
Nicholson depression is of three kinds: (1) Tilted uplifted coastal platforms,
(2) progressively more extensive drowning of valleys from the hinge-line
of tilting to the axis of maximum depression (which 1s accompanied
by rejuvenation of the valleys on the other side of the hinge-line), and
(3) evidence of regrading in warped valleys, particularly aggradation in
such as are tilted backward.

The evidence under the first two heads is found in one line of section
only, that formed by the sea-coast, while that under the third head can be
seen at a number of places along the eastern boundary of the depressed area.

7

Corton.—Warped Land-surface at Port Nicholson. 135

Tilted Coastal Platforms.

The Platforms farther West—As previously noted by the writer (1912;
1916a), the coast both east and west of the entrance to Port Nicholson is
bordered by remnants of platforms cut by marine abrasion when the land
stood considerably lower than it does now. Around the shores of Port
Nicholson itself, and on the partially drowned ridges immediately to the
west of the entrance, which form part of the deeply depressed area, no traces
of uplifted benches clearly referable to marine erosion are to be found above
the rock platform that was raised a few feet above sea-level in 1855. Since
parts of this shore-line have not suffered severe retrogradation by marine
erosion, some remnants of uplifted platforms should survive if such had
existed ; and it may therefore be assumed from their absence that this part
of the coast has always escaped uplift, or that any strands that have been
uplifted have been lowered again below sea- level. The profile of the sea-
bottom off shore, as revealed by soundings, does not show terraces such
as would be produced by submergence of cliff-bordered remnants of cut
platforms ; but this negative evidence has little significance, for the initially
sharp, well-defined subaqueous features that would be thus produced would
soon -be obliterated by deposition of the large amount of waste supplied
from the neighbouring mountaimous area of rather easily eroded rocks,
which are subject to strong marine as well as subaerial erosion.

To the west of the depressed area the high-standing marme platforms
indicate uplift and a limited amount of deformation. Two such platforms
are distinctly recognizable (Cotton, 1912, fig. 7; 19164, fig. 8), but only the
lower of these can be traced for any considerable distance along the coast.
At Tongue Point it is continuous as a broad shelf (except where intersected
by a large ravine) for two miles, and at the ravine, where a section of the
ancient beach at the rear of the platform may be seen, its height is 230 ft.
In this portion no variation in the height of the rear of the platform has been
observed, though its variable width, and especially its variable seaward
slope, give a false appearance of irregular variation in height when it is
viewed from the offing. For three miles farther westward, as far as Cape
Terawhiti, the platform i is traceable continuously, though it is thickly
covered with talus and only at a few places is wide enough to form a dis-
tinct bench. When the cliffs are viewed from the sea, however, the top of
the talus-covered wave-cut platform can be distinctly traced all the way,
and where the bench is narrow this cannot be far below the ancient strand-
line, which is thus seen to descend gradually to a height of about 100 ft. at
Cape Terawhiti. ;

It appears, therefore, either that this portion of the coast was uplifted
with a gentle westward tilt, or that it was uplifted more evenly and
afterwards tilted gently westward ; and, though the evidence cited indicates
greater deformation of the ancient strand- line than the writer formerly
supposed had occurred (Cotton, 1912), this deformation is slight as compared
with that in the Port Nicholson area.

It may be inferred, first, that the land west of the Port Nicholson
depression was uplifted with only slight deformation while Port Nichol-
son was sinking, the two areas being connected by a warped strip; or,
secondly, that the two areas represent blocks moving qu'te independently
(though at the coast-line there is no recognizable fault-secarp separating
them) ; or, thirdly, that the uplift which raised the platforms on the west
affected the whole district nearly evenly, and that in the Port Nicholson
area the uplifted platforms have been resubmerged by more recent warping

136 Transactions.

—perhaps contemporaneously with the gentle tilting of the western coastal
platforms. In the last case, as in the first, there must be a transitional
area between the permanently uplifted and the resubmerged areas. The
uplifted platforms give no information as to the nature of the warping
in the transitional strip, for three-quarters of a mile eastward of Tongue
Point they end, their former continuation having been cut away by modern
cliff-retreat.

Platforms of the Eastern Side tilted towards the Depression.—To the
eastward, though not actually bordering Port Nicholson itself, coastal
platforms make their appearance not far from it, and these are strongly
tilted.

As on the western side, there is only one bench that can be traced for
a considerable distance with certainty; and there is a temptation to
correlate it with the 230 ft. platform at Tongue Point, but such correlation
is by no means certain. The ancient shore-line at the rear of this bench,
which may be termed the “ Baring Head platform,” as it is developed
around Baring Head (Plate XXIX, fig. 2), rises from 100 ft. in Fitzroy
Bay (fig. 2) to 450 ft. at the mouth of the Orongorongo River (Plate XXX,
fig. 1). Its continuation in both directions beyond these poimts has been

| =)

Fic. 2.—Diagram-sketch of the southern end of the tilted area east of Port Nicholson.
From left (north-west) to right (south-east) the coastal features shown
are: Pencarrow Head, Lake Koangapiripiri, Lake Koangatera, Fitzroy Bay,
Baring Head, Wainui-o-mata River, Orongorongo River, Cape Turakirae.

destroyed by cliff-recession, but between them it is quite continuous except
for the narrow, steep-sided valley through which the Wainui-o-mata River
flows out. The distance in a direct line between the two ends of this
platform remnant is two miles, and along this line a tilt of 175 ft. per mile
is therefore indicated. This is, of course, very distinctly visible to the eye
(fig. 2, and Plate XXX, figs. 1 and 2; see also Cotton, 1916, fig. 19),
though, as the bench follows the trend of the coast around Baring Head,
the whole of it cannot be seen at once except from some distance out
at sea.

The Baring Head platform is very slightly dissected. It retains its
discontinuous covering (in places 30 ft. deep at the present cliff-edge) of
gravel and coarse sand, both derived from the local greywacke, the sand
being now almost completely weathered into sandy clay. Through this
veneer the solid rock projects in places, some of the projections rising
20 ft. above the ground-level as stacks, which are now crumbling to

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vou. LIII. Pruate XXIX.

Fic. 1.—The eastern shore of Port Nicholson, an erosion-scarp with steep-
grade ravines, embayed by partial submergence, cliffed by marine
erosion, and later in part prograded.

Fic. 2.—The Baring Head platform as seen from Cape Turakirae, 450 ft. high at
the eastern (right) end, and 270 ft. high at Baring Head (on the left),
broken by a single gap at the mouth of the Wainui-o-mata River.

Lace p. 136.)

IDpANS. NeZ. INS, Vier. Til Prats XXX.

Fic. 1.—The Baring Head platform between the mouths of the Wainui-o-mata and
Orongorongo Rivers, with Cape Turakirae in the distance.

Fic. 2.—The Baring Head platform, Orongorongo platform, and higher benches,
as seen from the extremity of Baring Head, showing the accordance of
the Baring Head platform across the gap formed by the mouth of the
Wainui-o-mata River.

Corron.—Warped Land-surface at Port Nicholson. 137

decay. These stacks are exceptional features of the high-standing coastal
platforms, the smoothness of which seems at first sight remarkable when
they are compared with the rugged rock platforms of the modern shore-
line; but the explanation seems to be that the rocky prominences soon
succumb to subaerial weathering. At the extremity of Baring Head a
rocky table which evidently was cut very nearly at sea-level, being perhaps
bare at low water, now forms the outer part of the platform remnant
(Plate XXXI, fig. 1), and is separated from the ancient cliff behind it by
the bed of a channel 6 ft. or 8 ft. lower, floored with coarse sand containing
gravel lenses. This outlying reef was evidently the outcrop of a belt of
resistant rock. It and the ancient channel behind it are distinctly trace-
able along the platform for half a mile northward.

The small streams which drain the surface of the platform appear to
be all consequent. On the eastern side of Baring Head they flow directly
towards the sea, but on the north-western side the little streams from
tue cliff above join one which flows for a few hundred yards lengthwise
(northward) along the platform before turning seaward. This is quite clearly
guided by the channel between the land and the ancient outlying reef
described above. The northward direction agrees with the direction of
tilting of the platform. No abandoned courses or gaps in the outer reef
were observed which would indicate that streams had been diverted either
by capture or by tilting from former more direct courses to the sea. On
the surface of the platform the streams flow in widely-opened shallow
valleys in the soft veneer of gravel and sand, and they have cut notches
in the bed-rock only at the cliffed edge of the platform. The above
description does not apply to larger, extended streams, such as the Wainui-
o-mata, which crosses the platform at grade in a deep valley, or a smaller
extended stream between the latter and the Orongorongo, which has deeply
notched the platform.

At Baring Head there are also two very distinct remnants of benches
at heights of 80 ft. and 160 ft. respectively above the Baring Head plat-
form (fig. 2). At the back and front of each there is a distinct cliff, and
the covering of gravel on the highest is still quite fresh. Where observed
in a prominent outcrop the gravel consists of a mixture of large and small
pebbles without any finer material, and is loosely cemented with iron oxide.
These benches are drained by channels which cross them at right angles.
As in the case of all uplifted platforms backed by cliffs, it is difficult to
determine the exact Jevels of the ancient shore-lines because of the amount
of talus material overlying them. For this reason, together with the fact
that the remnants do not extend for more than a few hundred yards along
the western side of Baring Head, it was not found practicable to decide
whether they are tilted to exactly the same extent as the Baring Head
platform or not, though when they are viewed from a distance the impression
received is that the benches are approximately parallel.

Eastward of Baring Head, between the Wainui-o-mata and Orongorongo
Rivers, the two benches last mentioned do not survive, but above the
eastward continuation of the Baring Head platform (which rises here to
450 ft.) there are other well-preserved remnants at a much greater height
(Plate XXX, fig. 2). The most prominent of these is the next above the
Baring Head platform. It is of considerable width, is submaturely dissected,
and rises to a height of 900 ft. at the eastern end. This may be termed
the ‘‘ Orongorongo platform.” It and the two higher remnants, which are
several hundred feet higher and are nearly as well preserved (Plate XXX,
fig. 2), are seen from seaward to be distinctly tilted westward, and their

138 Transactions.

inclination in that direction appears to be parallel to that of the Baring
Head platform below them.

None of these platforms can be traced with certainty beyond the
Orongorongo River and around Cape Turakirae, which forms the end of
a narrow mountain-ridge, but the profile of the ridge is smooth towards
the end, and there is a faint suggestion of a bench rounded and lowered
at the margin by erosion, the rear of which is at a height of about
1,200ft. This may perhaps be the continuation of the Orongorongo plat-
form (Plate XXX, fig. 1).

Westward also the continuation of these higher platforms is doubtful,
but the Orongorongo bench may perhaps be correctly correlated with a
platform of considerable extent forming the crests of the ridge and spurs
between the Wainui-o-mata valley and the lake (Koangatera) at the mouth
of the Gollan’s Valley stream. This platform, which may be named the
“ Wainui platform,” is submaturely dissected. and is 500 ft. high at its
rear on the ridge west of the Wainul-o-mata valley. It slopes southward
(towards the sea) fairly steeply, but not so steeply that its slope in that
direction cannot be explained as probably original.

The points at which the observations of the height of the rear of the
Orongorongo platform as 900 ft. and of the Wainui platform as 500 ft.
were made are two and a half miles apart, in a north-westerly direction,
and thus, on the assumption that these two may be correlated, the tilt
indicated is the same as that of the Baring Head platform.

Farther to the west the Wainui platform, still descending, is cut through
by Gollan’s Valley, on the eastern side of which the height of the rear of the
platform is 340 ft. and on the western side only 180 ft. Here (between
the lakes Koangatera and Koangapiripiri) the platform is half a mile wide
and very distinct, though submaturely dissected. It is not shown on the
published contoured map of the district, which at this point is not quite
accurate. There is no trace of this platform, or of any others, farther on
around or beyond Pencarrow Head.

Besides these remnants of uplifted and tilted coastal plains there is
eastward of Baring Head a less strongly uplifted strip of recently emerged
sea-bottom, which extends round Cape Turakirae (fig. 2, and Plate XXX,
fig. 1) and along the western shore of Palliser Bay (Aston, 1912). It will be
referred to as the ** Turakirae coastal plain.” The greater part of this coastal
plain, though its seaward slope is very steep (about | in 10), is not yet cliffed
at the margin. Strangely enough, it was not found to be tilted to the west-
ward, as the higher benches are. The absence of evidence of tilting, and the
difficulty which this raises as to the non-continuation of a feature indicating
such recent uplift along the coast westward of Baring Head, necessitate
the introduction of a brief description of the Turakirae coastal plain ; but,
since this would make too long a digression at the present stage of the
presentation of the evidence of tilting, it is placed in an appendix.

Evidence from Drowned Valleys.

The tilting of the block east of Port Nicholson on a hinge-line, which
may be assumed in explanation of the tilted uplifted platforms described
above, involves partial or complete submergence of its north-western edge,
and this is found not only in the drowning of the central part of the Port
Nicholson depression to form Port Nicholson itself, but also, nearer at
hand, in the drowned mouths of two small valleys opening between Pen-
carrow Head and Baring Head. As the shore-line is followed westward
from Baring Head towards Port Nicholson for some distance the mouths

Corron.—Warped Land-surface at Port Nicholson. 139

of small ravines only are passed, and these hang above the shore-line as
a result of cliff-recession that has recently been in progress. Slight sub-
mergence produces no noticeable effect on the mouths of hanging valleys
such as these, and so the exact position of the hinge-line of tilting cannot
be ascertained from them. Farther on, however, Gollan’s Valley and the
valley of a small stream debouching close to Pencarrow Head are drowned
to such an extent as to indicate very considerable submergence (fig. 2, and
Plate XXXI, fig. 2).

Gollan’s Valley is fairly large, heading eight miles inland, but the other
is only two miles long. The streams in both are of such size, however,
that it may be supposed that they reached the sea at grade prior to
submergence. It is clear that both, when first drowned, were occupied
by winding lanes of sea-water, the one three miles and the other rather
more than a mile in length. These bays are now cut off from the sea and
converted into fresh-water lakes by gravel bars 20 ft. in height above sea-level
and accordant with the pre-1855 storm-beach ridge, which is well developed
along the neighbouring shore-line in Fitzroy Bay. At the western end of

other) is thus reduced to about half a mile in each case. The upper part
of Gollan’s Valley is also thickly aggraded with alluvium. Near the mouths
the sides of both valleys are cliffed, and out-jutting points are strongly
truncated (Plate XXXI, fig. 2). The cliffs reach a height of 100 ft. on
the shores of Koangatera and 50 ft. around Koangapiripin, and they are
evidently the work of waves at a time when the bays were still deep and
open to the ocean. For a mile up the somewhat winding Gollan’s Valley
the swampy delta is bordered, however, by low wave-cut cliffs. These
must be.the work of waves raised on the narrow landlocked waters, and
their presence indicates a long period of still-stand prior to 1855, for the
relative levels of sea and land were constant long enough not only for the
development of distinct cliffs (though on mature hill-slopes of weathered
rocks, it is true) by waves with a fetch of no more than a few hundred yards,
but also for the delta-front to advance for quite a mile past the farthest
inland point where cliffs are traceable. This indicates that the uplift of
1855 was either the precursor of a new series of earth-movements or was
an isolated phenomenon ; and the shore-line features at the western side
of the entrance to Port Nicholson lend support to this view.

As the writer has shown elsewhere (Cotton, 1921), this is a matter
of great practical importance. If movements like that of 1855 had been
common in the immediate past the outlook for the future safety of the
city of Wellington and the continued usefulness of its harbour would be
rather poor; for it must be remembered that the cause of the disastrous
earthquake of 1855 was directly connected with the uplift which then
occurred, and also that the harbour was made fully 5 ft. shallower by the
same movement. As it is clear from what has been stated above that the
1855 movement was the first of its kind in this district for thousands of
years, the outlook for Wellington is distinctly hopeful.

A rough indication of the measure of the submergence shown by the
drowning of the valleys to form the bays now occupied by the lakes
Koangatera and Koangapiripiri can be obtained by comparing the widths
of the mouths of the embayments with the widths of similar but unsub-
merged valleys in the district at various heights above the floor, and also

140 Transactions.

by comparison of the lengths of the drowned portions with the average
gradients of similar valleys. For this purpose the contoured map of the
district has been used. The result shows that the depth of submergence
at Gollan’s Valley may be as much as 200 {ft., but cannot be more. The
Koangapiripiri valley is so small that the result obtamed by comparison
with the small-scale map available is not very reliable, but the submergence
indicated does not seem to be greater than in Gollan’s Valley, though
indications of greater submergence might be expected, seeing that it is half-
way between the latter and the deeply-drowned entrance to Port Nicholson.

The evidence of the drowned valleys supports the hypothesis of fairly
even tilting towards the Port Nicholson depression. The position of the
hinge-line is not definitely indicated. It is possible that the mouth of
the Wainui-o-mata valley has been very slightly drowned and quickly
filled again with alluvium by the river, but this is doubtful. Farther
east, however, at the mouth of the Orongorongo, there has been no sub-
mergence, for this river is cutting on bed-rock at the mouth.

Some of the rejuvenation of which there is evidence in the Orongorongo
valley is in all probability a result of the uplift of the eastern side of the
tilted area which caused the emergence of the Turakirae coastal plain.
Hence the rejuvenation of the eastern valleys is not such good proof of
tilting as the drowning of the western valleys.

Evidence from Regraded River-valleys.

Near the coast the larger streams flow without exception in courses
parallel with the hinge-line of tilting inferred from the evidence aleady
described. They are close together, and have only very small, steep-
graded tributaries. In this part of the district there are, therefore, no
streams that would be particularly sensitive to tilting in a west-north-
westerly direction towards the Port Nicholson depression. Degradation in
the Orongorongo and Wainui-o-mata valleys, of which there is evidence in
the presence of low terraces, might be the result of purely regional movement,
and distinct terraces can be correlated with uplifted strand-lines on the
Turakirae coastal plain, which les across their mouths. The aggradation
in Gollan’s Valley, which has previously been described, can be accounted
for by the drowning of the valley-mouth. Nevertheless the western branch
of Gollan’s Valley is aggraded quite to the head, as though as a result of
headward tilting, which would be the result of the general downwarping
of the surface towards Port Nicholson. '

There is a suggestion of aggradation also in some parts of the valley
of the Waiuil-o-mata, which is somewhat winding. It is a mature valley,
with a flood-plain, and this widens out considerably in places, where the
valley bends to the west. Though such expansions are due in part to the
development of large curves by lateral planation and their later abandon-
ment when the stream returned by a cut-off to a straighter course, they
appear to be partly the result also of aggradation in response to backward
tilting in certain reaches, either because these are below westward bends
in the sinuous valley, or else on account of transverse watping, such as
certainly occurs farther north, corrugating the general slope of the country
towards the Port Nicholson depression.

These aggradational effects are, however, much less definite proof of
tilting than some which are found farther north, opposite the Hutt delta
and the upper Hutt Valley. Here, though the principal valleys still trend
north-north-east or south-south-west (Cotton, 1914), a number of tributaries
of moderate size enter them from the west. The western branch of the

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vou. LIIT.

Prate XXXII.

~
fe

Fie. 1.—The Baring Head platform on Baring Head, showing a flat-topped ancient
outlying reef surmounted by stacks.

Fig. 2.—Lake Koangatera, at the drowned mouth of Gollan’s Valley, showing

strongly-cut sea-cliffs along the sides and bordering the bay-head delta
in the foreground.

Face p. 149.)

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vou. LIT. Pratt XXXII.

Fra. 1.—The aggraded, headward-tilted valley of the western branch of the
Wainui-o-mata, as seen from a point on the divide at its head.

Fic. 2.—View looking seaward across the widest part of the rocky coastal
plain of Cape Turakirae, showing successive beach-ridges built during
pauses in the uplift.

Prats XXXIITI.

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vou. LITI.

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Corton.—Warped Land-surface at Port Nicholson. 141

Wainui-o-mata (Plate XXXII, fig. 1) is a good example of a backward-tilted
valley. It is occupied by an aggraded plain almost to the divide at its head,
as shown by the contoured map (Plate XX XIII, fig. 1), but the aggradation
does not extend far down the main valley beyond the junction, where there is
merely a flood-plain in the valley-bottom. Another branch of the Wainui-
o-mata, Moore’s Valley, is aggraded also, but not to its head, for this does
not turn so far westward.

Very striking topographic features resulting from aggradation which must
be the result of headward tilting occur in a tributary entering from the west
the Mangaroa River, itself a tributary of the Hutt (Plate X XXIII, fig. 2).
The Mangaroa is one of the apparently subsequent, north-north-eastward-
flowing streams, and so is approximately parallel to the hinge-line of the
most prominent tilting. The tributary referred to, or, more correctly, the
several small streams which join to form it, flow at right angles to this
direction—7.e., east-south-east, or directly against the slope of the land-
surface which a little farther on descends below the alluvium in the Hutt
Valley (a north-easterly extension of the Port Nicholson depression). It is
clear that, before they were tilted headward by an earth-movement, these
small streams flowed in courses approximately the same as those they now
follow across a maturely dissected surface not very different from that
now existing, and the present topographic features indicate that the tilting
was so sharp that these steep headwater streams, with declivities as steep as
several hundred feet per mile, were caused to aggrade vigorously, so as to
spread an extensive sheet of alluvium. (At some stage they may have been
ponded, though any evidence of such ponding is now buried beneath
alluvium.) The valley-floors are now broad fan-like slopes of alluvium, the
greater part of which hes just below the 800 ft. contour (Plate XX XIII, fig. 2).
The fans are steep at the valley-heads, where they extend almost to the
divide, and lower down are swampy except where they have been drained
artificially. They spread out widely in the middle parts of the tilted
valleys and taper away towards the junction with the Mangaroa Stream.
To such an extent are the valleys filled about the middle of their slope
that the fans in two of them have become confluent across the neck of a
spur, the end of which now stands as an island surrounded by alluvium
(Plate XX XIII, fig. 2, and Plate XXXII, fig. 2).

A few miles north-eastward, at Wallaceville, the Mangaroa Valley is
itself aggraded. Some aggradation is to be expected as the axis of the Hutt
Valley is approached, for the latter, as mentioned above, is in some places
deeply filled with alluvium, and from it aggraded plains extend some little
way up tributary valleys, converting them into embayments. Such aggra-
dation does not, however, extend far up small valleys that are strongly
tilted down-stream. Above the partial filling due to alluviation outside
their debouchures streams entering the depression from the slope of the
tilted surface ought, in general, to be rejuvenated. In spite of its belonging
to this class of streams the valley of the Mangaroa is aggraded for several miles ;
for the lower part of the valley, which crosses the tilted block-surface very
obliquely, appears to have suffered headward tilting owing to its crossing the
transverse corrugation which causes the Hutt Valley to expand so as to become
a basin-plain at Trentham and Upper Hutt (Cotton, 1914). This introduces
into the tilting for some distance a south-westward component, which
appears to be the cause of the aggradation in the Mangaroa, and more
especially in Black Creek, a small tributary coming in from the south-west.
The valley of the latter is filled in to form a swampy plain a mile wide and
three miles in length, which shows up very conspicuously on the contoured

142 Transactions.

map (Plate XX XIII, fig. 2). This plain (the Mangaroa Swamp) is so
level that it is highly probable it is in part a filled-in lake due to warping,
rather than a plain wholly formed by aggradation.

The Mangaroa River near its junction with the Hutt is now degrading
again, and this rejuvenation is shared by the upper part of the Hutt River
and its other tributaries. It is due apparently to steepening of the upper
course of the Hutt by the latest warping movements.

APPENDIX.
The Problem of the Turakirae Coastal Plain.

As mentioned previously, there is, to the east of the Port Nicholson
depression, besides the uplifted and tilted platforms that have been described
a less-strongly uplifted coastal plain, which fringes the coast eastward of
Baring Head, around Cape Turakirae, and along the western shore of
Palliser Bay. This feature has been described by Aston (1912) as ‘the
raised beaches of Cape Turakirae.’ Though, on account of its roughness,
“ plain’? may not seem an appropriate term to apply to it, the fact that
it is a recently-emerged strip of sea-bottom brings it into the class of coastal
plains as defined in systematic geomorphology. As the deposit of gravel
and boulders on it is merely a thin and discontinuous veneer, and the obvious
stacks and many of what are apparently boulders remain attached to bed-
rock, it might also be described as a plain of marine erosion. Aston referred
to part of it as a “ boulder plain.”

Though the seaward slope of the coastal plain is very steep (about 1
in 10), the greater part of it is not yet cliffed at the margin. Unlike the
higher benches, the Turakirae coastal plain is not tilted to the westward—
or, at any rate, is not tilted to an appreciable extent. Aston found the
height of the highest strand-line, at the rear of the plain, to be 95 ft.,
while the width varies from 250 to 400 yards.

The great size of the boulders and the general ruggedness of the former
sea-bottom correspond with the exceptional steepness of its profile, which
allowed the sea to abrade the cut platform and attack the cliffs behind
the former shore-line with the energy of the ocean-waves practically
undiminished by the friction of the bottom.

The plain is widest at Cape Turakirae, and it tapers off and ends about
five miles north-eastward.

In addition to that developed prominently in places at the rear of the
plain (No. 5 beach of Aston), Aston has recorded the presence of four other
storm-beaches at lower levels, built during pauses in uplift. Those which
he terms Nos. 4, 3, and 2 are at heights of 80ft., 60ft., and 40 ft. above
sea-level. The latter two are very prominent and. continuous around Cape
Turakirae (Plate XXXII, fig. 2). The beach termed No. 1 by Aston he
regarded as formed prior to 1855 and uplifted by the movement accompanying
the earthquake of that year. Recent observations by the writer show, how-
ever, that parts of this beach have now been reworked and incorporated
into the modern beach, as has occurred also on some other parts of the
coast near Wellington. In some places, no doubt, there was no storm-
beach ridge prior to 1855, while in other places the pre-1855 ridge has since
been destroyed by marine erosion.

The continuous raised beach-ridges ought to record any tilting along-
shore that has occurred since their formation. Down-tilting following even
uplift would cause the raised beaches, when traced laterally, to disappear
successively beneath the present sea-margin, while progressive tilting during

Corton.—Warped Land-surface at Port Nicholson. 143

uplift would be indicated by convergence of the beach-ridges. While
aneroid observations do not indicate tilting (Aston, 1912), spirit-levelling
of the 40 it. and 60 ft. beaches might show a small amount of the latter
kind. The higher beaches are largely smothered by fans, and correlation
of isolated*parts is somewhat uncertain. So these would be less suitable
for testing by precise levelling.

The writer’s observations, though his investigation of the Turakirae
coastal plain has been very incomplete, have convinced him that the
tapering-away of the plain at each end is due not to tilting, but to the
rocky platform being cut away by marine erosion as the land rose. At the
north-eastern end the beaches are smothered by fans, which must conceal
also the cliffed margin of the higher part of the plain. The lower part of the
plain continues some distance farther as a narrow bench 20 ft. above the
sea, with a cliffed margin.

Towards the western end of the plain the higher beaches are smothered
in a similar way by fans, but beyond these there is at the western side
of the mouth of the Wainui-o-mata a small cliffed remnant of a beach-
covered bench which appears to be at exactly the height of the rear of the
plain at Cape Turakirae. The platform which bears the 60 ft. beach-ridge
is also distinct on both sides of the mouth of the Wainui-o-mata; but
farther west there is no further trace of the coastal pla, though in Fitzroy
Bay there is a modern storm-beach ridge 10 ft. to 12 ft. above mean sea-
level, and also a raised beach-ridge, presumably the pre-1855 beach, 10 ft.
higher.

The discontinuity of the Turakirae coastal plain remains an unsolved
problem. There is no trace of it around the comparatively sheltered inner
shores of Port Nicholson, or, indeed, anywhere west of Baring Head. If
it has been exposed by differential uplift, or its continuation resubmerged
by differential subsidence, no fault-scarp boundary between the differently-
moving blocks has been traced, and if this boundary is a warped surface
the warped part of the Turakirae coastal plain must have been cut away
by marine erosion. It is clear, however, that the even uplift of the
Turakirae coastal plain took place later than the warping described in
the body of this paper.

List oF PAPERS REFERRED TO.

Apvxin, G. L., 1919. Further Notes on the Horowhenua Coastal Plain and the
Associated Physiographic Features. Trans. N.Z. Insi., vol. 51, pp. 108-18.

Aston, B. C., 1912. The Raised Beaches of Cape Turakirae, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 44,
pp. 208-138.

Bett, J. M., 1910. The Physiography of Wellington Harbour, Trans. N.Z. Inst.,
vol. 42, pp. 534-40.

Broapeate, F. K., 1916. The “Red Rocks” and Associated Beds of Wellington
Peninsula, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 48, pp. 76-86.

Cotton, C. A., 1912. Notes on Wellington Physiography, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 44,
pp. 245-65.

—— 1914. Supplementary Notes on Wellington Physiography, Trans. N.Z. Inst.,
vol. 46, pp. 294-98.

— 1916. The Structure and Later Geological History of New Zealand, Geol. Mag.,
dec. vi, vol. 3, pp. 243-49, 314-20.

—— 1916a. Fault Coasts in New Zealand, Geogr. Rev., vol. 1, pp. 20-47.

— 1916zB. Block Mountains and a “ Fossil’? Denudation Plain in Northern Nelson,
Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 48, pp. 59-75.

—— 1918. The Outline of New Zealand, Geogr. Rev., vol. 6, pp. 320-40.

—— 1921. For how long will Wellington escape Destruction by Earthquake ?
N.Z. Journ. Sci. & Tech., vol. 3, pp. 229-31.

LYELL, C., 1868. Principles of Geology, 10th ed., vol. 2, p. 82.

144 Transactions.

Art. XVII.—Porirua Harbour : a Study of its Shore-line and other
Physiographic Features.

By G. Leste ADKIN.

[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 13th October, 1920; received by Editor,
Sth December, 1920 ; issued separately. 4th July, 1921.]

Plate XXXV.

CONTENTS.
Introductory.
The Land.
(1.) Topography and Drainage.
(2.) Influence of Deformation on the Relief.
The Coast-line.
(1.) The Cliffs.
(2.) The Raised Shore-platform.
(a.) On the Mainland.
(6.) The Reef.
(c.) Potholes formed by Wave-action.
(3.) The Raised Beach-ridges.
(4.) Deltaic Flats.
(5.) The Sandy Beaches.
The Origin of the Harbour and the Evolution of its Shore-line.

INTRODUCTORY.

THE inlet known as Porirua Harbour, a landlocked arm of the sea, is a
unique geographical feature of the western coast of south-western Wel-
lington (fig. 1). Along this coast all cther indentations are the result of
marine abrasion acting more effectively than elsewhere on the weaker
sections of the coast, the more resistant portions, which are receding less
tapidly under wave-attack, being left to form the intervening promontories
and headlands. Marine abrasion has played only a minor part in the
shaping of Porirua Harbour—a part, however, that was important in
connection with the evolution of the shore-line of that inlet.

The outline of Porirua Harbour is characteristic of a drowned area
where the sea has penetrated a branching valley-system of somewhat mature
topographic development. Two of the principal branches of this valley-
system are now occupied by tide-water and constitute the present harbour
or inlet, while other former indentations have been reclaimed from the sea
by the infilling accomplished by local streams.

One of the first to touch on the physiography of the Porirua area and
to correlate it with that of Port Nicholson was Dr, J. M. Bell (1910), who
expressed the opinion (loc, cit., p. 539) that the surface of a tilted earth-
block dips from near the crest of the scarp of the Wellington fault in the
direction of Porirua and forms the slope which originally determined the
course of the Porirua as a consequent stream. The validity of the first
part of this statement is borne out by the existence of a peneplane surface
—evidently referable to the Kaukau cycle of Cotton (1912)—which sur-
mounts the valley of the Porirua Stream and slopes towards sea-level in
a northerly direction. In the same paper Bell also referred to certain
historical proof that the small uplift which affected the district round
Wellington City during the 1855 earthquake extended into the Porirua area,
inasmuch as the Pahautanui Stream became noticeably less navigable than
formerly.

i
;

: C. Koam
Cy
Ht RT Lichthouse
~ “| a? "The Bthers
t =
: i
pis | | 6
L | Wellington
Ew 7 ae
Ip Sho, | hi
Y )
| ; 7 ig ) ¥ EN = | ¥
®) We 2 oe
( / SELURCTON aise
SS CTerawhiti \ |itarale Pr) » th \P 3)
= 1335 My a NE 3(
5 \ oF, pi Yy av p }2\
H = Rs) ie Roe 4 ef
© ot
x
Lee
&

a i ee ce

Cs RS one Ae iat iG a | a
} =

Apxkin.—Portrua Harbour. 145

Dr. C. A. Cotton in a detailed paper on Wellington physiography (1912)
referred to the Porirua area at rather greater length. He dissented from
the view held by Bell that the Porirua Stream flows down the back slope
of a tilted block, on the grounds that the Porirua occupied its present

KAPITI {2

Kest Point C= ne
> Tkotw St a
; fff =

20.9 PARAPARAUMU
wf HWY 2

r SZ,
pare gs PS]
yr i |e \
gp 3)

Khareroa I? fy E ¢
/ y wy
Wainus R DA ia
fy ” 5/
LU) Is
SGA

-. C Jackson

TEL OOUE Long

Fig. 1.—Locality map of south-western Wellington, showing places mentioned in text ;
also the area at Porirua Harbour shown in figs. 4, 5, and 6.

valley before the faulting and tilting took place. It does not necessarily
follow, however, that the excavation of the Porirua Valley has been accom-
plished since the faulting and tilting, and that it was not in existence prior
to those events. The drowning of the lower reach of the Porirua Stream

146 Transactions.

to form one arm of the present inlet is ascribed by Cotton (loc. cit.’
p. 257) to a downward movement of 30 ft. or 40 ft. subsequent to the
general movement of elevation of the Wellington Peninsula, but no precise
cause of the subsidence is proffered. Cotton also states that “at Porirua
there appears to have been little or no movement either up or down
in 1855. Raised rock platforms similar to those at Wellington are not
found.” I shall be able to show, however, that raised shore-platforms of
wave-planed rock do occur along a very considerable part of the Porirua
shore-line, and form one of its most conspicuous features.

The present writer had occasion to refer to the Porirua area in con-
nection with an apparent deformation of the southern end of the Horo-
whenua coastal! plain (Adkin, 1919, pp. 110-12). The deformation of the
coastal plain was ascribed to its intersection by the subsiding, or downward
tilting, of the earth-block, bounded east and west probably by flexures,
which extends from Port Nicholson to Porirua Harbour, and thence north-
ward past Pukerua inside the Island of Kapiti After a detailed examina-
tion of a large portion of the Porirua area the writer sees no reason for
any modification of this solution of the problems involved.

THe LAND.

Since the present paper has for its main theme the description and
interpretation of shore-line features, only the relevant elements of the
land-surface of the Porirua district will be discussed, under two headings,
as follow: (1.) Topography and Drainage; (2) Influence of Deformation
on the Relief.

(1.) Topography and Drainage.

The country surrounding Porirua Harbour is one of moderate elevation
but of high relief. This moderately elevated tract rises to a greater height
inland, especially in a north-easterly direction, and consists of a series of
fairly even-crested hill-ridges, which for the most part have a N.E. by
N.-S8.W. by 8. trend, though a few of them are orientated more nearly
north and south. The ridge-tops are commonly broad and undulating,
and the ridges themselves are flanked on either hand by long branching
lateral spurs that taper off as they descend to the bottoms of the intervening
longitudinal valleys. The principal valleys have flood-plains in their lower
portions, and graded bottoms extend practically to their heads. In their
upper reaches, “however, overlapping spurs are still a prominent feature.
The valley-sides are well dissected by the numerous lateral gullies, but
this dissection has not everywhere extended to the main ridge-crests,
where what seems to be a more mature relict topography still prevails.

There is some evidence, in the form of a high-level bench, notably at
the head of Taupo Creek and in the valley of the Kahao Stream, of an
intermediate partial erosion-cycle, probably corresponding to the Tongue
Point cycle of Wellington Peninsula, and in addition to this there are areas
of rejuvenation due to coastal recession and other causes. A full con-
sideration of these matters is beyond the scope of this paper, but it may
be remarked that, while the topography is undoubtedly composite, indica-
tions of the intermediate erosion cycle or cycles have been practically
obliterated except in the instances cited above. Broadly speaking, there-
fore, the topography of the Porirua area may be described as being just
past early maturity—that is, in the stage when maximum relief is giving
place to more subdued forms. .

Apkin.—Porirua Harbour. 147

The main drainage-lines leading to Porirua Harbour have, with one
notable exception, the same parallelism, trend, and longitudinal elonga-
tion that distinguish the intervening ridges. The one exception is the
Pahautanui Stream, which, together with its drowned lower valley—viz.,
the broad eastern arm of Porirua Harbour—lies transverse to al] the other
topographical features of the district. The present Pahautanui Valley and
its drowned lower portion is too widely-opened and ancient a feature to have
had so recent an origin as to belong to a young stream consequent on a
bounding flexure of the Port Nicholson— Porirua Harbour tilt-block, and
must be regarded as antecedent to the adjacent longitudinal ridges and
drainage-lines.

From what is now known of the morphology of other portions of the
Wellington district, it is evident that the ridge-tops to the north-east of
Porirua Harbour are the residuals of a peneplaned surface, in all probability
belonging to the Kaukau cycle of erosion. In the Wellington Peninsula,
however, the peneplaned surface of the Kaukau cycle has been uplifted
uniformly, whereas the corresponding surface to the north-east of Porirua
Harbour has a decided westerly or south-westerly tilt. This is clear
evidence of the existence either (1) of one large block having a warped
surface which changes from a uniform level in the south-west to a decided
upward slope in the north-east, or (2) of two distinct earth-blocks differ-
entially uplifted with respect to each other. The two blocks, or two parts
of a single original block, as the case may be, are now divided by the
subsided Port Nicholson — Porirua tilt-block already referred to.

(2.) Influence of Deformation on the Relief.

The rocks of the Porirua district are the well-known closely-folded
ereywackes and argillites usually referred to the Maitai formation of Trias-
Jurassic age. The strike of the strata in this vicinity appears to have a
general N.E. by E. to E.N.E. direction (N. 55° to 70° EK. true = N. 38° to
53° EK. magnetic), and the dip is for the most part vertical, indicating an
isoclinal structure.

As stated above, the trend of the series of subparallel hill-ridges which
form the moderately elevated country north-east of Porirua Harbour is
usually N.E. by N., while the average strike of the rocks forming them
is N. 62° KE. (true). With ridges and strike intersecting each other at so
large an angle (about 27°) it is difficult to understand the genetic relation-
ship of the hill-ridges to the geological structure so far as the ancient folding
is concerned.

Two theories have been advanced to account for the longitudinal
features of the orography of the Maitai rocks of southern Wellington as
exemplified by the Tararua Range and the lesser hills to the south-west.
By one theory the longitudinal ridges and drainage-lines are regarded
as being respectively dependent on, and in adjustment to, the original
geological structure (Cotton, 1918, pp. 213-14); in the other, secondary
deformation is held to be the determining factor in the production of
these features (Adkin, 1920, p. 184).

It is extremely likely that both secondary deformation and adjustment
to structure were of prime importance, each exercising a predominant
influence, but in different localities. In the Wellington Peninsula where
the secondary corrugation of the highest peneplaned surface was com-
paratively weak, and also where its axes appear to have coincided with
the strike of the ancient folding, adjustment to structure was probably the
factor that determined the trend of the ridges and valleys ; but on the more

148 Transactions.

elevated earth-block now known as the Tararua Range the secondary
deformation exercised by far the most potent influence in the determination
of the major features of the relief. The marked difference in the drainage-
pattern of the Tararua Range and that of the Wellington Peninsula
strongly supports this view, and the hilly tract situated to the north-east
of Porirua Harbour doubtless forms a transitional area between the north-
easterly strongly deformed and the south-westerly less affected surface
of the uplifted pre-Miocene peneplain (Bell, 1910, p. 538; Henderson, 1911,
pp. 312-13). In the transitional area just referred to, the strike of the
ancient folds sweeps round and assumes a more easterly direction than it
does in the Wellington Peninsula, and intersects the longitudinal ridges
and drainage-lines at an angle of approximately 27°; hence the relief in
this locality bears a closer relationship to deformation than to structure,
though the influence of the latter may not be wholly wanting.

Tse COAST-LINE.
(1.) The Cliffs.

The outer coast of south-western Wellington is characterized by a
continuous line of bold cliffs rising to heights of several hundreds of feet.
At and within the entrance to Porirua Harbour the cliffs are still of
imposing aspect, but they diminish in height as the distance from the
open sea increases. The clifi-cutting has been effected by marine abrasion
mainly under the influence of the prevailing north-westerly wind, while
the powerful but less-prevalent southerly wind has produced less extensive
but similar results, especially on southward-facing sections of the coast-
line within the confines of the harbour.

In itself the cliffed coast-line is a normal feature of marine abrasion,
but at the present day it possesses the peculiarity of being beyond the
reach of the waves ; in other words, the cliffs do not belong to the present
but to a former base-line of marine denudation.

With the exception of a few places on the outer coast between the South
Head of Porirua Harbour and Titahi Bay, and at two or three headlands
in the vicinity of Wairaka Point, where the sea is again undercutting the
high land, the former cliffed coast is separated from the present shore-line
by a strip of low-lying ground of a width usually from 5 chains to 10 chains,
but in certain situations from a quarter to over half a mile. Along the
greater part of its length the low-lying strip at the base of the cliffs is a
raised rock platform—an uplifted incipient plain of marie denudation
(Plate XXXV, and fig. 2, a); the remaining portion—situated principally at
the seaward ends of the larger valleys opening into Porirua Harbour near its
entrance—has been formed by the progradation of the shore brought about
by the deposition of a superabundance of coarse waste which has been
drifted down the outer coast and into Porirua Harbour and has been
piled up above sea-level, in the first instance by the action of the waves,
and raised still farther by the earth-movement responsible for the uplift
of the adjacent stretches of shore-platform of wave-planed rock.

(2.) The Raised Shore-platform.
(a.) On the Mainland.

The raised shore-platform (Plate XX XV, and fig. 2, a) is one of the most
interesting, and in some places also the most conspicuous, of the shore-
line features of Porirua Harbour and of the neighbouring coast. The earth-

PLATE XXXV.

T-, Vous Ione

Ss

Trans. N.Z. Ins

‘opoKO FUOLIND OZ JO UOISBAIGY OUTIeL oYy Aq paXou4sep Sutoq St ULSiwUT 19JNO s]T puv “puRs UMOTG PA
*qSvoo VNALOG OY} JO WaAo0s}e{d-o10ys poster oy,

pod9aod st ulo0zye{d-aroys oy} Fo yavd aoUUT OTT,

‘4y9] UO Sy puryuy

face p. 148.

Apxkin.—Porirua Harbour. 149

movement responsible for its present position above high-tide level was
undoubtedly the uplift that affected the eastern shore of Cook Strait during
the 1855 earthquake, as shown by several lines of evidence: (1.) The
similarity ofthe raised shore-platform and the raised beach-ridges of
the Porirua area to the raised shore- platform fringing the shores of Mira-
mar Peninsula at Port Nicholson, and to the 9ft. beach (Crawford, 1869,
pp. 320-21; Aston, 1912, p. 209; and writer’s observations) of Turakirae Head,
respectively ; in the latter localities these features have always been attri-
buted to the uplift of 1855. (2.) The historical proof of the shallowing

Old Ridge-vremnant Raised
Gl; Sea of Trras- Jura beach-—
Raised shore -platform cliff Strata ‘ ridge

Nore NG Ge

Blown sana

aT
Western flank of Se et a Bene Da Be 5 Former principal outlet
hill - ridge before ee Fa ate 46 of Taupo Creek,
cliff — ae ea now closca

OlA
meses beach Ser!
& foreshore Dunes of blown sand cliff

Tp mae ene sTy Waa han ato — aS

-—————.@? Ss?" 7
Wg
D ie
Shingle - pit tm crest va
_Of raised
beach

Foredune
x fi;

\ Yj Me
WU

|

gales =e

— Scales —
— Horrzontal — — Vertical — ~
0 22 44 Ge BB 110 132 Yards o 20 40__60 80 190 __420 _240 Feet

Fic. 2.—Sections of the Porirua coast: (a) at Taupo Point, showing the raised shore-
platform and inland cliffs; (6) half a mile south of Taupo Bay, showing
the raised beach-ridge, inland cliffs, and dunes of blown sand. Scale,
vertical to horizontal, 3:1.

of the Pahautanui Stream as cited by Bell (Joc. cit., p. 538). I have also
received details of a statement made by Mr. James Jones, an old Pahautanui
settler, to the effect that after the earthquake the tidal flats at Pahautanui
were permanently raised above high tide, and were for a time noisome on
account of putrefying shell-fish and other marine matter.* (3.) The
persistence of a considerable proportion of what is practically the original
surface of the raised shore-platform, in spite of the effects of powerful

* Mr. Jones stated that an area of at least 100 acres was raised above sea-level,
and his estimate of the amount of uplift was 3 ft. This agrees with my own estimate
based on observations of the raised shore-platform. Mr. Jones also referred to the
shallowing of the Pahautanui Stream, thus confirming in all details the historical
evidence cited by Dr. Bell.

150 Transactions.

marine abrasion acting under very favourable conditions, points to the
extremely recent date of the uplift of the rock platform and of the
initiation of the present cycle of marine denudation.

As is well known, the earth-movement of 1855 was of the nature of a
tilt to the west or north-west affecting both sides of Cook Strait. The
hinge-line of the tilt was evidently situated along the bed of the strait, since
its western shore was depressed and its eastern uplifted. The locality of
maximum uplift was Cape Turakirae (see fig. 1), the amount being 9 ft.
At Port Nicholson the uplift amounted to 5 ft., and at Porirua Harbour
entrance 3ft. Even at Wanganui there was a slight upliit (Field, 1892,
p. 573), indicating that the hinge-line of the tilting block did not intersect
the coast of the mainland south of that place.

As already indicated, the raised shore-platform is being rapidly de-
molished by wave-action, so that only a portion of the original surface
remains. This rapid demolition is due to several causes, the principal
of which are the low altitude of the platform, the thin-bedded character
of the rocks forming it, the presence of numerous faults and closely-spaced
joints, and—perhaps most potent of all—the very effective tools at the
disposal of the waves—viz., a plentiful supply of exceedingly hard grey-
wacke boulders. The raised shore-platform has, naturally, suffered greatest
destruction along its outer margin (see Plate XXXV), but in some places,’
owing to the presence of a broad band or a series of narrower bands of the
weaker argillite, it has been entirely removed to within perhaps a few yards
of the old sea-cliff, and replaced by a tiny bay. This effect of the weaker
strata is often very striking, as also is the influence of bedding, joint,
and fault planes which determine the position of deep grooves across the
platform.

The raised wave-cut shore-platforms of south-western Wellington are
especially suggestive and instructive in connection with the subject of
intermediate incipient or partial erosion-cycles which go to make up the
composite topography characteristic of many New Zealand landscapes. At
Porirua Harbour the raised shore-platform, which, as elsewhere, represents
a small interruption in the geographical cycle, is being rapidly destroyed.
In many cases a pronounced interruption in the geographical cycle may
well be the sum of a series of small interruptions each of which has been
obliterated in turn, thereby giving the whole the false appearance of a single
great interruption. This is probably the key to the origin of occasional
isolated hillside or shore-line benches and other similar indications of inter-
mediate erosion-cycles—fragments preserved in exceptionally favourable
localities long after all other traces of the cycles to which they belong have
been obliterated.

(b.) The Reef.

The Reef is the name given to a pair of interesting rock shoals situated
in mid-channel at the entrance of Porirua Harbour. At high tide the
higher rocks reach uniformly to 3 ft. above sea-level. This uniform level
corresponds in every respect to the surface of the raised shore-platform
that fringes the mainland. The Reef marks the former site of an island,
or pair of islands, which were completely planed off by marine abrasion
prior to the uplift of 1855. At low tide the two groups of higher rocks
are surrounded by a much more extensive area of low rocks just awash.
This lower surface is the present plane of marine denudation, and is the
level to which the 3 ft. surface has been cut down since 1855. The
evidence furnished by the Reef is supplementary to and confirmatory of that
afforded by the raised shore-platform on the mainland.

Apxin.—Portrua Harbour. 151

(c.) Potholes formed by Wave-action.

An interesting minor phase in the destruction of the raised shore-
platform is the formation of potholes by wave-action. I have nowhere
come across a reference to the formation, in any part of the world, of
potholes by wave-action, and, though this phenomenon may have been
previously noted, its occurrence is probably very rare.

The conditions requisite for the formation of such potholes are :
(1) The presence on the shore-line of a fairly level surface of relatively
soft rock; (2) waves of sufficient power to perform the work required ;
(3) cobbles of relatively hard rock to act as the cutting instruments.

The necessary combination of conditions and factors as above occurs
at Porirua Harbour near Plimmerton (see Plate XXXV and fig. 1). At
Plimmerton, because of the low altitude of the hills and their mature
topography, the shore-platform is composed of comparatively soft weathered
rock. Other important factors are the thin-bedded character and the
vertical attitude of the rocks forming the platform, and the strike of the
strata, the trend of which is here approximately at right angles to the
shore. Being lines of weakness, the bedding-planes of the vertical strata
have been hollowed out by the waves. Upon being washed into one of these
grooves a travelling cobble or boulder of the extremely hard greywacke is
propelled landwards until it becomes immovably wedged in a fissure or
meets an obstruction preventing its farther progress. In the latter case its
forward motion is changed to a circular one, and a pothole is initiated.
This may grow to a considerable size unless interrupted by the breaking-
away of one of the walls of the hollow. The largest pothole noted
measured 3 ft. 6 in. by 2 ft. in diameter and 2 ft. in depth.

(3.) The Raised Beach-ridges.

The raised beach-ridges of Porirua Harbour have a narrower range than
the uplifted shore-platform, being confined to the eastern coast at the
harbour’s entrance from near Te Rewarewa Head to the vicinity of the
Paremata railway-bridge. and to the outer coast from Te Rewarewa Head
northward to Pukerua Bay. Along these stretches of coast-line two con-
terminous series of shingle and boulder beaches may be distinguished :
(1.) An older series which was in existence prior to the 1855 earthquake and
was uplifted during that event, so that it is now beyond the reach of the
waves and is not in the course of accumulation. This series of beaches
is referred to herein as the raised beach-ridges. (2.) A younger series still
being deposited along portions of the present shore-lime within the limits
defined. This is undoubtedly the post-earthquake equivalent of the older
series.

The most northerly point of origin of the material of both series of
beach-ridges is the coast at Pukerua and Wairaka Points, where great
outcrops of intensely hard greywacke form headlands abutting on this very
exposed portion of the coast. Some of the detritus derived from the
abrasion of these greywacke headlands is carried eastward into Pukerua
Bay, but the greater part is swept southwards down the coast-line by
powerful waves acting under the influence of the prevailing north-westerly
wind. :

Immediately south of Wairaka Point (see fig. 1) there is a great embay-
ment, which on account of its general appearance and for convenience of
description I have named Desolate Bay. Along its entire length the

152 Transactions.

shore-line of Desolate Bay is backed by an unbroken line of cliffs, probably
600 ft. to 700 ft. in height, and remarkable for the development of extensive
serees. These, which consist of angular blocks of greywacke of all sizes,
descend to the tide-level line and add greatly to the quantities of detritus
which the sea is carrying down the coast.

At High Rock Poimt, which is the southern horn of the crescentic
Desolate Bay, the last of the naked screes carries its quota of angular blocks
to sea-level, and south of this spot the screes are ** fixed” by vegetation.
Here also the raised beach-ridge makes its first appearance, and extends
as a flat-topped terrace at the foot of the cliffs as far as Te Rewarewa Head.
North of Te Rewarewa the raised beach-ridge evidently rests upon the
surface of the raised shore-platform ; south of that headland it appears
to follow the outer margin of the latter.

The most mteresting development of the raised beach-ridges is found
just within the entrance of Porirua Harbour, on its eastern shore. In
its progress southward (prior, of course, to the uplift of 1855) the older
accumulation of travelling shingle extended in the form of detached beaches
or shingle-spits, piled up to 7 ft. above sea-level, right across the former

INLAND KAIKOURAS MARLBORCUGH SOUNDS DISTRICT MOUNTAINS OF WESTERN NELSON
1

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: —— a7
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es

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1320

Fic. 3.—Panoramic view of the entrance of Porirua Harbour, looking south-west and
west, showing the general topography and the relationship of the shore-
line features. A, inland cliffs; B, raised shore-platform; C, deltaic flat
of Taupo Creek; the line of houses at Plimmerton marks the position of
the detached beach or spit which cut off the former Taupo indentation.

indentations now represented by the flat-bottomed lower valleys of Spring
Creek, the Motuhara Stream, and Taupo Creek. (Compare figs. 4 and 5.)
Continuing southward, the travelling shingle was piled up by the waves
about sea-level and carried forward until it had reached the vicinity of the
present Paremata railway-bridge. Here its farther progress was arrested
by the strong currents caused by the ebb and flow of the tide in the
extensive Pahautanui arm of Porirua Harbour.

The formation of this inner beach-ridge, which prior to the 1855
earthquake reached a maximum height of 8 ft. above high-tide level, was
succeeded by the formation of an outer detached beach or shingle-spit

>

(see fig. 5, at “ The Narrows”), which branched off from the inner beach
at a spot half a mile south of Taupo Bay, and was built forward by the
waves as far-as the present Paremata Point, when its farther progress was
again arrested by the tidal currents. Unable to extend longitudinally,
the spit was increased in breadth by additions of the travelling shingle
until it presented the appearance of three parallel ridges, the highest of

which was piled up to a height of 8 ft. above high-tide level.

Apkin.—Porirua Harbour 153

The uplift of 1855 raised the shingle beach-ridges and spits, together
with the other coastal features in this vicinity, a farther 3ft. The uplift
also raised the shallow shingly sea-bed between the inner and outer shingle-
beaches at Paremata Point slightly above sea-level ; and subsequently the
formation of the younger series of beach-ridges added two more shingle-
ridges to the outer margin of the raised Paremata Point spit.

(4.) Deltaic Flats.

The cutting-off from the open sea of some of the lateral indentations
of Porirua Harbour in its initial form (fig. 4) by the formation of detached
shingle-beaches across their entrances, and the conversion of these indenta-
tions into lagoons (see fig. 5), has led to the production of a considerable
area of fertile flat land. This newly formed land comprises the flats of
deltaic origin in the lower portions of the valleys that open on to the
eastern shore of Porirua Harbour at its entrance.

In the valley of Taupo Creek, where the largest tract of deltaic flat
occurs (see fig. 3), the sea formerly penetrated inland at least three-quarters
of a mile farther than it does now, as is shown by the presence of old sea-
cliffs of small size at that distance from the present sea-beach. The space
between these inland cliffs and the raised beach-ridge upon which the
village of Plimmerton has been built has since been reclaimed by the
outward growth of the deltaic deposits of Taupo Creek and its tributaries.
Other deltaic flats occur in the neighbouring valleys of Spring Creek and
of the Motuhara Stream (see fig. 5). Flats of a somewhat similar deltaic
character also occur in the lower valley of the Kahao Stream, as well as at
the heads of the main arms of Porirua Harbour; but it is unlikely that
deltas would have been formed, in the absence of the detached beach-ridges,
in the more exposed lateral valleys nearer the entrance of the harbour.

(5.) The Sandy Beaches.

The sandy beaches, of which Taupo Beach at Pliimmerton is the largest,
are of very recent origin. The source of the sand appears to be the sedi-
ments of Porirua Harbour. After the formation of the tidal flats in the
upper reaches of the harbour a bar was formed just within its entrance.
On the bar the maximum depth of water is only 5 ft., while on either side
of it the depth is 9 fathoms (Admiralty chart). The bar appears to have
been formed by the checking of the sediment-laden ebb tide drawing out
of the harbour by the waves raised by the prevalent north-westerly winds.
Part of the deposited sediment would then be cast back upon either of the
adjacent shores, and would accumulate at the heads of embayments to
form sandy beaches. Dunes of blown sand derived from the sandy beaches
cover small areas at several places along the shore of the harbour.

THE ORIGIN OF THE HARBOUR AND THE EVOLUTION OF ITS SHORE-LINE.

The deposition of the Trias-Jurassic sediments and their subsequent
folding and uplift followed by peneplanation appear to have been the earliest
diastrophic and physiographic events in the area under notice. These
conditions held until the advent of a second period of diastrophism (the
Kaikoura deformation). The peneplaned land-surface was first uplifted
and then block-faulted on a large scale, the squeezing of the earth-blocks
by the compressive forces within the earth’s crust being in all probability

ansactions.

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Apkin.—Portrua Harbour. 155

a factor in the elevation of the higher blocks. In what is now the southern
part of the Wellington district the main earth-blocks have a N.N.E.—S.8.W.
direction, this being the general trend of the principal fractures. The
present high- standing blocks were in some cases uplifted uniformly, but
more commonly filvedt the usual direction of the tilt being towards the
west. The compression that accompanied the block-faulting and contri-
buted to the uplift of the high-standing blocks was also responsible for the
warping of the upper surfaces of these. The warping took the form of a
series of broad anticlinal and synclinal flexures disposed longitudinally
with respect to the N.N.E—S.S.W. elongation of the earth- blocks. These
longitudinal flexures, which determined the lines of the present longitudinal
drainage, in some places coincide with the strike of the ancient folding,
and in others intersect it at a considerable angle. The latter fact is
accepted by the writer as unequivocal evidence that the secondary folding
or warping, where operative, was the predominant factor in the deter-
mination of the present longitudinal drainage.

The degree of secondary folding sustained by the surfaces of the
high-standing blocks was doubtless variable: in some instances it was
pronounced ; in others, again, perhaps insufficient to shape the initial
drainage-pattern. In the latter cases the longitudinal drainage is possibly
the result of adjustment to the ancient structure.

In the highest-standing block—viz., that from which the Tararua Range
has been carved—the compressive forces acted in two directions at right
angles to each other, with the result that the principal longitudimal folds
were accompanied by transverse folds, or perhaps the latter were represented
in part by dips in the main axes of folding. This accounts for the occur-
rence of the zigzag and trellis drainage-pattern solely characteristic of the
Tararua Range in the area under notice. On some of the high-standing
blocks of lesser elevation only longitudinal flexures were developed, and
in others the warping appears to have been practically absent.

The last diastrophic event prior to the historical period was the
inbreak of the Wellington fault and the resultant northerly tilt of the Port
Nicholson — Porirua Harbour earth-block. This subsidence was the cause
of the drowning of the maturely developed Pahautanui— Porirua valley-
system, and of the creation of Porirua Harbour. In its initial stage the
shore-line of the newly formed inlet had all the characteristics of infancy,
such as are present when a drowned land-surface of the mature stage of
topographic development is involved: the hill-slopes descended to the
water’s edge and continued without interruption below the level of the
water-plane : in plan the outline of the shore was one of great irregularity,
the projecting spurs forming prominent salients, and the drowned lateral
valleys acute tapering indentations. Near the entrance of the inlet a few
hilltop islands—the higher parts of a nearly submerged spur—lifted their
rounded summits above the new sea-level. The general configuration and
the outstanding topographic features of Porirua Harbour at this stage of
its development are shown in fig. 4.

The initial stage of the Porirua shore-line was a very transient one.
Under wave-attack, even in sheltered positions well within the harbour’s
entrance, the cliffing of the partially submerged hill-slopes was rapidly
effected, and in addition detached beaches or shingle-spits were thrown
across the mouths of certain of the indentations on the eastern shore,
converting them first imto tidal and later into brackish or fresh-water
lagoons.

156 Transactions.

Fig. 5 shows the Porirua shore-line (at high tide) at a later stage of
development than that represented in fig. 4: the coast-line has been
straightened by cliff-cutting and by the closing of the bays by shingle-
banks ; delta deposits are rapidly filling the bays thus cut off; and the
hilltop islands near the entrance of the harbour have been reduced to
island remnants. The shore-lme at this period appears to have reached
a submatuce stage.

Before the interruption referred to below, the above processes were
carried to an even more advanced stage than that depicted in fig. 5. The
lagoons in the former embayments were completely filled with deltaic
deposits, and converted into salt and, later, into fresh-water marsh. The
island remnants also disappeared, having been cut down to sea-level by
continued marine abrasion; at low tide their former sites were marked
by rock reefs.

The progress of the shore-line towards complete maturity was inter-
rupted by the earthquake of 1855. The narrow shore-bench or incipient
plain of marine abrasion, to the between-tides level of which the hill-slopes
of the initial shore-line had been cut down in the process of cliff-cutting
prior to 1855, was raised on that date to a height at Porirua Harbour of 3 ft.
above high-water level (see Plate XX XV, and fig. 2, a).

The above considerations clearly indicate that the Port Nicholson and
the Porirua areas belong to one and the same physiographic district, since
it has now been demonstrated that even the last diastrophie event—viz.,
the small uplift of 1855—was common to both.* The principal divergence
in the parallelism of the life-histories of the two areas is the difference in
form and origin between their respective harbours: one of these is of
tectonic origin—a complicated graben-like depression subsequently modified
by the various mechanical agents of change ; the other is the result of the
partial drowning of a normal valley-system modified since the submergence
by the several phases of marie abrasion and deposition.

List oF PAPERS CITED.

ApkIn, G. L., 1919. Further Notes on the Horowhenua Coastal Plain and the Asso-
ciated Physiographic Features, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 51, pp. 108-18.

— 1920. Examples of Readjustment of Drainage on the Tararua Western Foothills,
Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 52, pp. 183-91.

Aston, B. C., 1912. The Raised Beaches of Cape Turakirae, Trans. N.Z. dnst., vol. 44,
pp. 208-13.

Bert, J. M., 1910. The Physiography of Wellington Harbour, Trans. N.Z. Inst.,
vol. 42, pp. 534-40.

Corron, C. A., 1912. Notes on Wellington Physiography, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 44,
pp. 245-65.

— 1918. The Geomorphology of the Coastal District of South-western Wellington,
Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 50, pp. 212-22.

CRAWFORD, J. C., 1869. Essay on the Geology of the North Island of New Zealand,
Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 1, 2nd ed., pp. 305-28.

Frevp, H. C., 1892. On Earthquakes in the Vicinity of Wanganui, Trans. N.Z. Inst.,
vol. 24, pp. 569-73.

Henperson, J., 1911. On the Genesis of the Surface Forms and Present Drainage-
systems of West Nelson, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 43, pp. 306-15.

* Contrary views have been held by some—e.g., Sir Charles Lyell, quoted by C. A.
Cotton (1912, p. 257).

Graner.—Geology of Green Island Coalfield. 157

Arr. XVIEL—An Account of the Geology of Green Island Coalfield.
By L. I. Granee, M.Sc., A.O.S.M.

Communicated by J. Henderson, M.A., D.Sc., B.Sc. in Eng. (Metall.).

[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 13th October, 1920 ; received by Editor,
31st December, 1920; issued separately,4th July, 1921.)

Plate XXXVI.

CONTENTS.

Page Page

Introduction... a .. 157. General Geology—continucd.
Outline of Geology a Me ALOE Volcanic Rocks - -. 167
Previous Observers = 160 Basalt No. 1 aS -- 167
: Basalt No. 2 ae 7 16S
Tope grip yen: = =a 200 Basalt No. 3 Bs -. 168
General Geology. . ai GL Dolerite |... “iN -. 169
Triassic Formation ae 45. atoll Trachy dolerite ue -. 169
Notocene Sedimentaries oe elG27| Basalt Dyke ee LO
Piripauan .. 56 so, wy Notopleistocene Deposits ad, 1k
Coal-measures ae .. 162; Economic Geology oe es lal
Quartz Sand ee sq) GAA Coal Se ae yolk
Shelly Limestone .. ee LOsm History 2nd Mining. . Soe tral
Glauconitic Mudstone go GY Thickness of Seams, Faults, &e. 171
Sandstone .. as ye 65 Coal mined and available Sealy
Marl Ke ne oa LOS Gold .. i Re ee 2
Greensand .. os a eGo Sand .. ae a se ILC
Caversham Sandstone LOG Clay .. = xe elise
Fauna and Age of Beds above | Other Materials of Economic Value 174
the Piripauan 26 .. 166 Bibliography .. 50 Roy leet

INTRODUCTION.

THE area described is the Green Island coalfield, which les at its nearest
point four miles south-west from Dunedin. The Kaikorai Stream forms
the southern boundary from the Burnside marl-pit to the sea, whence the
border follows the coast to Brighton Creamery. A line due north from
the marl-pit to Abbott’s Hill Road makes the eastern border, the western
being formed by a line north from Brighton Creamery to the Chain Hills.
The northern boundary is the Chain Hills and Abbott’s Hill Road. The
area includes Freeman’s, Fernhill, Green Island, and Jubilee Collieries, as
well as the Brighton Mine.

To Mr. P. G. Morgan, Director of the Geological Survey, the writer is
indebted for allowing Mr. G. E. Harris to draw the accompanying map.

OUTLINE OF GEOLOGY.

The oldest rocks of the district are the schists which form the Chain
Hills. Overlying the basement rock with great unconformity are the
Notocene sedimentaries. The lowest beds are the coal-measures and quartz
sands which outcrop in Fernhill and Christie’s Creeks, and at Brighton ;
at the last-mentioned locality a shelly limestone overlies the terrestrial beds.
Resting with disconformity on the quartz sand or shelly limestone, and
comprising the greater part of the area mapped, is a series of marine beds
of which the upward succession is glauconitic mudstone, sandstone, marl,
greensand, and Caversham sandstone. There is evidence of a local uncon-
formity between the marl and greensand. All the Notocene sedimentary

158 Transactions.

Wie Zntrance

:

y
=
=
=
3
Ss
w

shy

eS : fl.
A A
Zz
~~
S
x 2
S 3 §
6 2 x
S Ss S
ES s 1s Se ee
iS S ww x
a res 3 = ==
= IS = —
S AS
We NY]
ers SOS SSS NSS
B B’

Natural Scale — ‘Same as map.

Legend

River Gravels, Mud and Sands. ___--- #
READ GUAM Te ee 5)
Doleritevn® = Ae oe eas ee
Basale WSs aan aes eee

Basalt N29 2_._....-- sod Sets
Basalt NO aa Dewan eee ee eal 3

DY KORE renee Sen een Bane eeaee ee

Caversham Sandstone _..--_--...-----
Greensand.___________- teenage he) IRBRREAHERI

May see toe Sa no See eee eed

S17 SLO L2E en ene ee eee ae z

Glauconitic Mudstone + -—~----.----

Shelly Lim@slOme = soma. nn me

Coal Measures and Quarts Sarids__. =

Schist- Se ae a

Outcrops > *s Feu gaa

Boundaries of worked ground Ber acennsear neces

BS \
INNS
S YAN WN
\\
Reference \ . WN SY
foads, formed _ __ > INS WS AN x
unformed _. =~=====- a Sy NIN, ~\NY N N K \
Rreilways —— ~~~ poveneneaned ZF, YON : INS WS VOOg
Tramways —_ __ Fe INS EON XY KX QV
parts bik ic ania VE eye ng N SVS SQ A$
Dig 4 : = Meds QA
Boreholes________ 8 Mclolfs Mine » SN Wwe
7 lars leke . ee
(proposed) © es ENE OS See
GregmierJ=\©
‘pei

159

SESH! Bo RRS
NONE SS
2TNANS je ARV
ater aCe a Sees
Seen eu
x

Grance.—Geology of Green Island Coalfield.

AL
TI

Le)
5 (CE

NN

~ o>
WSn9
S

\ Stoney Hi}

ite FSS

GEOLOGICAL MAP

OF

GREEN ISLAND COA

L FIELD

CHAINS io

80 CHAINS

FEET i000 500 0
jeeceuces'

5000 FEET

160 Transactions.

rocks have a dip approximating | in 8 (7°) in a direction varying between
20° and 55° south of east. In the north-eastern part volcanic rocks rest
on an eroded surface of the marine beds and form the caps of the ridges.
The upper part of Saddle Hill, which is just outside the western border,
is composed of basalt. Beds of clay represent the principal deposit formed
since the cessation of volcanic activity.

PREVIOUS OBSERVERS.

The earliest reference to the Green Island area may be quoted from
Hutton (1875, p. 13): “‘ In January, 1862, Dr. W. Lauder Lindsay delivered
a lecture in Dunedin on ‘The Place and Power of Natural History in
Colonization,’ in which he mentions the volcanic rocks of Dunedin, Saddle
Hill, &. . . . He considered the sandstones of Green Island and
Caversham to be either Tertiary or Upper Cretaceous.”

Hector first reported on the field in his ‘‘ Departmental Report of the
Geological Survey of Otago” of 1864, and subsequently in the Reports of
Geological Explorations during 1871-72.

Hutton (Hutton and Ulrich, 1875, p. 47) gave a brief account of the
geology, in which he placed the sedimentary rocks and coal-measures of
Green Island in his Oamaru formation. In his “Geology of New Zealand ”
(1885, p. 206) he refers to the belemnites from Green Island, but maintains
that other palaeontological evidence argues for a Tertiary age for the rock
in which it occurs.

McKay (1877, pp. 59-60) searched unsuccessfully in the vicinity of the
Chain Hills and Abbott’s Creek for fossils. At Green Island he obtained
a number of fossils: from a shaft sunk on Mrs. Shand’s property. The
Brighton calcareous beds were also visited, and a collection made therefrom.

Marshall (1906) describes the volcanic rocks of the area, and mentions
the Brighton beds as being Tertiary in age.

Park (1910B ,pp. 90, 120-35) includes the belemnite bed in his Waipara
series, of Cretaceous age He describes and gives sections of the marine
and terrestrial rock exposed between Saddle Hill and Dunedin, classing
them in his Oamaru series, the coal-measures corresponding to the lowest
beds at Oamaru

Morgan (1916, p. 14) argues that the coals of Brighton and Green Island
are of the same age—.e., Cretaceous—and that in some upper horizon an
unconformity exists.

iO) PO) GaRVATR EY.

The chief point of interest is the evidence of elevation and depression
of the land in post-Tertiary times. The Kaikorai Stream indicates depres-
sion of the land, for it has a wide flood-plain and is tidal several chains
up-stream from its junction with Abbott’s Creek. From Abbott’s Hill and
Kaikorai Hill the slopes to the middle of the valley are in places fairly
steep ; waterfalls and rapids are found in the upper parts of the creeks.
Kaikorai Stream and the creeks to the west of Stony Hill show a mature
form in their lower reaches. Abbott’s Creek is at sea-level where it crosses
the Main South Road, Christie’s Creek reaches the level of the sea on
crossing the old Brighton Road, and the Kaikorai is at sea-level 10 chains
above the junction with Abbott’s Creek From the Main South Road to
the sea the flood-plain of the Kaikorai has an average width of about
60 chains, Plains composed principally of gravel stretch far up the creeks.
Obviously, the physiography points to a depression of the land.

Terraces about a chain wide and 15 ft. above sea-level occur on the
right bank of the Kaikorai Stream, about one mile and a half from the

GrancE.—Geology of Green Island Coalfield. 161

sea. They have been cut out of the glauconitic mudstone, and are in an
excellent state of preservation. A few chains to the east of the Saddle
Hill railway-bridge over Abbott’s Creek a cutting exposes slightly con-
solidated sand, as much as 15 ft. above sea-level, resting on a green-coloured
mud which contains a few fresh-looking sea- shells. At about the 200 ft.
contour-line in the Abbotsford Valley, “and to the north of Green Island
Station, the country takes on a mature form that is lost at a lower level.

This break in topography is independent of structure. Evidently, then,
the sea at one time stood 15 ft., and at another 100 ft. above its present
level, but good evidence is wanting to determine the sequence of the
diastrophic events. The freshness of the 15 ft. terraces suggest that an
elevation of that amount took place after the depression.

GENERAL GEOLOGY.
The following table shows the classification adopted :—
: i

Rocks. | Probable Age.

River gravel, mud, sand, and clay .. | Notopleistocene.
(Unconformity. )

Basalt ey 3 oe ;
Dolerite
Basalt No.
Basalt No.
Basalt No.
(Unconformity.) ~

Post-Awamoan.

\
So —

hm bo vO

Caversham sandstone .. Q Awamoan, Hutchinsonian, and Ototaran.
Greensand 5)

(Disconformity. )

Mar! ws us oh .. | Waiarekan.

Sandstone .. 4 d: .. | Paparoan and Kaitangatan.

Glauconitic mudstone.
(Disconformity. )
Shelly limestone j : .. | Piripauan.
Quartz sand and ccal-measures.
(Great unconformity.)

Schist se ate Sis Sea eriassic:

TRIASSIC FORMATION.

This rock forms the Chain Hills. The junction of schist and Tertiary
rocks near Freeman’s colliery occurs along Fernhill Creek. Farther south
a bluff of rock extends from the Chain Hills into the valley in which are
situated the Saddle Hill mines. This mass of metamorphic rock extends south
along the hills forming the southern border of Taieri Plains to Otakaia.

The schist is not as completely metamorphosed as that of Central Otago.
There is not the frequent lamination of quartz and mica. Thin sections
show muscovite, feldspar (albite), and quartz. Dolomite is occasionally
found occupying small cavities. The dip of the formation varies. In the
railway-cuttings on the east side of the tunnel the following dips were
obtained: 20° to the south- east, 40° to the south- east, and 70° to the
south-west. Near the lower entrance to Freeman’s mine the beds are
almost horizontal. A quartz reef 7 {t. wide, and striking 14° south-east,
outcrops on the schist spur projecting towards Christie’s Creek.

Diverse opinions have been held as to the age of the schists of Otago :
Marshall (1918, p. 29); Trechmann (1918, p. 171). Provisionally the rocks
of Chain Hills which show a similarity to those of Lawrence (Marshall, 1918,
p. 29) may on the same grounds be placed ‘in the Triassic.

6—Trans.

162 Transactions.

NOTOCENE SEDIMENTARIES.
PIRIPAUAN.

Rocks of the Piripauan group crop out along a narrow strip which, from
near the junction of North Taieri and Abbott’s Hill Road, follows Fernhill
Creek, then Abbott’s Creek to Samson’s and Loudon’s mines, crosses the
Main South Road, and bends round the bluff of schist near Christie’s Creek.
Isolated outcrops occur on either side of the valley leadmg north from
the Brighton Creamery. The downward succession is: Shelly limestone
(absent from Fernhill outcrop), quartz sands, coal-measures.

Coal-measures.

The coal-measures are composed of quartz sands, fireclay, shales, and
seams of coal. Generally six seams of coal are present. The seam above
the lowest is the thickest, and is the only one worked.

The coal is close to the schist, so that it is only natural that there will
be considerable differences in the thickness of strata below the main seam.

The thickness of the coal-measures is between 100 ft. and 140 ft. The
dip is | in 8, and is fairly constant over the whole area, but the direction
varies within 35°. At Brighton the coal dips about 55°, at Fairfield 20°,
and at Abbotsford 32°, all south of east. The main seam averages 16 ft.
in thickness, reaching a maximum of 30 ft. near Christie’s upper-mine
mouth. To the west of Christie’s Creek the bed worked splits into two
seams, each with a thickness of 2 ft.

The coal of the main seam may be classed as a good lignite, taking a
lignite as a coal that contains over 20 per cent. of water. Analyses of the
coal are given in the Dominion Laboratory Reports, 1907, p. 59, and Gordon
Macdonald’s “‘ Brown Coal of Otago,” Colliery Guardian, 22nd November,
1912.

The upper seams in places reach a thickness of 6 ft., but everywhere
are inferior to the main seam in quality. Very frequently pebbles of quartz
and bands of iron sulphide are met with in the coal. The iron sulphide
quickly oxidizes, and is probably chiefly marcasite.

Quartz Sand.

The quartz sand, which is well exposed in five quarries, has a thickness
of 50 ft., consists of loose well-rounded quartz-grais and rarely small frag-
ments of schist. The rock-fragments from which the sands were derived
must have suffered a great deal of attrition before only the quartz remained.

In all exposures may be seen two textures of sand—fine and coarse—
generally showing current-bedding. Near the top is usually a band of
gravel or conglomerate, 1 ft. thick. Clay lenses occur in most of the
outcrops.

The lower half of the sand at Gray’s pit consists of coarse sand con-
taining pebbles ranging up to $ in. diameter. Above is 4 ft. 6in. of fine
sand, succeeded by a cemented band of fine sand lin. thick and 1 in. of
clay. The clay is followed by 6 ft. of coarse sand, and then by fine sand
up to the band of conglomerate near the top.

The pit owned by Freemans is rather spoilt by fireclay, which occupies
fissures that have been formed in the sand. Mr. E. R. Green informs the
writer that 5 chains to the north-west of this pit the fireclay was found
to have been intruded vertically through the coal-seams. <A fissure had
been formed, the fireclay softened by water and squeezed up into the
opening by the pressure of the overlying rocks.

Granau.—Geology of Green Island Coalfield. 163

The lower 20 ft. of Loudon’s pit is composed of alternating bands of
coarse and fine sand; above rests a coarse sand with pebbles up to lin.
diameter, followed by a cemented band 1 in. thick, which in turn is over-
lain by a layer of fine material.

The old sand-pit near the Southern Trunk Railway consists of bands
of coarse and fine sand alternating in a regular manner.

The Jubilee sand-pit has a bed of white well-rounded sand. A layer
of gravel forms the uppermost portion of this deposit at Brighton.

Shelly Limestone.

This formation outcrops in vertical cliffs in the valley above Brighton
Creamery, where it has a thickness of 50 ft., but no outcrop of the lime-
stone was found at any other locality.

McKay (1877, pp. 59-60) in his report for 1873 says that his Green
Island fossils were obtained from a concretionary greensand.

The collection contains, besides fossils from the greensand, pieces of
shelly limestone similar to that occurring at Brighton. The shaft to which
the collector refers was in all probability Clarkson’s, which was situated
from 10 to 15 chains east of Walton Park Colliery.

The limestone, which is the only bed giving an indication of the age
of the series, has yielded few good specimens. The following have been
obtained: Pecten n. sp., Belemnites sp., Ostrea sp., Venericardia sp.

The Pecten the writer obtained has a strong midrib, and is unlike any
New Zealand species hitherto described. The bad state of preservation
of the Belemnites makes its determination difficult. Hector (1874, p. 356),
taking as his holotype the dibranchiate cephalopod from the greensand
of Amuri Bluff, described the form in the Brighton and Amuri beds as
Belemnitella lindsay?, but m his Progress Reports of 1873-74 (p. xi) expressed
the opinion that the fusiform bodies were true Belemnites, and termed them
Belemmtes lindsayi. Later (1887, p. xxix) he again identified the Brighton
fossil as a Belemnitella. Park (1910B, p. 90) sent specimens to Dr. Bather,
who pronounced them to be true Belemniies. Marshall (1917, pp. 459-60)
sent them to authorities on Belemnites. Professor Stolley, of Brunswick,
stated they belong to Hibolites ; Professor Stemmann, of Bonn, and Pro-
fessor Holzapfel, of Strassburg, regarded them as similar to Belemnites
minimus of the Chalk; and Lissajous reported that they belong to the
genus Neohibolites Stolley. The ages given by these authorities range
from Upper Jurassic to Cretaceous. The determinations make the fossil a
belemnite or a subgenus of Belemnites that does not reach the Hocene.
Trechmann (1917, pp. 338-39) compares the Brighton form with the
belemnites in the Upper Senonian of Selwyn Rapids.

Tentatively the shelly limestone and the coal-measures that underlie it
may be placed in the Piripauan.

By Park (1910s, pp. 90, 112) and Hutton and Ulrich (1875, pp. 46-48)
the coal-measures of Green Island and Abbotsford were thought to be
Tertiary in age. The first-named writer placed the Brighton coals in the
Cretaceous, but Hutton (1885, p. 266), considering the identification of the
fusiform bodies of the shelly limestone doubtful, uses other palaeontological
evidence and finds no Cretaceous rocks in the area.

Marshall (1906, p. 389) gives a Tertiary age to all the coal-measures of
the Green Island coalfield, on the ground that the cephalopod is Actinocamaz,
but later (1916, pp. 117-19) accepted Hector’s determination, Beleminites
lindsay, and correlated the Brighton beds with the Wangaloa beds.

6*

.

164 Transactions.

Morgan (1916, p. 14) advocates a Cretaceous age for the coal of Brighton
and Green Island.

Unfortunately, McKay’s fossils from Green Island do not settle the
question as to whether the coals of the whole area are of the same age, for
doubt might well be expressed whether the shelly limestone of his collection
really came from Green Island. In his report there is no mention of this
rock, but only of the concretionary greensand. All the specimens show
some weathering on one side, as if they had been collected from an out-
crop. This would indicate that he did not separate the fossils obtained
from the greensand from those obtaimed at Brighton. On the other hand,
it is difficult to think such a mistake has been made, when it is known that
McKay himself drew up the list of fossils for Green Island and included in
it the belemnite. The weathering observed on the limestone could have
been produced while the specimens were exposed on the surface a few years.
Hector’s Progress Report (1877, p. xii) on McKay’s journey reads as if
the belemnite was collected from Green Island. The uncertainty may be
dispelled if Christies sink a shaft in the neighbourhood of Walton Park.

Other considerations will show that the coal-measures of Green Island
and Brighton are of the same age. There is a lithological similarity
between the coal-measures and quartz sands of the two places. The main
seam, containing the best coal, is the second seam from the base. Also,
the quartz sands are everywhere about 50 ft. thick, and have a band of
conglomerate or gravel in the uppermost portion. The sequence as inter-
preted by Park finds no parallel in Otago. If the coals were of different
ages the Brighton beds would be limited to that locality, for the shaft put
down in the Saddle Hill Colliery workmgs did not encounter another set
of coal-bearing beds.

GLAUCONITIC MUDSTONE.

This formation, which is 800 ft. thick, has a fairly wide extent. It forms
the main part of the valley of Abbott’s and Waterfall Creeks, the hill above
Loudon’s mine, and the land around Stony Hill and above Brighton.

The dip, determined from the outcrop as a whole and single exposures,
is found to be the same as that of the underlying coal. The basal part of the
formation 1s more sandy than the average mudstone. High up in the beds—
e.g., by Saddle Hill and in Abbott’s Creek—there is a close resemblance to
a marl. In Waterfall Creek, 7 chains below the waterfall, the uppermost
portion is represented by the following: Cemented glauconitic sandstone,
1 ft. 6in.; micaceous marl, 9ft.; cemented glauconitic sandstone, 2 ft. :
glauconitic sandstone, 80 ft.

Thin sections of the cemented greensand show angular quartz-grains
0-4mm. by 0-4mm., muscovite, green glauconite exhibiting pleochroism,
and oligoclase twinned on the albite law. The position and shape of some
of the grains of glauconite indicate that the mineral was deposited in the
chambers of Foraminifera, and that subsequently the shell was dissolved
away (see Plate XX XVI, fig. 1). The oligoclase could not have been derived
from the schist, because the latter has its plagioclase feldspar twinned on
Carlsbad but never on the albite law.

On the under-surface of a projecting ledge of cemented glauconite sand-
stone in Waterfall Creek crystals of gypsum about 2-5 mm. in length were
obtained. They can be recognized by the pinacoidal cleavage (010) and
the typical minus-unit pyramids (111). Sulphuric acid, which is produced
during the weathering of the iron sulphide contained in the sandstone, has
reacted on the calcite of the shells to form calcium sulphate.

QURAN, INoAg IONS, W/Gite IDOL, Prats XXXVI.

Fic. !.—Section of cemented greensand of Waterfall Creek.
Shows glauconite in the chambers of a shell. 45.

Fic. 2.—Crystal of sodalite with inclusions. From the
trachydolerite

Face p. 164.)

GrancE.—Geology of Green Island Coalfield. 165

The glauconitic mudstone outcropping on the bank of Abbott’s Creek
near its Junction with Waterfall Creek contains septarian nodules. The
boulders are perfectly spherical to the eye, and are about 4 ft. in diameter.
They resemble the well-known Moeraki boulders.

An inspection of the contact of the glauconitic mudstone with the under-
lying beds shows it to be disconformable. The shelly limestone, taken as
a whole, has a fairly even surface, but in places an irregular contact has been
observed. At the point marked x on the map, 13 chains north-east of
the Brighton sand-pit, a glauconitic sandstone lies fully 5 ft. below the level
of the limestone at 10 ft. on either side; and 4 chains east of this Junction
a quartz sand, consisting at its base principally of clay, rests on an irregular
surface of the Cretaceous strata. The sand grades into a glauconitic sand-
stone, which higher up is replaced by a glauconitic mudstone. At Green
Island, in exposures at the Jubilee sand-pit and 30 chains to the north-west
of Fernhill sand-pit, the sandy base of the glauconitic mudstone contains
quartz pebbles up to } in. in diameter, and a lens of rock of the nature of a
azreensand, 30 ft. long and 2ft. thick, containing quartz pebbles, occurs in

-the upper part of the quartz sand in the Jubilee pit. Gray’s pit shows
a similar body, but it is not accessible. Since glauconite is not likely to
form where pebbles 4 in. in diameter are deposited, the lower portion of
the glauconitic mudstone has most probably been rewashed. The evidence
indicates a small erosion interval.

SANDSTONE.

Sandstone beds stretch from the source of Waterfall Creek to Abbott’s
Creek, round the lower slopes of Kaikorai Hill, and down to Green Island
Station. In many places they are exposed in cliffs owing to slipping. The
sandstone, which varies from 170 ft. to 200 ft. in thickness, rests conform-
ably on the underlying beds. It is composed of quartz-grains and scales
of muscovite, slightly compacted. An excavation made close to one of a
line of springs marking the junction of sandstone and mudstone, near
Samson’s house, showed a sand made up of well-rounded quartz-grains,.
similar to that occurring above the coal-measures.

Mart.

The marl occupies a strip from the southern slope of Kaikorai Hill to
the railway-line near Green Island Station. It attains a thickness of 170 ft.,
and has a dip of 1 in 8 40° south of east. The mud has a light-blue
colour when freshly exposed, but weathermg soon produces a cream tint.
The lower part of the bed is somewhat sandy, and contains glauconite.
Pyritic concretions occur in the Burnside pit.

GREENSAND.

A greensand 2 ft. thick rests on the marl at the Burnside pit. About
15 chains to the south-east, in the Kaikorai Stream, a more accessible outcrop
of the bed is visible. Here the base of the greensand, which is 6ft. thick,
contains flakes and small pieces of marl up to lin. in greatest diameter.
Some 9 in. above the contact in a layer 2 in. thick of phosphatic nodules,
succeeded 10in. above by another band with a similar thickness. The
nodules appear to be quite similar to those dredged by the “ Challenger ”
Expedition (Deep Sea Deposits, p. 396) south of the Cape of Good Hope.
An analysis of a nodule by the Dominion Analyst showed it to contain :
Insoluble in acid, 16-68 per cent.; lime (CaO), 38-38 per cent. ; carbonic
anhydride (CO,), 12:55 per cent. ; water and organic matter, 3-83 per cent.

166 Transactions.

Under the microscope the greensand is seen to be made up of grains of
glauconite and calcite, with occasional crystals of quartz. The glauconite-
grains, which are the most abundant, are rounded, and up to 0-2 mm. in
diameter. The Dominion Analyst supplies the following partial analysis
of the greensand: Potash (K,O), 2-72 per cent.; phosphorus pentoxide
(P,O;), 4:32 per cent.; calcium carbonate (CaCO,), 39-87 per cent.
Considering the amount of glauconite present, the percentage of potash is
low. The only other analysis of New Zealand greensand the writer can
find is that of a sample from Iron Creek, Broken River, Canterbury (52nd
Ann. Rep. Dom. Lab., p. 28), which also contains a low percentage of
potash—namely, 1-35 per cent.

After the deposition of the marl, elevation caused its erosion, as is shown
by the presence of pieces of the marl in the greensand. The bands of
phosphatic nodules point to elevation to allow some of the glauconite to be
washed away and the concretions concentrated into layers.

CAVERSHAM SANDSTONE.

The Caversham sandstone outcrops about 25 chains to the east of the
Burnside marl-pit, whence it extends to Burnside and Caversham beyond the
area mapped. The rock which is exposed near the Burnside pit is a compact
calcareous sandstone. Outside the area the formation is fully 300 ft. thick.

FaunAa AND AGE OF THE BEDS ABOVE THE PIRIPAUAN.

Mr. P. G. Morgan, after inspecting the fossils obtained by McKay from
the glauconitic mudstone, informed the writer that the collection as a
whole is unlike any from Oamaru. Mr. J. Marwick, of the Geological
Survey, who examined the same collection, reports that the specimens,
with the exception of a Dentalium, which is nearest D. parcorense Pilsbry
and Sharp, are casts for the most part indeterminable, and comments in
the same manner as Mr. Morgan.

The fauna comes from the base of the bed. Odontaspis elegans Agassiz
occurs in the mudstone at Abbotsford Station. The cemented greensand
at the top of the glauconitic mudstone yielded Dentalium solidium Hutton
and a leaf which resembles the dicotyledon Daphnophyllum australe von
Ettingshausen (1891, p. 275).

The marl of the Burnside pit contained the following teeth: Isurus
retroflecus Agassiz, Notedanus marginales Davis, Odontaspis elegans Agassiz,
and O. attenuata Davis.

The Geological Survey forwarded a collection of Foraminifera from
the Burnside pit to Mr. F. Chapman, of Melbourne, who determined the
following*: Haplophragmium latidorsatum Born, H. emaciatum Brady,
Cyclammina incisa Stache, Gaudryina reussi Stache, G. pupoides d’Orb.,
Nodosaria radicula (L.), N. raphana (.), Marginulina asprocostulata Stache,
Cristellaria rotulata (Lam.), Truncatulina ungeriana (d’Orb.), and Rotalia
soldanii var. witida Reuss. Commenting on their age, Chapman states :
“In regard to the Foraminifera of the Burnside marls, they show some
affinity with the fauna described by Stache (Whaingaroa), and also with
our [Victorian] Baleombian beds. They are therefore low in the series.”

The following is a list of fossils from the Caversham sandstone taken from
Hutton (1875, pp. 51-52) and given modern names: Afrina distans (Hutt.),
Amusium zitteli (Hutt.), Cucullaea attenuata Hutt., +Fulgoraria arabica
Hutt. (Mart.), Galeodea senex (Hutt.), +Glycymeris laticostata (Q. & G.),

* Communication to Mr. P. G. Morgan, received September, 1920.
7 Still living.

GrancE.—Geology of Green Island Coalfield. 167

Lima paucisuleata Hutt., Pecten beethami var. B Hutt., P. huttoni (Park),
Turritella cavershamensis Harris, Pericosmus compressus Tate.

Mr. J. Marwick looked over Hutton’s specimens and obtained as well :
Chione chiloensis truncata Sut., Chione sp. ind., Malletia australis (Q. & G.),
and Venericardia pseutes Sut.

Mr. Morgan collected Pachymagas parki (Hutt.) from the base of the
Caversham sandstone near Green Island Cemetery.

All the mollusca occur in the Awamoan, and Pachymagas parki ranges
from the Ototaran to the Awamoan at Oamaru,

There can be little doubt that the Waikouaiti and the Caversham sand-
stone are the same horizon. Marshall (1906, pl. xxxvi) maps the sandstone
of the latter locality continuously to the north of Blueskin Harbour, where
volcanic rocks make a separation from the sandstone of the former locality.
J. A. Thomson (1918, pp. 196-97) collected from the Waikouaiti sandstone
Pachymagas abnormis Thomson, which he states does not occur below the
Hutchinsonian at Oamaru. The Caversham sandstone with the greensand
appears to represent the Awamoan, Hutchinsonian, and Ototaran stages.

The Balcombian beds are regarded by Chapman as Oligocene (1914,-
p. 46), an age that J. A. Thomson (1920, p. 523) thinks corresponds with
the Waiarekan. The marl, then, may be placed in the Waiarekan stage,
leaving the Paparoan and Kaitangatan for the underlying beds.

VOLCANIC ROCKS.

The following igneous rocks are described below: Basalt No. 1, basalt
No. 2, basalt No. 3, dolerite, trachydolerite, basalt dyke.

Basatt No. 1.

This rock occurs on the slopes of Abbott’s and Kaikorai Hills. It is
the lowest volcanic outpouring in the Abbotsford Valley, and rests on an
eroded surface of the marine sedimentaries. There are two good outcrops—
one in a cliff below Kaikorai Trig., and the other at the back of Mr.
Meechan’s house. At the former place the basalt, which is traversed by
vertical and horizontal joints, is well weathered. At the latter locality
the upper portion is so greatly weathered that it would be difficult to
recognize it were it not for the more solid rock below.

Macroscopically the rock is dark grey in colour. Where weathered the
augite crystals can be seen, but they do not protrude. This basalt may be
microscopically described thus :—

Phenocrysts.—Labradorite (2:6 mm. X 0-66 mm.) is twinned on the albite
law, but at times there is a combination of the albite and pericline twinning.
Frequently it has magnetite inclusions in the centre. Augite is in large
idiomorphic crystals (3-3 mm. x 1-5 mm.), and of a very light brown colour.
It exhibits slight pleochroism. Often this mineral has ortlopinacoidal
twinning. Some crystals show zoning, the outer border being a little
more inclined to a violet colour, owing probably to the presence of
titanium. Olivine (1-5 mm. x 1-2 mm.) is allotriomorphic. Along fracture-
lines the mineral has changed to serpentine, and some crystals have been
entirely altered to this mineral. One crystal has inclusions of microlites
of feldspar. Magnetite occurs in grains. The ferro-magnesian minerals
are not plentiful, and there is a greater amount of augite than olivine.
Spherosiderite, with its irregular pleochroism, is in patches, and in one
section is seen as a narrow vein.

168 Transactions.

Groundmass.—F¥eldspar laths (0-24 mm. x 0-88 mm.) are of labradorite
twinned once or twice. They show a flow-structure. A few grains of
olivine and magnetite are also present.

The following is an analysis of the basalt :—

Silica (S10 ,) ie ae BS ee a 0:20
Alumina (Al,0,) st a a ues el OBO)
Ferrous oxide (FeO) is $: $: yey Res)
Ferric oxide (Fe,0O,) a a u ee G200)
Lime (CaO) bs ae a ih TR cos!
Magnesia (MgO) .. a3 ope cis eo tl
Soda (Na,O) fi a Sh a een
Potash (K,0)...!:. Xe #8 ae seat qo shT
(Moisture .. % a ss eedeOS

Water (H.,0) (Combined .. z ne wept Oo
99-65

Basaut No. 2.

Basalt No. 2 occurs on the north-east of the Chain Hills, where it rests
on the schist. In the water-race to the west of Abbott’s Hill Road the
rock, which is in the form of hexagonal columns, has at its base a bed of
agglomerate. Owing to the absence of outcrops of basalts Nos. 1 and 2
to the west of Abbott’s Hill, it has not been found possible to ascertain
the position of No. 2 in the sequence of eruption. Thin sections show—

Phenocrysts.—Occasional crystals of olivine, and more rarely of augite.
The former is idiomorphic, and usually has a border of iddingsite.

Groundmass.—The groundmass contain a great abundance of violet-
coloured irregular grains of augite. The feldspar is labradorite which
approaches a lath shape. Olivine is not common.

Basatt No. 3.

Basalt No. 3 is found above basalt No. 1 on Kaikorai and Abbott's
Hills. There are no outcrops—its position and extent have been deter-
mined from boulders. The weathered rock has a distinctive steel-grey
colour. Under the microscope, slices show—

Phenocrysts—Labradorite (1-6mm. x 0-8 mm.) often containing mag-
netite in the centre. Olivine allotriomorphic, and changed along fracture-
lines to serpentine. Not infrequently a border of iddingsite is present.
There are a few idiomorphic crystals of augite of a light-brown colour.
A cross-section of a crystal showing prisms and both pinacoids has
inclusions of microlites of feldspar.

Groundmass.—The groundmass has feldspar laths (labradorite) (0-7 mm.
xX 0-24 mm.) set in a mass of very fine-grained feldspar. Grains of olivine
and augite are not common.

The composition of the rock is as follows :—

Silica (SiO,) ae ve ts 8 .. 48°36
Alumina (Al,0,) He Bt af ol a2eD
Ferrous oxide (FeO) is me By: Pg OO
Ferric oxide (Fe,0O,) a i, x ee OO
Lime (CaQ) ise is = ae 22 fO-80
Magnesia (MgO) .. ae ee ye 2 Os
Potash (ie, 0)... a zy be os pale
Soda (Na,O) ie ie a 3 wee Sales
Combined water (H,O) .... e ee Pty bls)

Grance.—Geology of Green Island Coalfield. 169

DOLERITE.

The word * dolerite’? is used in the sense in which Marshall (1906,
p. 410) employs it—namely, “ as a term covering all the types of coarse basic
rocks, irrespective of age, if they are of effusive character.” Dolerite caps
Kaikorai and Abbott’s Hills. The rock weathers to spheroids, leaving in
the spaces white bands of sepiolite and reddish-black bands of iron oxide.
The dolerite can easily be distinguished in the field, since the augite pro-
jects on the weathered surface. In fresh samples the augite, olivine, and
feldspar can be distinguished. Steam-pores are abundant, and often filled
with amygdules of secondary calcite.

Phenocrysts.—Labradorite (1:05 mm. < 0-3 mm.) is not plentiful. Augite
occurs in large idiomorphic crystals (3-1 mm. x 1:25mm.), and is of a
violet colour showing strong pleochroism. ‘Twinning is frequent. One
crystal has zonal banding, successive layers differing in tint indicating
differences in the titanium content; another shows hour-glass structure.
The augite commonly encloses olivine in a poecilitic fashion. Olivine
(2-1mm. x 0-48 mm.) is sharply idiomorphic, and is altered to serpentine
along practice-lines, but not to the same extent as in the basalts. Of the
olivine and augite, the former was the first to crystallize.

Matrix.— The matrix is coarse, being made up of feldspar laths,
(labradorite), augite, magnetite, and a little olivine.

There is little distinction between the groundmass and the phenocrysts

The following analysis shows the composition of the rock :—

Silica (SiO, ) os re a He .. 44-86
Alumina (Al,0,) .. x ae ee =, 13°05
Ferric oxide (Fe,O,) aS = Ae au Metekisy
Ferrous oxide (FeO) te a ao 3h SEO)
Lime (CaO) uy; Cs i) ae ay OR Od
Magnesia (MgO) .. B2 2s e SA UES D)
Potash (KO) =: ae - itt Se othe AG
Soda (Na,O) = ys ES fe Bitad B40)
Combined water (H,O) .. 3 as ere et)

100-22

TRACHYDOLERITE.

The trachydolerite of this area is found on the northern slope of Abbott’s
Mill, whence it stretches for many miles to the north towards Flagstaff.
A contact with the other lava-flows could not be found. Trachydolerite in
the Dunedin district occurs both as a hypabyssal and as an effusive rock,
with no distinctive character that would serve to discriminate them under
the microscope. The wide extent of the rock above Abbotsford suggests
that it is a lava-flow. In no place in Dunedin is the trachydolerite inter-
calated with other lavas (Marshall, 1906, p. 407). It probably followed
the eruption of the dolerite.

In hand-specimens the rock is readily distinguished by the large crystals
of feldspar that project on the weathered surface. Microscopically it shows
the following :—

Phenocrysts.—Large idiomorphic crystals of oligoclase (3-2 mm. x 5-8 mm.)
with extinction angle of 10°. It is twinned on the Carlsbad law. The
nepheline (0°2mm. X 0-8mm.) is clear and often shows hexagonal outline.
Rarely light-blue sodalite occurs. A special feature of this mineral is the
great number of inclusions, most of which are arranged in lines with two
directions crossing at an angle of 60°, The inner part of the crystals

170 Transactions.

contains more inclusions than the outer (Plate XXXVI, fig. 2). Owing to
the small size of the bubbles, it is difficult to determine whether they are
filled with gas or liquid. Olivine (0-2mm. X 0-2mm.) is not common.
It contains inclusions similar to those in the sodalite, but they are not
arranged in lines. Augite (0-4mm. < 0-4mm.) is of a light-violet colour
exhibiting pleo¢hroism. Usually the olivine and augite are mantled with
aegirine. The olivine is frequently bunched, as also is the augite. Iron-
ore grains are present.

Matrixz.—The feldspar is not resolvable. Aegirine occurs in grains. At
times it is decomposed, leaving a pseudomorph of magnetite.

The composition of a sample of the rock was as follows :—

Silica (Si0,) a ye Ae ae -» D185
Alumina (AI,O,;) .. m eo ex: wee Lorie
Ferrous oxide (FeO) a ie Sc 22 D°3O
Ferric oxide (Fe,0,) nn a a2 a5 Oak
Lime (CaO) se ss = fe ie 4236
Magnesia (MgO) .. ss 8 Lf on 06
Potash: (KO), © ec: e- se ms Re 215)
Soda (Na,O) 53 Bd as ‘. ae Oey
Combined water (H,O) .. Ce Ey .. 2°64

100-95

Basaut DYKE.

Stony Hill is formed of a basalt dyke elliptical in horizontal and wedge-
shaped in vertical section. The basalt has been intruded through the
glauconitic mudstone formation, which here is of a sandy nature. The
joints of the igneous rocks near the contacts are parallel to the plane of
cooling, and only about 2in. apart. A band 6 in. thick of the mudstone
has been baked to a cream-coloured rock showing feldspar and augite.
Thin sections of the basalt may be described thus :—

Phenocrysts.—Large crystals of labradorite, in places containing inclu-
sions of magnetite. There are smaller crystals of olivine and augite. The
former is distinctive in that, besides containing a great number of small
round grains of magnetite, it shows under crossed nicols a mosaic of
colours.

Groundmass.—The groundmass consists of sharply outlined labradorite
laths, augite, olivine, and magnetite grains.

The baked mudstone, under the microscope, is seen to consist of large
idiomorphic crystals of feldspar (orthoclase and andesine) and augite set
in a groundmass of well-outlined feldspars of the same composition as the
larger ones.

NOTOPLEISTCCENE DEPOSITS.

This includes the clays, muds, and gravels deposited after the close of
the Notocene. The clay deposits, owing to their wide extent in the low-
lands, have not been mapped. For the greater part the clays are mixed
with volcanic boulders, which occur either as a band near the base or
throughout the bed. At Abbotsford Station 20 ft. of clay, with a band
2 ft. thick of water-worn pebbles 3 ft. from the base, rests unconformably
on the glauconitic mudstone. Similar successions occur in a cutting near
the Saddle Hill railway-siding, and in an exposure on the Fernhill Coal
Company’s railway near the crossing of Waterfall Creek. These clay
deposits all occur at a height of from 120 ft. to 160 ft. above sea-level.

Grancge.—Geology of Green Island Coalfield. 171

The Abbotsford Tilery Company work a deposit of pure clay that
reaches a thickness of 35 ft. Towards Abbott’s and Kaikorai Hills the
number of boulders in the formation increases. In a railway-cutting near
Freeman’s mine large boulders are mixed with no order throughout its
depth of 15 ft. Park (1910B, p. 200) states that moa-bones have been
discovered at the bottom of the clay at Abbotsford. i

A difference of opinion exists as to the origin of the deposit. Beal
(1871, p. 276) and P. Thomson (1874, p. 312), mistaking structural marks
brought out by weathering on a basalt for glacial striae, conceived a
glacial origin for the clays containing boulders at Green Island and
Dunedin. Hutton and Ulrich (1875, pp. 69-70) considered that the deposit
had been formed by the ordinary weathering of the volcanic rocks. Park
(1910a, pp. 593-94) classed this formation as a boulder-clay. Marshall (1910,
p. 337) says, “‘ In the clays about Dunedin the only recognizable mineral
grains that they contain are those of the most resistant minerals contained
in the underlying rock—a matter that at once suggests it has been formed

in situ. . . . There are a few places at relatively low levels where
there is a layer of well-rounded pebbles and boulders beneath the
clay. These mark old shore-lines. . . . The clay that covers the

boulders in the localities referred to has been washed down the hillside on
to them.”

The presence at Abbotsford of well-rounded boulders consisting of
dolerite, basalt, trachydolerite, and rarely phonolite rocks at the base, all
of local origin. is very damaging to the idea of classing the deposit as a
boulder-clay. Had the beds a glacial origin boulders of schist would
naturally occur, since that rock outcrops at no great distance from the
clay. The bed of gravel from 120 ft. to 160 ft. above sea-level, together
with the break in topography at about the 200 ft. contour, signify that
the clay accumulated when the land was about 100 ft. lower than it is at
present. The mud of the raised beach on the Saddle Hill Railway con-
tains Chione stutchburyi (Gray), a common form on the present-day beach.

The formation of the gravel forming the flood-plains of the creeks, and
the sand and mud of the lower part of the Kaikorai Stream, commenced
when the land was depressed.

ECONOMIC GEOLOGY.
Coat.
History and Mining.
The history of coal-mining in the Green Island coalfields may be found
in Hutton and Ulrich’s Geology of Otago, Gordon’s Handbook of New Ze-

land Mines, the New Zealand Mines Reports, and Denniston’s “ Repert on
the Green Island Collieries, Otago’’ (1877, pp. 143-73).

Thickness of Seam, Faults, de.

The greatest thickness of coal is met with in the Saddle Hill mine,
where it averages 20ft. At Freeman’s it averages 14 ft., while at Brighton
and Green Island mines the general thickness is 10 ft.

The main seam is practically free from fireclay. Lenses about 4 in.
long are in places met with in the upper part of the seam. Two bands of
pyrites # in. thick, one near the floor and the other 5 ft. 3 in. from the
floor, run through the coal of the Saddle Hill mine.

iy Transactions.

/

The faults which have been encountered in the workings have the same
strike as the coal, and usually a throw of less than 6 ft. A fault striking
east 65° south, with a throw to the west of about 100 ft., separates the
Jubilee and Walton Park Collieries.

Coal mined and available.

Most of the coal within a few hundred feet of the surface has been
extracted. The Saddle Hill and Jubilee mines have taken practically all
the coal from the outcrop in Christie’s Creek to the lime indicated on the
map. The distance to the west that the coal could be worked was found
to be limited because of the splitting of the seam.

The Jubilee Company has now turned its attention to an outcrop about
20 chains south of the railway-siding. Here the amount of coal is small,
as the boundary to the dip is the Old Brighton Road. Christie Bros.
intend drawing the pillars in the Walton Park area and mining the ground
to the south of it. In Freeman’s mine most of the pillars from a strip:
about 20 chains wide back from the outcrop in Femhill Creek have been
extracted. The Fernhill people have worked a block about 4% acres in
extent to the north of their entrance. The greater part of the working
still contains pillars. The other companies have taken small amounts from
areas indicated on the map.

To the end of December, 1919, 2,438,453 tons had been won from
the Green Island coalfield, but about 48,000,000 tons remain in this area
mapped.

The life of Freeman’s mine in its present position is limited. Later a
shaft with a depth of at least 300 ft. will have to be sunk in the neighbour-
hood of Abbott’s Creek to reach the dip coal. Christies have many years
ahead of them in the field previously mentioned. The Jubilee ‘has at
present the triangular area to the south of the railway-siding. The Green
Island Company “has yet about 900,000 tons to extract. Much coal pro-
bably lies to the rise in the Fernhill and Brighton mines.

An unprospected field lies between Brighton and the area wrought
alongside Christie’s Creek. Bores put down at A and B would reach the
coal-measures at about 300 ft. and prove the area.

GOLD.
Hutton and Ulrich (1875, pp. 141-48) give an account of the Saddle Hill
reef near Christie’s Creek. About 2,000 tons of stone were crushed for an
average yield of 5 dwt. of gold per ton—a yield that is unpayable.

SAND.

(90d outcrops of sand free of the overlying formation for a few chains
back, are found in many parts. The conglomerate band and lenses of
clay give little trouble. In all the pits two classes of sand occur—a sharp
sand used for cement- work, and a clean, white, rounded sand used by
plasterers. At present each coal company works the deposit on its ground.

Cuay.

The clay of this area is one of the best of the province. The deposit
near Abbotsford Station owned by the Abbotsford Tilery Company is
35 ft. thick, is smgularly free from boulders, has a fine texture, and makes
an excellent tile. A detailed examination of the clay was made by the
Dominion Analyst, who reports as follows :—

y of Green Island Coalfield. 173

‘Only one sample was forwarded by the Inspector of Mines, but as
this appeared to have been taken from two different seams it was dividcd
into two samples.

Analysis. (1.) (2.)
Silica (SiO5) .. 4 at if, .. 66:80 66-10
Alumina (Al,O3) a be ipsa A 160
Tron oxide (Fe,03) .. ie Be ~« 4°20 3:48
Titanium dioxide (TiO 2) if so 56 OE 0-92
Lime (CaO) .. te a eal O 1-80
Magnesia (MgO) Si Ss i So MADE 1-15
Soda (Na,O) .. 33 oe ee oa 92526 1-60
Potash (K,0) oe ae .. 1-74 2-02
Water at 100° C. (H 0) é Me a2 0:90 2:10
Combined water Book organic matter a see E25 4-10

100°32 99°67

Rational Analysis. (1.) (2.)
Feldspar 4 ote ie aye .. 33°16 26-99
Quartz : Has as Be so UcilO) 27-89
Clay substance ore as 36 66 OOEUY 45-17

‘Small briquettes and tiles were made from the samples, and the physical
tests on these showed that good bricks and tiles could be.obtamed between
the temperatures 1050° and 1100° C. At 1140° C. the bricks and _ tiles
showed distinct signs of overburning. The porosity of small tiles made at
1060° C. appeared quite satisfactory.

: | Water- | |
eo maces sneeree: terra | Colour. Hardness. | Remarks.
4 | | |
No. 1.
100 6-25 | a ao ae 5-0 Easily moulded.
970 ‘ 3) NG: 13-22 |Red_ ..! Scratch with file Good brick.
1060 | 6-25 15-88 6 as e en
1140 15-62 1:78 | Dark red ss Slightly over-
burned.
1270 yee el2:50 aa Very dark gee vitrified
| red
INjoy 2:
100 |; 6-87 | ae a | ar ite | Easily moulded.
970 Sst ea etc 9-77 |Red .. Scratch with file | Good brick.
1060 ag 2 l caceteill 5G ss &: 5
1140 a 12-50 1-92 | Dark red | Not scratched .. | Slight tly over-
| burned.
1270 Ae 12-50 | ws | Very Gnng Completely vitrified) Decidedly over-
| red | burned.

“Microscopically the samples showed the followmg composition :—

“No. 1.—Large irregular crystals of iron-stained quartz. No free crystals
of magnetite or rutile, but the quartz in some cases penetrated by capillary
or acicular crystals of what appears to be rutile. Feldspar plentiful ; some
fairly nets crystals.

“ No. 2.—Not quite so coarse in texture as No. 1, and not so much iron-
stained quartz. A little magnetite and a few crystals of rutile. Feldspar
plentiful and elongated.”

A large brick-kiin was erected by Gray, of the Fernhill Colliery ; but
the clay, besides containing a great number of boulders, was found to be
unsuitable for brickmaking. Bricks were made some years ago from a
bed, about 15 ft. thick, near the Walton Park shaft.

174 Transactions.

The clays associated with the coal-seams were tested at the Abbotsford
Tileries, and found not to withstand a sufficiently high temperature to be
called fireclay.

OrHER MATERIALS OF Economic VALUE.

The Burnside marl-pit was opened in 1903, and works were erected
near by. An attempt to produce an hydraulic cement proved unsuccessful.
The Milburn Lime and Cement Company now use the marl from this pit
to mix with the lime from Milburn to form a cement.

The limestone of Brighton was burnt many years ago for its lime, but
the rock proved to be of too low a grade.

The greensand contains constituents that have value as fertilizers
(Ries, 1905, pp. 155-56), but the thickness of the deposit near Green Island
is not sufficiently great to warrant mining.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Beat, L. O., 1871. On the Disposition of Alluvial Deposits in the Otago Goldfields,
Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 3, pp. 270-78

CuapmMan, F., 1919. Australian Fossils. Robertson, Melbourne.

Denniston, R. B., 1877. Report on Green Island Collieries, Otago, Rep. Geol. Explor.
during 1876-77 (No. 10].

ErrINnGsHAUSEN, C. von, 1891. Contributions to the Knowledge of the Fossil Flora
of New Zealand, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 23, pp. 237-310.

Gorvon, H. A., 1887. The Handbook of New Zealand Mines, pt. it.

Hector, J., 1872. Report on the Clutha and Green Island Coalfields, Rep. Geol.
Explor. during 1871-72 [No. 7], p. 165-72.

—— 1874. On the Fossil Reptilia of New Zealand, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 6, pp. 333-58.

—— 1877. Progress Reports, Rep. Explor. during 1873-74 [No. 8], pp. i-xx.

——— 1887. Progress Reports, Rep. Geol. Explor. during 1886-87, No. 18, pp. ix—i.

Hutton, F. W., 1885. Geology of New Zealand, Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., vol. 41,
pp. 191-220.

Hutton, F. W., and Unricn, A. H. F., 1875. Geology of Otago. Mills, Dick, and Co.,
Dunedin.

Macponatp, G., 1912. Brown Coal of Otago, Colliery Guardian, Nov. 22.

McKay, A., 1877. Reports relative to Collections of Fossils in the South-east District
of the Province of Otago, Rep. Geol. Explor. during 1873-74 [No. 8], pp. 59-60.

MarsHat, P., 1906. The Geology of Dunedin (New Zealand), Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc.,
vol. 62, pp. 381-424. —

—— 1919. Glaciation of New Zealand, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 42, pp. 33448.

——_ 1916. Relation between Cretaceous and Tertiary Rocks, Trans. N.Z. Inst.,
vol. 48, pp. 100-19.

—— 1917. The Wangaloa Beds, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 49, pp. 450-60.

—_— 1918. The Geology of the Tuapeka District, N.Z. Geol. Surv. Bull. No. 19 (n.s.).

Morcan, P. G., 1916. Records of Unconformities from Late Cretaceous to Early
Miocene in New Zealand, Trans. N.Z, Inst., vol. 48, pp. 1-18.

Park, J., 19104. The Great Ice Age of New Zealand, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 42,
pp. 580-612.

—— 19108. Geology of New Zealand. Whitcombe and Tombs, Christchurch.

—— 1912. The Supposed Cretaceo-Tertiary Succession of New Zealand, Geol. May.
dec. v, vol. 9, p. 496.

Ries, H., 1905. Economic Geology of the United States, pp. 155-56. Macmillan Co.,
New York.

THomson, J. A., 1918. On the Age of the Waikouaiti Sandstone, Otago, New Zealand,
Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 50, pp. 196-97.

—_— 1920. The Notocene Geology of the Middle Waipara and Weka Pass District,
North Canterbury, New Zealand, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 52, pp. 322-4109.

THomson, P., 1871. On the Sand Hills, or Dunes, in the Neighbourhood of Dunedin
Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 3, pp. 309-32.

—— 1874. Glacial Action in Otago, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 6, p. 312.

TRECHMANN, C. T., 1917. Cretaceous Mollusca, Geol. Mag., vol. 4, pp. 337-42.

—— 1918. Triassie of New Zealand, Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., vol. 73, pp. 165-246.

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vou. LIII. Pratt XXXVII.

Fra. 1.—General view of striated rocks at Circle Cove.

[Face p. 175.

Fow.er.—ZJce-striateg Rock-surface at Curcle Cove. 175

Art. XIX.—On an Ice-striated Rock-surface on the Shore of Curcle
Cove, Lake Manapourc.

By J. M. Fow er.

Communicated by Professor J. Park.

el

[Read before the Otago Institute, 9th November, 1920, received by Editor, 31st December,
1920 ; issued separately, 4th July, 1921.]

Plate XX XVII.

Own the 16th May, 1919, in the stratification of a series of low-lying bush-
clad hills known as “ The Peninsula,’ Mr. Guy Murrell and the writer
discovered a series of rounded, though fairly flat, rocks on the shore of
Circle Cove, which is the first little inlet to the left after rounding Stony
Point. On these rocks were marks quite different from anything that
could be attributed to jointing or fracturing, and which there was no diffi-
culty in attributing to ice-action. The marks run parallel for the length
of the rock-exposure, and follow all the undulations. In places they are
lost from view, as the hollows between the exposed parts either dip below
water-level or are filled with gravel which has drifted into them.

The striated shelf extends along the shore about 150 yards, and is
about 20 yards in width, at the summer level of the lake.

The marks are of all sizes, from sharply cut narrow lines to a trough
about 2 ft. deep and 30 ft. or 40 ft. long, the bottom of which is polished
as smooth as glass. The freshness of the marks is very noticeable.

The rocks as seen on the shore consist of beds of conglomerate, sand-
stone, fine silt, and thin seams of lignite. The conglomerate consists of
granitic boulders set in a matrix of exactly the same material, so that
when freshly broken it looks like homogeneous rock, but where weathered
its components show out. The ice-marked shelf seems to be simply the
lower stratum of the shore-rock, from which the overlying beds have been
eroded. The scratches are sometimes in the conglomerate and sometimes
on the other strata, according as the contour rises or falls. All, however,
are polished so smooth that it is only where a face appears that the
different layers can be distinguished.

176 Transactions

Art. XX.—WNotes on New Zealand Mollusca: No. 1, Descriptions of
Three New Species of Polyplacophora, and of Damoniella alpha.

By Miss M. K. Mestayrer, Dominion Museum.

[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 22nd October, 1919 ; received by Editor,
21st December, 1920; issued separately, 4th July, 1921.)

Plate XX XVIII.

Ty this paper four new species of Mollusca are described, the types of
which are in the Dominion Museum, three of them belonging to the order
Polyplacophora, or chitons. Two were obtained within a short distance of
Wellington, but repeated search has failed to discover further specimens.
Damoniella alpha is, unfortunately. the only specimen so far obtained; it
was discovered by Dr. J. A. Thomson in the fossil-beds at Blue Clifis,
Otaio River. It adds a new genus as well as a new species to the New
Zealand Tertiary fauna.

The excellent drawings from which the accompanying plate was prepared
were done by Miss J. K. Allan, of Sydney, and hearty thanks are due to
her for the careful, accurate work bestowed upon them.

PLAXIPHORIDAKE.

PLaxtPpHorRA (MaorticHiton) Iredale (1).*
Plaxiphora (Maorichiton) lyallensis n. sp. (Plate XX XVIII, figs. 7-8.)

Lyall Bay, Cook Strait, N.Z.

Shell oval, flatly arched, side slopes straight, surface dull. Anterior
valve with eight radial ribs, rendered slightly nodulous by the irregularly
spaced growth-lines ; the spaces between the radials appear smooth, but
a strong pocket-lens shows traces of V-like sculpture. Median valves
squarish, not beaked, nearly smooth; lateral areas raised, marked off by
a strong semi-nodulous rib, the central portion covered with very fine
V-like sculpture; the jugal areas with traces of microscopic striae and
pitting; the pleural areas with a few horizontal wrinkles in a shallow
groove anterior to the lateral rib; this groove is most distinct in valves 4
to 6. Posterior valve small, mucro terminal, slightly upturned, pleural
areas bounded by a strong marginal rib, no sculpture. Interior deep blue-
green, sutural plates white, sinus rather broad, convex in centre with a
central dark-brown spot and a yellow tinge on either side of it. The
anterior valve has eight slits, the edges of which are thickened and
upturned, the insertion plates lightly grooved. The median valves also
have the insertion plates grooved, and one slit. The posterior valve has
a thickened rib-like insertion plate.

Colour: Ground-colour greenish-brown, irregularly barred with cream,
the sixth valve cream with irregular zigzags of the ground-colour, the
anterior valve uniform brown.

* This and other numbers enclosed in parentheses refer to the list of literature at
end of paper.

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vou. LIILD. Pirate XX XVIII.

11 [Miss J. K. Allan del.

Fie. 1.—Lorica haurakiensis n. sp.
Fie. 2.—Lorica haurakiensis n. sp.: profile.
Fic. 3.—Lorica haurakiensis n. sp.: second valve.
Fie. 4.—Lorica volvox (Reeve).
Fre. 5.—Lorica volvox (Reeve): profile.
Fic. 6.—Lorica volvox (Reeve): second valve.
Fic. 7.—Plaxiphora (Maorichiton) lyallensis n. sp.
Z Fie. 8.—Plaxiphora (Maorichiton) lyallensis n. sp.: profile.
Fic. 9.—Rhyssoplax oliveri n. sp.: yirdle-scales.
Fre. 10.—Rhyssoplax oliveri n. sp.
Fic. 11.—Rhyssoplax oliveri n. sp.: profile.
Fic. 12.—Damoniella alpha n. sp.

Face p. 176.)

Mestayer.—NVew Zealand Mollusca. Wz

Girdle moderately broad, with a marginal fringe of soft short bristles,
and about twenty tufts and pores adjoining the valves ; when alive it was
a greenish colour.

~ Measurements : Length, 35mm.; breadth, 20mm.; but it would pro-
bably have been at least 5 mm. longer and broader in life.

Material: The holotype, in the Dominion Museum.

Remarks.—This specimen was obtained accidentally when gathering
Ulwa-covered pieces of rock; a tuft came away readily, and I found it
was on this chiton, which it had completely hidden. Having no idea
is Was a new species, it was not measured while alive, nor was the radula
preserved. In spite of repeated searches in the same place, no further
specimens have been obtained. It belongs to the group of Plaxzphora
which has been placed by Iredale in the subgenus Maorichiton, with
Chiton caelata Reeve as the type.

ISCHNOCHITONIDAE.
Lorica H. and A. Adams (2).
Lorica haurakiensis n. sp. (Plate XX XVIII, figs. 1-3.)
Lorica volvox Suter (non Reeve) (8).

Off Kawau Island, Hauraki Gulf, N.Z.; 20 fathoms.

Shell ovately oblong, steeply elevated, dorsal ridge acute, side slopes
very slightly convex. Anterior valve erect, lightly curved forward, with
fourteen irregularly spaced radial ribs, smooth for about two-thirds the
length, but bearing near the girdle from four to six low, steeply rounded
nodules ; the interstices show faint concentric growth-lines ; posterior
angles of the apex finely vertically ribbed. Median valves: The first of
these is considerably larger than the others. the jugal area sculptured
with oblique radial ribs which form inverted ““V” up it (Plate XX XVII,
fig. 3); pleural areas finely horizontally ribbed. In valves 3 to 8 the hori-
zontal ribbing is continued across the jugal tract. The number of ribs varies
with the age of the shell; the holotype has nineteen horizontal ribs, the
interstices rather wider and perfectly smooth. The lateral areas raised,
somewhat variable, some having two or three more-or-less-decided radial
riblets, but they may be obsolete on one or more of these areas. A few
low, steeply rounded nodules are rather irregularly scattered over the
riblets. Posterior edges of valves denticulate, and showing traces of fine
vertical striae at the apex. The concentric growth-lines are clearly visible.
Posterior valve the smallest, horizontally ribbed, bounded by a strong
shghtly upstanding rib, bearing a few nodules. In some specimens there
are traces of fine vertical riblets on the posterior angle. The mucro is
terminal, The valve rather deeply grooved posteriorly.

Girdle medium width, closely set with smooth convex scales, which vary
slightly in size. There are no tufts of bristles; the posterior slit extends
the whole width of the girdle. Unfortunately this is not shown in fig. 1.

Colour reddish-brown with a fairly broad creamy-yellow bar along the
centre of the shell. The girdle about the same colour, with darker trans-
verse bars. Individua] specimens appear to vary somewhat in colour.
Interior reddish, sutural plates almost white, sinus very narrow, rather
shallow. Anterior valve with about eight slits, median valves one slit.

Owing to the scarcity of specimens it has not been possible to disarticulate
one.

178 Transactions.

Measurements: Holotype—length, 30mm.; breadth, 20mm. The
largest. paratype about 40mm. by 30mm.; but it is rather contracted,
and therefore difficult to measure accurately.

Material: The holotype, presented by Mr. A. E. Brookes to the
Dominion Museum, and four paratypes.

Remarks.—Hitherto this species has been confused with Lorica volvox
(Reeve), though the resemblance is really only superficial, as careful
comparison shows several decided differences between the two species.
A study of figs. 2 and 5 on the accompanying plate reveals a_ striking
difference in the general outline of the shells, Lorica haurakiensis having a
much steeper outline than Lorica volvox (Reeve). Figs. 3 and 6 show the
remarkable difference in sculpture of the second valve of each species,
fig. 3 (L. haurakiensis) exhibiting no trace of the nodulous sculpture so
characteristic of L. volvor (Reeve) (fig. 6) on the jugal tract. Also, the
lateral areas of L. hawrakiensis are very much less nodulous than in
L. volvox. The pleural areas of the species differ in that L. haurakiensis
has the interstices of the longitudinal ribs smooth, while in L. volvox the
whole surface is rendered semi-nodulous by low heavy transverse corru-
gations.

There are also differences in the girdle characters, the new species being
characterized by small close-set scales, and by the entire absence of the
tufts of transparent bristles, which are numerous on L. volvoz.

History—In 1872 Hutton (4) described Chiton rudis from a specimen
in the Colonial Museum, and stated “ Locality unknown.” That specimen
has.since been identified at Chiton volvox Reeve (1847), now placed in the
genus Lorica. It is specifically inseparable from specimens presented by
Mr. C. Hedley.

When inspecting the concrete sinker of the buoy off Whale Rock,
Bay of Islands, a few years ago, Captain Bollons obtained two or three
specimens, in about 20 fathoms, which the late Mr. Suter identified as
Lorica volvox (Reeve) (3). Since then Mr. A. E. Brookes has obtained
three more specimens off Kawau Island, Hauraki Gulf, in 20 fathoms,
and he has generously presented his largest specimen, the holotype, to
the Dominion Museum. There is a larger specimen, but his is the best
preserved,

Careful comparison of the New Zealand specimens with C. rudis Hutton
and with authentic New South Wales specimens of L. volvox (Reeve) showed
C. rudis Hutton and the Australian specimens to be conspecific—indeed,
in all probability Hutton’s type is an Australian shell—and showed that
the New Zealand specimens were a very distinct species not so far described.

In the Manual of the New Zealand Mollusca, 1913, p. 46, pl. 2, fig. 22,
Suter records Lorica volvox (Reeve), giving C. rudis Hutton as a synonym,
but his accompanying description does not accurately fit either L. volvex
(Reeve) or L. haurakiensis, a specimen of which is in his collection.
Mr. Murdoch, of Wanganui, points out that the description appears to be
derived partly from his New Zealand specimen, partly from C. rudis, and
partly from Reeve’s description. As we have no record of Lorica volvox
(Reeve) being obtained alive in New Zealand, and as the New Zealand
species is specifically very distinct, I would suggest that Lorica volvox
(Reeve) should be eliminated from our fauna, and Lorica haurakiensis take
its place as the New Zealand representative of the genus.

An unfortunate numerical mistake has occurred on plate 2 of Suter’s
Manual, where Lorica volvox is fig. 24, and Onithochiton undulatus is fig. 22.

Mestayver.—New Zealand Mollusca. 179

The true numbering is Lorica volvox, fig. 22 ; Onithochiton undulatus, fig. 24.
So far as I can tell from the very poor figure, a specimen of L. haurakiensis
is there shown, but accurate determination 1s almost impossible.

CHITONIDAE.
RuyssopLax Thiele (5).

Rhyssoplax oliveri n. sp. (Plate XX XVIII, figs. 9-11.)

Huetataka, Lyall Bay, Cook Strait, N.Z.

Shell small, oval, smooth, with a subglossy surface, the side slopes
almost straight. Anterior valve smooth except for six tiny nodules close
to the girdle, and slight traces of radial riblets. The animal is dried inside,
but the eight slits are easily seen under a pocket-lens. Median valves
slightly beaked, the jugal and pleural areas smooth, lateral areas raised,
well defined, with very faint traces of radial sculpture. Interior one slit,
sinus hidden by the animal, colour bluish, insertion plates probably white.
Posterior valve, mucro central, moderately prominent, posterior slope rather
steeply concave, bounded by a nearly smooth rib. Interior eight slits.

Colour: Ground-colour cream, mottled with dull green, and small
longitudinal flecks of light brown; the whole surface densely covered with
microscopic white speckles.

Girdle: Scales very finely closely striate, rounded, the largest along
the centre, the outer edge with three or four rows of very fine outstanding
spicules, which are easily rubbed off. Colour creamy transversely banded
with green and tinged with brown.

Measurements: Length, 10-5 mm.; breadth, 7 mm.

Material: The holotype, obtained by W. R. B. Oliver, 13th January,
1918, and presented to the Dominion Museum,

Remarks.—This species appears to be more closely related to Rhyssoplax
translucens (H. & H.), of Australia, than any other New Zealand member
of this genus. It differs from R. translucens in being smoother and much
smaller, while the girdle-scales are proportionately larger and rounder.

SCAPHANDRIDAE.

DAMONTELLA Iredale (6).
Damoniella alpha n. sp. (Plate XXXVIII, fig. 12.)

Shell small, narrow, elongately cylindrical, solid. Sculpture about thirty
flat spiral ribs, with very narrow grooves between them. The grooves
are rendered punctate by a large number of fine vertical growth-striae,
which do not cross the spiral ribs. Aperture the entire length of the shell,
narrow anteriorly, somewhat inflated posteriorly. Outer lip sharp, very
slightly crenulated by the spiral grooves. Vertex pierced by a very narrow
axial perforation. Columella short, vertical, sightly concave, very lightly
reflexed towards the tiny umbilical chink.

Measurements: Length, 7 mm.; breadth, 4 mm.

Material: The holotype, in the Dominion Museum, collected by Dr.
J. A. Thomson at Blue Cliffs, Otaio River, South Canterbury, in 1917
(Awamoan).

Remarks.—This specimen was placed by the late Mr. Suter in the genus
Roxania Leach (1847), but Iredale points out that this is invalidated by a

180 Transactions.

prior use of Roxana for a genus of insects, and he proposes Damoniella in
place of it, with Bulla cranchi Leach as genotype. So far as I can judge
from the description and figures (7), this is a near ally of the new species ;
there is an Australian species, Atys dactylus Hedley (8), which also appears
to resemble it, at least superficially.

LITERATURE CITED.

1. T. InepaE, 1915. The Chitons of the Kermadecs, Proc. Malac. Soc. Lond., vol. 2,
pp. 32-33.

2. —— 1915. A Commentary on Suter’s Manual of the New Zealand Mollusca, Trans.
N.Z. Inst., vol. 47, p. 425.

3. H. Sutmr, 1913. Man. N.Z. Mollusca, pp. 46-47, and p. 1082.

4, F. W. Hurron, 1872. On the New Zealand Chitonidae, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 4,

p- 179.

5. T. Irppaue, 1915. A Commentary on Suter’s Manual of the New Zealand Mollusca,
Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 47, p. 426.

6. —— 1918. Molluscan Nomenclatural Problems and Solutions, No. 1, Proc. Malac.
Soc. Lond., vol. 13, pp. 28-40.

7. H. A. Pirszry, 1893. Monograph of Tectibranchiata, Man. Conch. (1), vol. 15, p. 27,
pl. 28, figs. 28-29.

8. C. Heptey, 1899. The Atoll of Funafuti, Mem. Austral. Mus., No. 3, p. 484.

Art. XXI—WNotes on New Zealand Mollusca: No. 2.

By Miss M. K. Mesrayer, Dominion Museum.

[ Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 27th October, 1920 ; received by Editor>
15th December, 1920; issued separately, 4th July, 1921.)

Callochiton empleurus (Hutton).*

Foveaux Strait, N.Z.; about 15 fathoms.

A specimen of this rare chiton was recently found amongst a quantity
of oyster-scrapings obtained from the New Zealand Trawling and Fish-
supply Company, Wellington. The material came from the Foveaux Strait
oyster-beds, and amongst it quite a considerable variety of Mollusca was
found.

The specimen now exhibited is unfortunately badly broken, but as the
anterior and posterior valves are practically perfect it is possible to supple-
ment Suter’st description in some details which for lack of material he was
unable to determine.

The anterior valve has 14 very shallow, irregularly- spaced shts; the
teeth are comparatively solid, with their edges lightly grooved. The interior
is white, and has an irregular squarish pattern, due to the intersection of
the three concentric growth-lines, and of the slit-rays, which are traceable
to the apex.

The posterior valve has 11 slits; the teeth are solid, are slightly thinner
than the anterior ones, but are similarly grooved, The interior is white,
with a bright pink patch under the mucro.

* Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 4, p. 178, 1872.
+ Man. N.Z. Mollusca, pp. 12-13, 1913. -

ArcHEY.—Wotes on New Zealand Chilopoda. 181

Art. XXIIi—WNotes on New Zealand Chilopoda.

By Gitperr Arcniy, M.A., Assistant Curator, Canterbury Museum.

[Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 4th November, 1920 ; received by
Editor, 31st December, 1920 ; issued separately, 4th July, 1921.]

LITHOBIOMORPHA.
HENICOPIDAE.
Lamyctes oticus n.sp. (Figs. | to 3.)
Colour rich brown.
Major tergites with anterior and lateral raised margins, emarginate
from the 8th caudad; minor tergites with broader, less distinct margin.

= Lamyctes oticus n. sp.
Fic. 1.—Prehensors. Fie. 2.—Anal leg. Fie. 3.—Gonopod of ?.

Antennae with 25 joints. Prehensors (fig. 1) with long curved claw, pro-
sternum 1-78 times as wide as long, teeth 3 +3. Coxal pores a First
tarsal joint of 15th legs (fig. 2) four times as long as wide; tibial spur

182 Transactions.

on legs 1 to 12. Gonopods of 2 (fig. 3) with straight basal spurs and
eurved sharp terminal claw.

Length, 8 mm.

Loc. —- Otekaike (type) and Queenstown. Types in the Canterbury
Museum.

This species differs from L. neozelanicus Archey by its darker colouring,
its much stouter anal legs, and by the form of the prosternal teeth.

Paralamyctes validus Archey.

Paralamyctes validus Archey, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 49, p. 314, 1917.
P. dubwus Archey, whid., p. 314.

A series of these forms has now been examined, and it is clear that
they are the same species, the differences previously noted as separating
them being those normal between slightly immature and fully-grown forms.
The South [sland representatives of this species do, however, differ slightly
from the North Island forms, but the differences are scarcely of specific
rank. There are also small sex variations to be seen in each variety,
which may be expressed as follows :—

Length of

|
ae Sex. | Length. | TAT. Coxal Pores. Prosternal Teeth.
if 2 Aes a B yA.
| 4444 4555
| 1 = | — 2 |
North Island... 3 18 mm. | # body-length | gaaa °' 4555 | 9+ 9 or 10 + 10.
| | 5666 |
» 5% 9 19mm. | 4 a | 5666 ie x
ed . 3444
South Island ..| ¢ | 20mm. | 3 = eae -. | 8+ 8 or 949.
| |
| | 4555
¢ | 20mm. | } 53 lanae .. i

P. dubius therefore forgoes its specific rank and is retained only as a
variety of P. validus, differing from it by the reduction in the number of
coxal pores and prosternal teeth. Small specimens (10-13 mm.) of both
forms have coxal pores — and 5-+5 or 6+ 6 prosternal teeth, those
of 15mm. length having coxal pores ae and 6+ 6,7+7, or 6+ 7
prosternal teeth.

It should be noted that normally there is a tibial spur on all the legs,
but occasionally this is missing on the last pair. The type of P. validus
has a very low, rounded projection at the end of the tibia, but in other
specimens the spur is quite distinct and sharp.

I have to thank Mr. T. R. Harris, of Ohakune, for his kindness in
sending me a series of specimens of this species.

Haasiella insularis (Haase), 1887.
Henicops insularis Haase, Abh. Zool. Mus. Dresden, No. 5, p. 36,
1887. Haasiella insularis Pocock, Ann. May. Nat. Hist., ser. 7,
vol. 8, p. 449, 1901; Archey, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 49, p. 316,
LOT:
I am now able to give Haase’s diagnosis of this species. The locality
is Auckland Islands, not Auckland as stated by Pocock and myself.
“Colour greyish-brown, tergal plates with dark margins and a median
black patch, head reddish, ventral surface greyish. Head emarginate
anteriorly. Prosternum of prehensors armed with 5+ 5 teeth. Tergal
plates, especially the anterior ones, margined. Single coxal pores round
and large. Length of body, 12 mm.” (Haase.)

ArcHEy.—WNotes on New Zealand Chilopoda. 183.

In addition, Haase describes the penultimate pair of legs as the longest,
with 2-jointed metatarsus and 3-jointed tarsus; the last legs have an
undivided metatarsus and a peculiar club-shaped tarsus, formed, it is
thought, by the fusion of the terminal claw with the tarsus. Only a single
much-mutilated specimen is known.

SCOLOPENDROMORPHA.

These notes on the Scolopendromorpha are intended as a preliminary
revision of the New Zealand members of the order, and therefore descriptions
of New Zealand species published in papers abroad are quoted in full. The
species recorded herein are from very few localities, and many more areas
must be searched before anything like a complete revision can be attempted.
That the South Island is better represented than the North Island with
regard to the new species of Cryptops described is due to the energetic
collecting of Mr. T, Hall and Mr. T. B. Smith, to whom my thanks are due.

CRY PTOPIDAE.
Genus Cryptops Leach, 1814.

Cryptops Leach, Trans. Linn. Soc., vol. 11, p. 384, 1814; Newport,
Trans. Innn. Soc., vol. 19, p. 407, 1845; Kraepelin, Mit. Mus.
Hamburg, vol. 20, p. 32, 1903.

Key to NEw ZEALAND SPECIES OF CRYPTOPS.

I. First tergite with a transverse sulcus anteriorly, or with its
anterior end overlapped by the head.
A. Coxopleural pores 50 or more, reaching to the
hinder end of the coxopleura C. spinipes Poc.
&. Coxopleural pores 20 at most, not reaching to
the hinder end of the coxopleura.
1. Head with sulci. Ist tergite without

transverse sulcus C. zelandicus Chamb.
2. Head without sulci, Ist tergite with
transverse sulcus : C. megalopora Haase.

Il. First tergite without sharply defined transverse sulcus
anteriorly, always with its anterior margin overlapping
the hinder edge of the head.
A, Anal tibiae armed ventrally with many teeth
arranged in several rows; Ist tergite with
Y-shaped sulcus C. polyodontus Att.
B. Anal tibiae armed ventrally with only one row
of at most 16 teeth; Ist tergite without sulcus.
Ihe Coxopleurae with only 30 pores.

a. Anal femur bare dorsally .. C. australis Newp-
6b. Anal femur dorsally with
spinescent setae .. C. galidus n. sp.

2. Coxopleurae with more than 30 pores.
a. Dental formula of anal legs
approximately 1 + 9 + 4.
a’, Anal metatarsus with
ventral dilatation .. C. ignivia n. sp.
a”, Anal metatarsus with
straight ventraledge C. algidus n. sp.
6. Dental formula of anal legs
approximately 1 + 12+ 7.
61, Coxal pores 40 to 50.
a Anallegsslender C. dilagus n. sp.
B Anal legs stout CC. akaroa n. sp.
b?. Coxal pores 100 or
more .. .. C. pelorus n. sp.
c. Anal legs with6+5teeth .. C. lamprethus Chamb-

184 Transactions.

Cryptops spinipes Pocock.
Cryptops spinipes Pocock, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 6, vol. 8, p. 156,
1891. C. setosus Pocock, ibid., p. 157. C. spinipes- Kraepelin,
Mit. Mus. Hamburg, vol. 20, p. 49, 1903; Arktv. Zool., vol. 10,
No. 2, p. 2, 1916; Chamberlin, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. vol. 64,
p. 4, 1920.

The following is a translation of Kraepelin’s description (1903) :—

‘Hinder end of the head overlapped by the anterior end of the Ist
tergite, or conversely with its hinder end overlapping the edge of the
Ist tergite, more or less distinctly punctured, generally with two median
longitudinal sulci. First tergite with curved outline, with the collar-sulcus
parallel to the anterior border, punctured like the other tergites ; often with
a small median depression just behind the middle, without median longi-
tuninal sulci. Median longitudinal sulci first beginning on the 3rd or 4th
tergite, lateral sulci on the 4th. Median keel not prominent. Anterior
margins of prosternum of toxicognaths lightly convex with 5 or 6 setae on
either side. Sternites normally punctured. Spiracles slit-like, that of the
last segment narrow-oval. Coxopleurae caudally roundly truncated, with
scattered spines or setae, pores numerous, teaching to the hinder end. Legs,
in the hinder segments, armed with spinescent setae. Ventral surface
of the femur of the anal legs with bare longitudinal area between the
spines, patella the same, dorsally without longitudinal groove, produced
at the end into a small tubercle. Tibia ventrally with 8, Ist tarsal joint
with 3 or 4 teeth, the end of the tibia dorsally with a distinct spine on
each side. Colour ochraceous. Length, 24mm. Australia (Sydney), New
Zealand. s

“C. setosus Poc. from New Zealand is only established through its greater
hairiness and puncturing, both characters of such great variability that they
cannot be considered specific.”

I have only one specimen of this species, collected at Cheviot by Mr.
J. B. Mayne.

Cryptops zelandicus Chamberlin,
Cryptops zelandicus Chamberlin, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., vol. 64,
p- 9, 1920.

“Type, M.C.Z. 1922. New Zealand: Wellington, 18th August, 1914
(W. M. Wheeler).

“Golour fulvous. Cephalic plate with caudal margin free, overlapping
the 1st dorsal plate, a short median sulcus in frontal region and a pair
of short submedian sulci in front of caudal margin. First dorsal plate
without either transverse or longitudinal sulci. Second tergite with paired
longitudinal sulci; much shorter than the first. Last dorsal plate with
caudal portion triangular, the median angle narrowly rounded. Prosternum
with anterior margin convex on each side, edge chitinous, bearing on each
side 3 or 4 setae. Ventral plates not roughened ; last one caudally truncate.
Coxopleurae short, caudally rounded ; caudal margin bearing several spin-
escent setae; pores few (near 20), partly covered, not reaching the caudal
margin. Penult legs with 3rd and 4th joints beneath with numerous
spines, corresponding ones on other legs becoming fewer and more slender
in going cephalad. Anal legs with similar spinescent setae; metatarsus

ArcHEy.—Wotes on New Zealand Chilopoda. 185

armed beneath with 6 teeth, Ist tarsal with 2. Length, 13 mm.”
(Chamberlin.)

I have not seen this species.

Cryptops megalopora Haase.

Cryptops megalopora Haase. Abh. Mus. Dresden, vol. 5, p. 80, 1887 ;
Kraepelin, Mit. Mus. Hamburg, vol. 20, p. 51, 1903 ; Chamberlin,
Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., vol. 64, p. 4, 1920.

The following is a translation of Kraepelin’s description (1903) :—

‘“ Head-plate with its free hinder end only slightly overlapping the Ist
tergite, not sulcate, with very fine and leathery wrinkling, sparsely hairy.
First tergite with distinct collar-suleus near the anterior margin, scarcely
produced posteriorly, without median longitudinal sulci. Median and lateral
sulci beginning on the 3rd tergite, indistinct and distorted. Prosternum
in the middle shallowly depressed, without hairs (2). Sternites with cross-
sulci, last one shortly rounded posteriorly. Coxopleurae with some reddish
hairs posteriorly, also with 2 light inwardly-directed spinelets, with about
14 large pores scattered over the whole surface, but not reaching to the
hinder end. Legs with short dark-brown spines and long reddish-yellow
hairs. Femur and patella of anal legs provided ventrally with scattered
hairs, without bare longitudinal area; tibia with 6, Ist tarsus with 3, teeth
ventrally.

“ Length, 18 mm.

* Loe —Auckland Islands.”’

Cryptops polyodontus Attems.

Cryptops polyodontus Attems, Zool. Jahrb. Syst., vol. 18, p. 106, 1903 ;
Kraepelin, Mit. Mus. Hamburg, vol. 20, p. 53, 1903 ; Chamberlin,
Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., vol. 64, p. 8, 1920.

The following is a translation of Kraepelin’s description (1903) :—

“ Hinder end of the head overlapped by the anterior end of the 1st
tergite, without sulci. The Ist tergite with Y-shaped impression. All
tergites finely hairy, faintly punctured, median longitudinal sulci on the
5th to 7th segments developed only in the posterior third, complete from
8th segment onwards, lateral crescentic sulci beginning on 3rd (2nd) seg-
ment, on 19th segment all sulci indistinct, 20th and 21st tergites smooth.
Prosternum with straight truncated anterior end, without marginal setae.
Sternites strongly hairy, not punctured, cruciform sulci to 19th segment
(here indistinct), absent from 20th and Ist segments; last sternite ~
narrowly trapezoid with convex rounded hinder end. Spiracles long oval.
Feniur of anal leg ventrally low-keeled, moderately provided with fine hairs
and stouter setae; similarly the patella, which ventrally bears at the end
a short thick tooth, tibia ventrally for the whole leneth set with numerous
teeth in several rows (4 rows terminally, less at the base), Ist tarsus concave
at the base, then club-shaped, with 6 pectinate teeth. Colour dark brown;
head and Ist tergite, &c.. red.

“Length, 28 mm.

“Chatham, Stephens Island.”

I have two specimens, with the anal legs missing, which I have referred
to this species. They are labelled ‘‘ Chatham Islands.”

186 Transactions.

Cryptops australis Newport.

Cryptops australis Newport, Trans. Linn. Soe., vol. 19, p. 408, 1845 :
Pocock, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 6, vol. 11, p. 129, 1893:
Kraepelin, Mit. Mus. Hamburg, vol., 20, p. 58, 1903; Fauna
sudw. Austr., vol. 2, p. 106, 1908; Arkiw. Zool., vol. 10, No. 2,
p. 2, 1916: Chamberlin, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., vol. 64, p. 8,
1920.

The following is a translation of Kraepelin’s description (1903) :—-

‘Head posteriorly overlapped by the Ist tergite, punctured, without
sulci. First tergite without sulci, punctured like the following ones, surface
and sides somewhat wrinkled. Median longitudinal sulci extending from
the 4th to the 18th segment, similarly the crescentic lateral sulci. Median
keel scarcely raised. Prosternum of toxicognaths with slightly rounded
anterior end, with only some diminutive hairs on the edge, the latter not
swollen, without setae. Sternites with cruciform sulci, the longitudinal
appearing shorter than the transverse (7.e., the hinder arm short), disappear-
ing completely on the 18th. Coxopleurae hairy around the edge, with only
about 3 rows of altogether about 30 pores, scarcely reaching to the hinder
end. Spiracles from slit-like to narrow-oval. Legs without ‘ dornspicula,’
the penultimate pair with short white downy hairs. Femur and patella
of anal leg ventrally narrowing out into a keel shape, dorsally altogether
bare, ventrally on each side of the keel with numerous short setose hairs,
without naked longitudinal area, and without deep longitudinal hollow ;
dorso-terminally without furrow or spiny processes. Patella at the end
usually with sharp tooth. Tibia ventrally with 8 to 11, tarsus with 4 to 5,
pectinate teeth. Colour ochraceous, head somewhat reddish, sides some-
times with trace of green margining.

“ Leneth, 30 mm.

“ New Zealand.”

This species is known also from Western Australia and Queensland.
I have not seen any specimens, but the following species resembles it
closely.

Cryptops galidus n. sp. (Figs. 4 and 5.)

Pale straw-colour, head slightly darker. Head overlapped by the Ist
tergite. Tergal sulci extending distinctly from 4th nearly to the caudal

Cryptops galidus.
Fie. 4.—Femur of anal leg. Fie. 5.—Coxopleura.

margin of the 20th segment. Anal tergite with candal portion triangular,
the apex broadly rounded. Prosternum with anterior margins slightly
convex, meeting medianly in a gentle sinuation, 5 or 6 fine submarginal

ArcHEy.—WNVotes on New Zealand Chilopoda. 187

hairs on each side. Sternites with cruciform sulci from 2nd to 18th seg-
ments, the transverse arm recurved and more deeply impressed than the
longitudinal. Anal sternite with strongly convex lateral margins, merging
by broadly rounded angles to the slightly emarginatecaudal margin. Coxo-
pleurae (fig. 5) with a slightly rounded caudal margin, bearing 3 irregular
rows of short setae, pores fairly large, not more than 30 in aumber,
leaving very broad pore-free margins. Femur of penult legs (fig. 4) with
setae above and a dense downy pubescence below. Anal legs: femur
and prefemur with numerous short sharp setae ; femur 2-] times, prefemur
2-2 times, and tibia 2-0 times as long as broad; dental formula 2 + 9 + 4;
the tooth-bearing margins of tibia and Ist tarsal joint quite straight.

Length, 28°5 mm.

Loc.—Mount Algidus (T. Hall).

This species differs from C. australis, as described by Kraepelin, in
possessing spinescent setae dorsally on the anal femur, and in the extension
of the tergal sulci nearly to the end of the 20th segment.

Cryptops dilagus n. sp. (Fig. 6.)

Pale straw-colour, head slightly darker. Head without sulci, over-
lapped by the Ist tergite. Tergal sulci: a pair of incomplete sulci con-
verging cephalad on 4th and 5th, complete from 6th to 19th, and extending
half-way along 20th. Anal tergite with straight converging sides, triangular
projection medianly rounded, lateral angles rounded. Prosternum with

7
Fic. 6.—Cryptops dilagus. Anal sternite. Fie. 8.—Cryptops akaroa. Penult leg.
Fic. 7.—Cryptops akaroa. Anal sternite. Fic. 9.—Cryptops akaroa, Anal leg.

anterior margins slightly emphasized, vaguely convex, medianly gently
sinuate, a few submarginal hairs but no strong setae. Sternites with
cruciform sulci from 2nd to 18th; transverse arm recurved, longitudinal
arm reaching to anterior margin, and half-way from transverse to posterior
margin; posterior portion of the longitudinal arm less distinct. Ana!

188 Transactions.

sternite (fg. 6) with only slightly convex sides, converging caudad, angles
broadly rounded, caudal margin gently emarginate. Coxopleurae with
rounded caudal margin, pores large and small, about 50 in number,
including a row of smail pores partly concealed by the anal sternite, a
broad pore-free margin bearing about a dozen setae. Femur of penult legs
spimescent above and laterally, below with many short fine hairs, but not
so finely pubescent as in the last species; 1-9 times as long as broad.
Anal legs: femur !-9 times as long as broad, covered with many spinescent
setae, prefemur 2-0 times as long as broad, with less stout setae than
the femur, tibia 1-8 times as long as bread; dental formula 1 + 13 +7
+1147 in paratype), no special raised keel for the teeth on the tibia,
a moderate keel bearing the teeth of the first tarsal joint, but not extending
beyond the dentate area, as in C. wnivia n. sp.

Length, 27 mm.

Loe. eivieunt Algidus (‘T. Hall).

Cryptops akaroa n. sp. (Figs. 7 to 9.)

Colour dull yellowish-brown, head orange. Heud without sulei, over-
lapped by the Ist tergite. Tergal sulci complete from the 4th segment,
extending two-thirds along the 20th. Anal tergite with straight sides,
slightly converging caudad, caudal portion triangular with blunt median
angle. Prosternum with chitinized gently convex anterior margins, medianly
slightly emarginate, bearing a few submarginal hairs. Sternites with trans-
verse arm of cruciform sulci visible from Ind, longitudinal arm visible from
4th to 19th segment; transverse arm recurved and more distinct than
longitudinal, which extends from the transverse arm We IE to the anterior
and posterior margins of the sternites. Anal sternite (fig. 7) with distinetly
convex sides converging caudad, and merging by broadly rounded angles
to the slightly convex caudal margin. Coxopleurae with 40 large and
small pores, a wide pore-free margin with about 10 setae caudad. “Femur
of penult legs (fig. 8) 1-7 times as long as broad, with a few long sharp
setae above. and at the sides, and with numerous shorter more slender
hairs below. Anal legs (fig. 9) very stout, femur 1-6 times as long as wide,
covered with numerous stout spinescent setae, prefemur 1:75 times as
long as wide, with longer setae than the femur, tibia 1-8 times as long as
wide ; dena formula 5 + 11-47

Length, 25 min.

Loc.—Akaroa (G. A.).

This species differs from the last in its stouter penultimate and anal
legs, the form of the anal sternite, and the fewer coxopleural pores.

Cryptops ignivia n. sp. (Fig. 10.)

Colour ght yellowish-brown, head darker. Head overlapped by Ist
tergite. Tergal sulci faint but near tly complete on 5th, complete from 6th
nearly to caudal margin of 20th. “Last tergite with sides slightly con-
verging, triangular process with median angle rounded. Prosternum with
anterior margins chitinized, almost straight, with a very slight edentation
at their junction; one or two very smal! submarginal hairs. Sternal
sulci not deeply impressed, transverse recurved and more distinct than
longitudinal, which reaches only half-way to front and hind margins
of the sternites. Anal sternite with slightly convex, posteriorly converging:
lateral margins; angles rounded, eaudal margin with the slightest trace
of a median emargination. Coxopleurae truncated and setose caudally ;

ArcHEY.—.Votes on New Zealand Chilopoda. 189

pores 60, a broad pore-free margin. Femur of penult legs with a few long
strong setae above, with more numerous more slender setae below; 1:8
times as long as wide. Anal leg: femur with moderately long and fine

Fie. 10.—Cryptops ignivia. Anal metatarsus.

setae dorsally, changing to strong spinescent setae ventrally; prefemur
with less spinescent setae; Ist tarsal jot (fig. 10) with a strongly
developed rounded keel arising from the ventral surface distad of the
teeth; dental formula 1+ 8-+-4. Femur 2-5 times, prefemur 2-3 times,
and tibia 2-6 times as long as wide.

Length, 30 mm.

Loc.—Type, Routeburn (T. Hall) ; paratypes, The Remarkables (T. Hall).

Cryptops algidus n. sp. (Figs. 11 and 12.)

Colour yellowish-brown, head slightlv darker. Head overlapped by 1st
tergite. Tergal sulci complete from 7th to 18th segments, visible also on
caudal half of 19th. Last tergite broadly triangular caudad, the apex
rounded. Prosternum with anterior edges slightly thickened, slightly
convex, a few (3 or 4) submarginal hairs. Sternites with transverse arm
of cruciform sulci visible from 2nd, longitudinal arm visible from 3rd to
18th segment. Transverse arm wider and more strongly marked than
longitudinal, and strongly recurved. Longitudinal arms reaching from

Cryptops algidus.
Fic. 11.—Femur of penult leg. Fie. 12.—Anal metatarsus.

the transverse only half-way to the anterior and posterior margins of the
sternites. last sternite with convex converging sides, partly covering the
coxopleurae, caudal margin gently emarginate, angles rounded. Coxo-
pleurae caudally truncate, the margin bearing about 6 setae; pores large
and small, 70 in number; a fairly wide pore-free margin. Femur of
penult legs (fig. 11) with a few strong setae dorsally, and more numerous
slightly slenderer spinescent setae below ; 1-8 times as long as wide. Anal
legs: femur 2-1 times, prefemur 2-0 times, and tibia 2-0 times as long as
wide ; femur covered with numerous stout setae, prefemur with less stout
setae; dental formula 1+-9-+-4. Metatarsus (fig. 12) without swollen
ventral margin.

190 Transactions.

Length, 26 mi.

Loc.—Mouat Alegidus (T. Hall).

Subspecies elidus n. subsp. differs from the type in having more slender
penult and anal legs (proportions, length to breadth, penul femur 2-0, anal
femur 2-3, prefemur 2-4, tibia 2-3) and in having the tergal sulci continuous
from the 7th to half-way along the 20th tergite.

Length, 33mm.

Loc.—Cass (G. A.).

Cryptops pelorus n. sp.

Colour light orange, head darker. Head overlapped by Ist tergite.
Tergal sulci complete from 6th to 19th segments, and extending a short
distance along 20th. Anal tergite slightly narrowed posteriorly, caudal
portion triangular with rounded apex. Prosternum with convex well-
chitinized anterior margins, slightly inclined mesially, with 2 or 3 fine sub-
marginal hairs. Sternites with cruciform sulci from 2nd to 18th segment,
indistinct on 19th; transverse arm recurved and more distinct than longi-
tudinal ; the latter reaches the anterior margins of the sternites, but is only
a short depression behind the transverse arm. Anal sternite with convex
posteriorly converging sides, angles rounded, caudal border distinctly
emarginate, Coxopleurae rounded posteriorly, pores 100, varying in size
but not very large, about 10 short setae terminally, pore-free margin
moderately wide. Femur of penult lee with a few spinescent setae above
and at the sides, ventrally densely covered with rather short hairs; pre-
femur and tibia with a few long slender hairs above and dense short
hairs below ; femur twice as long as wide. Anal leg: femur 2-3 times
as long as wide, moderately provided with spinescent setae at the sides
and with rather long hairs above ; prefemur 2-2 times as long as wide ; tibia
with straight dentate edge, Ist tarsal joint with strongly developed dentate
keel ; dental formula 2 + 10 + 7 (6).

Length, 27 mm.

Loc.—Type, Pelorus Valley (T. B. Smith) ; Ohakune (T. R. Harris).

Cryptops lamprethus Chamberlin.

Cryptops lamprethus Chamberlin, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., vol. 64,
p. 4, 1920.

“Type, M.C.Z. 1925. Paratype, M.C.Z. 2034. New Zealand: Plimmer-
ton, Taumarunui, August, 1914 (W. M. Wheeler).

“Colour ferruginous. Cephalic plate without swei. Paired sulci com-
plete first on 8th dorsal plate. Prosternum presenting a straight chitinous
anterior edge which is not at all or but vaguely and very slightly angu-
late at middle, without hairs. Sternites each with a cruciform impression, of
which the longitudinal furrow is wider and deeper and the transverse one
curved with concavity cephalad ; last 3 or 4 plates lacking this impression.
Last ventral plate without sulci, narrowed caudad, caudal margin straight
or slightly incurved. Spiracles large, longitudinally elliptic. Coxopleurae
short, caudally subtruncate, pores large and small, numerous, in numerous
rows, not reaching caudal margin. Anal legs missing. Penult legs clothed
ventrally with dense very fine hairs, in striking contrast with the much
longer and coarser hairs and setae laterally and above.

“ Leneth, 28 mm.

ArcuEy.—WNotes on New Zealand Chilopoda. 19H

“The paratype does not show the pecularity in hair of the penult
legs. The anal legs have 6 teeth on the metatarsal and 5 on the Ist
tarsal. Femur and tibia densely clothed beneath with spinescent setae.”

(Chambetlin).

I have not seen this species.

OTOSTIGMIDAE.
Genus Orosricmus Porath, 1876.

Otostignus Porath, Bihang Svensk. Ah. Handl., vol. 5, No. 7, p. 18,
1876; Kraepelin, Mit. Mus. Hamburg, vol. 20, p. 97, 1903.

Otostigmus chiltoni n. sp. (Figs. 13 to 15.)

Colour (ii spirit) dull yellow. Antennae 17 joints, 3 basal jcints
comparatively bare dorsally, slightly more hairy ventrally. Head not
punctured, with a slightly raised kidney-shaped lighter band between and
slightly behind the eyes. Dental plates of prehensors armed with 4+ 4
teeth, the outer one on each side standing rather apart, femoral tooth
simple and somewhat blunt.

Otostigmus chiltoni.
Fic. 13.—Anal tergite. Fic. 14.—Coxopleura. Fig. 15.—Inner surface of anal leg.

Tergites: The Ist not punctured and without sulci, median keel on
segments 2 to 20, the keel on each segment widening posteriorly and
flattening out in front of the posterior border. A longitudinal sulcus on each
side of the keel (about half-way to the edge), extending throughout from
the front of the 2nd to the end of the 20th tergite. Margining beginning
indistinetly on the 7th, distinctly on the 12th, tergites. Last tergite (fig. 13)
sparsely punctured, produced and evenly rounded posteriorly.

Sternites with two submedian parallel depressions from 3rd to 19th,
increasing in distinctness up to the 13th and then becoming less distinct
again. Last sternite narrowed posteriorly, and with slightly rounded
posterior end.

Spiracles oval, with erenulated border; on segments 3, 5, 8, 19, 12, 14,
16, 18, 20.

Coxopleurae (fig. 14) with long narrow process bearing two divergent
terminal spines. Pcres numerous and evenly distributed, pore-area extend-
ing to upper half of coxopleurae and reaching to the base of the process.

Legs from 1st to 20th with 2 tarsal spurs, tibiae and tarsi unspined.
Anal legs with 1 tarsal spur, femur (fig. 15) dorsal inner with 2 spines and a
bifid angular spine, inner surface with 5 spines, ventral outer with 3.

Length, 20 nim.

Loc.—Three Kings Island (Dr. C. Chilton). Types in the Canterbury
Museum.

192 Transactions.

Genus Erumosriamus Pocock, 1898.

Heterostoma (nom. praeoce.) Newport, Trans. Linn. Soc., vol. 19,
p. 275, 1844. Dacetwm (nom. praeoce.) C. L. Koch, Syst. Myr.
p- 156, 1847. Ethmostigmus Pocock, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.,
ser. 7, vol. 1, p. 327, 1898; Kraepelin, Mit. Mus. Hamburg,
vol. 20, p. 155, 1903.

Ethmostigmus platycephalus Newport.

Heterostoma platycephala Newport, Trans. Linn. Soc., vol. 19, p. 415,
1845. H. platycephala + var. lugubre Haase, Abhandl. Mus.
Dresden, vol. 5, p. 92, 1887. H. browni + var. gracile Haase,
ibid., p. 94. *¢ H. viridipes Pocock, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hrst., ser. 6,
vol. 7, p. 56, 1891. H. loriae Silvestn, Ann. Mus. ciy. Genova,
vol. 54, p. 631, 1894. H. platycephalum Attems, Semon’s
Forschungreise, vol. 5, p. 509, 1898. Lthmostigmus platycephalus
Pocock, Willey’s Zool. Results, pt. 1, p. 62, 1898; Pocock, Ann.
Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 7, vol. 1, p. 327, 1898; Ribaut, Abhandl.
Senckenb. geselisch., vol. 34, p. 284, 1912; Kraepelin, Mit. Mus.
Hamburg, vol. 22, p. 162, 1903; Attems, Badr. drerk., vol. 20,
p. 4, 1915; Chamberlin, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., vol. 64, p. 21,
1920.

There is a dried specimen of this species in the Canterbury Museum,
with, however, no record of locality. It was probably on account of this
specimen that Hutton included the species in the Index Faunae Novae
Zelandiae, and it seems more likely that it was an immigrant than a native
species. It differs from the typical HL. platycephalus in the following
details: Fifth leo with 2 tarsal spines (1st to 4th legs missing); the left
coxopleura with 3 spines dorsally, the right with 2. (The coxopleurae
extend beyond the last sternite by twice the length of that sternite, and
meet together behind in the usual manner.)

Ethmostigmus rubripes (Brandt).
Scolopendra rubripes Brandt, Bull. Sci. St. Petersb., 1840, p. 156.
Heterestoma sulcidens Kohlransch, Archiv naturg., vol. 47, p. 59,
1881. ? H. crassipes Silvestri, Ann. Mus. civ. Genova, vol. 34,
p. 632, 1894. Ethmostigmus rubripes Pocock, Ann. Mag. Nat.
Hist., ser. 7, vol. 8, p. 459, 1901; Kraepelin, Mit. Mus. Hamburg,
vol. 22, p. 161, 1903; Fauna sudw. Austr., vol. 2, p. 108, 1908 ;
Brelemann, Records Austr. Mus., vol. 9, p. 44, 1912; Kraepelin,
Arkiv. Zool., vol. 10, Ne. 2, p. 8, 1916; Chamberlin, Bull. Mus.
Comp. Zool., vol. 64, p. 22, 1920.
The Canterbury Museum has a specimen found at Christchurch in 1901
among timber imported from Australia. H. platycephalus, noted above,
was probably introduced into this country im a similar manner.

SCOLOPENDRIDAE.
Genus CormocEPHALUS Newport, 1844.
Cormocephalus Newport, Trans. Linn. Soc., vol. 19, p. 419, 1844 ;
Kraepelin, Mit. Mus. Hamburg, vol. 20, p. 184, 1903.
Key to New ZraLtanp SPECIES oF CORMOCEPHALUS.

Ventral spines of anal femur 3 in number, in a single row .. CC. rubriceps Newp.
: : : ; : ;
Ventral spines of anal femur 4 in number, in two oblique rows.. C. violascens (Gerv.).

ARCHEY.—Wotes on New Zealand Chilopoda. 193

Cormocephalus rubriceps (Newport). (Figs. 16 to 18.)

Scolopendra rubriceps Newport, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., vol. 13, p. 99,
1844. Cormocephalus rubriceps Newport, Trans. Linn. Soc.,
vol. 19, p. 419, 1845; Pocock, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 6,
vol. 11, p. 128, 1893; Kraepelin, Mit. Mus. Hamburg, vol. 22,
p. 198, 1903.

cS

Fie. 16.—Cormocephalus rubriceps. Inner view of femur of left anal leg.

Fic. 17.—Cormocephalus rubriceps. Ventral view of anal segment.

Fic. 18.—Cormocephalus rubriceps. Terminal claw of anal leg.

Fic. 19.—Cormocephalus violascens. Last sternite, coxopleura, and femur
of anal leg.

7—Trans.

194 Transactions.

Colour: Head and Ist tergite reddish-brown, remainder dark olive-
brown; legs yellowish on proximal half to green distally, distal portion of
anal legs light blue, the blue and green fading out in spirit.

Head smooth, sparsely punctured, with 2 median longitudinal anteriorly
diverging sulci extending from the posterior border nearly to the middle
of the head. Post-cephalic plates moderately large and quite distinct.
Posterior border of the head angular, the tip engaged under the Ist tergite.
Antennae 17 joints, the proximal 5 smooth, the remainder pubescent.
Prosternum of prehensors smooth, sparsely punctured, with irregular
transverse sulcus in anterior third. Dental plates very slightly narrowing
cephalad, teeth 4-+ 4, the outer one slightly apart.

Tergites : the ist smooth and sparsely punctured, 2nd to 20th distinctly
bisuleate. Maregining beginning faintly on the 5th (6th), distinctly on the
7th. From 4th or 5th the posterior border is shghtly wrinkled and some-
what darker. Last tergite without median sulcus and produced roundly
backwards. Sternites bisuleate trom 2nd to 20th, the 2\st with a weak
median sulcus or depression, and strongly narrowed posteriorly. Spiracles
very narrowly triangular, slit-lke.

Coxopleurae (figs. 16 and 17) with narrow 2-spimed conical process,
generally without small lateral spine,* pore-area extending partly along
process, the pores very fine and close-set. Anal legs: femur (fig. 17) outer
ventral with a single row of 5 spines, inner ventral with an oblique row of
3 spines leading to 2-spined angular spur, inner dorsal 2 spines. Terminal
claw with basal spur (fig. 18).

Length, to 110 mm.

Loe.—Whangarei, Ruapekapeka, Gisborne; a specimen was caught in
1901 at Southbridge, in a railway-truck coutaining timber from the Kaipara
district.

Hab.—New Zealand, Tasmania, New South Wales, and Queensland.

Cormocephalus violascens (Gervais). (Fig. 19.)

Scolopendra violascens Gervais, Insect. Apt., vol. 4, p. 275, 1847.
Cormocephalus violaceus Newport (non Fabr.), Trans. Linn. Soc.,
vol. 19, p. 424, 1845; Hutton, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 10, p. 289,
1878. C. purpureus Pocock. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 6, vol. 8,
p- 127, 1893. C. huttoni Pocock, abid., p. 128. C. wolascens
Pocock, Willey’s Zoo]. Results, pt. 1, p. 60, 1898. C. huttona
Kraepelin, Mit. Mus. Hamburg, vol. 22, p. 202, 1903.

Colour uniform light brown, legs slightly lighter.

Head smooth, sparsely punctured, 2 median longitudinal anteriorly
diverging sulci in posterior 3rd. Post-cephalic plates proportionally
smaller than in C. rubriceps. Antennae 17 joints, the proximal 6 smooth,
the remainder pubescent. Prosternum smooth, sparsely punctured, no
irregular transverse sulcus in anterior 3rd. Dental plates and teeth as in
C. rubriceps.

Tergites: Ist smooth and lightly punctured, 2nd to 20th distinctly
bisuleate ; margining beginning faintly on 7th and distinctly on 9th. No
wrinkles on posterior border of tergites. Last tergite without median

* Kraepelin (1903) writes ‘‘ zuweilen mit winzigem Seitendorn”; but I have not
seen this small spine in the specimens I have examined.

ArcHEY.—WNotes on New Zealand Chilopoda. 195

sulcus, produced roundly backwards. Sternites bisuleate from 2nd to 20th
21st without median sulcus, and very strongly narrowed caudad. Spiracles’
narrowly triangular, scarcely slit-like.

Coxopleurae (fig. 19) with narrow conical 2-spined process, and a small
lateral spine, pore-area extending half-way along the process, pores fine
and close together but not to such an extent as in C. rubriceps. Anal legs :
femur (fig. 19) outer ventral with two obliquely set pairs of spines, inner
ventral distally with 2 spines, basally with | small spine, inner dorsal 2 spines
and bifid angular spine. A median depressed area on the ventral surface.
Terminal claw without basal spur.

Length, to 60 mm.

Loc.—Kapiti Island, Wellington ; Hanmer; Kaikoura.

Art. XXIII.—A New Species of Shark.

By Grupert ArcHey, M.A., Assistant Curator, Canterbury Museum.

[Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, Ist December, 1920 ; received by
Editor, 31st December, 1920 ;\ issued separately, 20th July, 1921.]

Plate XX XIX.

On the 12th June, 1920, Mr. C. W. Sherwood, of New Brighton,
presented to the Canterbury Museum a small shark which he had found
ov the New Brighton beach. It is considered to be a new species of
Scymnodon, a genus of small sharks living in deep water, and is named
after its discoverer.

Scymnopon Bocage and Capello, 1864.

Scymnodon Bocage and Capello, Proc. Zool. Soc., 1864, p. 263.
Zameus Jordan and Fowler, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., vol. 26,
p. 633, 1903. — Seymnodon Tate Regan, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.,
ser. 8, vol. 2, p. 48, 1908.

Scymnodon sherwoodi n. sp. (Plate XX XIX, and text-figs. 1 and 2.)

Dermal denticles (fig. 1) pedunculate, with 3 parallel keels, each ending
in a point, the central keel being the longest.

Distance from mouth to snout less than half the distance between
snout and first gill-opening (proportion 9:23). Nostrils oblique, distance
between them three-fifths of preoral length of snout. Length of anterior
labial fold about equal to its distance from the symphysis.

7%

/

196 Transactions.

Anterior dorsal fin shorter than the 2nd, length of its base three-tenths
of the distance between it and the 2nd dorsal. Anterior end of Ist dorsal
distant from the snout by nearly half the total length of the fish. Posterior
extremity of pectorals falls short of the anterior end of the Ist dorsal by
more than its own length. Posterior extremity of claspers reaching to
vertical from half-way along free posterior border of 2nd dorsal.

Total length, 803mm. Colour dark brown, with two submedian
lighter areas extending from below the gill-openings to the ventrals.
Angles of gill-openings tipped with dirty-white, posterior angle and posterior
border of pectorals with narrow dirty-white margin. The spines of the
dorsal fins are scarcely discernible rudiments embedded in the fin.

ry
\ |
}

\ 41)

Fiag. 1.—Dermal denticle. Fie. 2.—Lower surface of head.

This species differs from Seymnodon squamwuwsus (Ginther)* in its
shorter snout, the wider space between the nostrils, the more posterior
position of the Ist dorsal, and the brown colour: A median dorsal silvery
blaze extends from level with the spiracles to level with the hinder end of
the base of the pectorals; it is caused through the denticles of the area
being slightly raised and without the brown pigmentation of the other
denticles, and is possibly not a natural condition.

Loc.—New Brighton.

Type in the Canterbury Museum.

The specimen is a male; its claspers are 1'8in. long, and bear sub-
terminally a curved sharp claw 0-6 in. long.

* Centrophorus squamulosus Giinther, “‘ Challenger” Deep-sea Fishes, p. 5, pl. ii,
fig. B, 1887.

Prater XXXIX._

Trans. N.Z Inst., Vot. LIII.

*ypoomsays Uuopouimhog

Ty

Re
Sy . PAL
SS Re

=

NS SSS S x

Face p. 196.)

Warr.—-Leaf-mining Insects of New Zealand. 197

Art. XXIV.—The Leaf-mining Insects of New Zealand: Part I.

By Morris N. Wart, F.E.S.

[Read before the Wanganui Philosophical Society, 24th October, 1920 ; received by Editor,
31st December, 1920 ; issued separately, 20th July, 1921.}

Plates XL-XLITI.

PART II.—THE GENUS NEPTICULA (LEPIDOPTERA).

INTRODUCTION.

THIs genus is represented in New Zealand by the following eight species,
four of which are dealt with in the present paper; it is probable that a
number still remain to be found :—
Nepticula ogygia Mevr., Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 21, p. 187, 1889.
tricentra Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 21, p. 187, 1889.
—— propalaea Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 21, p. 187, 1889.
—— cypracma Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 48, p. 419, 1916.
— orvastra Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 49, p. 247, 1917.
—— lucida Philp., Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 51, p. 225, 1919.
——— perissopa Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 51, p. 354, 1919
—— fulva n. sp., herein, p. 215.

MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF GENUS.

The main characteristics of the genus are as follows :—

The Imago.

Head hairy, tufted; tongue rudimentary ; antennae with basal joint
enlarged to form an eye-cap; maxillary palpi rather long, folded ; labial
palpi short, slightly porrected. Forewings rather broad, short and coarse
scales, the termen clothed with long cilia and shorter scales, these latter
may be darker at their tips and so form one or more, more or less distinct
‘‘cilial lines.” Hindwings lanceolate; frenulum multiple in both sexes.

Within the genus there are two types of venation in the forewing. In
the more primitive one the media coalesc-s with the cubitus for a short
distance from the base, then passes obliquely to the radius just beyond
R,4+ 3, and anastomoses with the radius to beyond the middle of the wing.
In the second type the media coalesces with the 1adius from the base to
beyond the middle of the wing. AL four species dealt with in this paper
belong to this latter type. Forewing: Costal vein (C) small and insignifi-
cant, there is no costal trachea in the pupal wing except in the more primi-
tive type, where it is extremely short ; subcostal (Sc) in the more primitive
type is connected to the costal near the base by a short oblique humeral
cross-vein (h), the pupal trachea is distinct and in the latter type is branched
near its tip; radius represented by three veins, R, and R,4, running
parallel to each other to costa, the third, R,4;, to apex, bifureated in the
primitive type; media represented by an unbranched vein (M,) reaching
the wing-margin below the apex ; cubitus (Cu,»), unbranched, and becomes

198 Transactions.

Fic. Ja.—Pupal forewing of the more primitive type of Nepticula. The wavy lines
represent the tracheae, the dotted lines represent the veins that are found
later.

Fic. 16.—Pupal forewing of N. tricentra about one week before emergence.

Fic. 1lc.—Pupal hindwing of N. tricentra about one week before emergence.

2A=1b Cujzp,—9

Fic. 1.—Wing-venation of N. fulva. Fie. 3.—Wing-venation of N. perissopa.
Fic. 2.—Wing-venation of N. ogygia. Fie. 4.—Wing-venation of N. tricentra.
(Camera-lucida drawings, all to same scale.)

Warr.—Leaf-mining Insects of New Zealand. 199

obsolete at or before the middle of the wing; anal veins, 1A present,
extending almost whole length of dorsum, 3A sometimes present in the
more primitive type but extremely short. Hindwing: Costal vein (C) as
in forewing, but there is no trachea to be found in the pupal wing; sub-
costa (Sc)—this contains both its own trachea and that of R,; radius, in
the pupai wing R, leaves the main stem near the base to become incorpo-
rated in the same vein-cavity as the subcostal, while the remainder of the
radial sector is reduced to a single unbranched trachea (R,) lying in its
proximal half, in the same vem-cavity with the medial trachea ; media,
a single unbranched vein (M,) to below apex; cubitus (Cu,»), a single
unbranched vein extending to dorsal wing-margm at or beyond $; anal
veins one, 2A; in some species 3A may be present but is extremely short
and has no trachea in the pupal wing.

The Pupa.

Libera, with segments and appendages free. Maxillary palpi exceed-
ingly well developed, emerge from beneath the antennae and turn inwards
forming the eye-collar which contains only the terminal joints, the others
are concealed deeply ; on dehiscence remain attached to the head-parts.
The body is oval in outline, about one and a half times as long as broad,
and slightly flattened dorso-ventrally. The mesothoracic spiracle is in the
primitive position ventral to the caudo-lateral angles of the prothorax ;
the spiracles of the first abdominal segment are uncovered by the wings.
Setae absent. Epicranial and fronto-clypeal sutures always present, though
not conspicuous. Appendages free and segmented, and separate readily
on slight violence; the thoracic appendages are widely separated to show
all the coxae. Pupa in a cocoon; partly protrudes from cocoon before
emergence of the imago ; cast larva] skin within the cocoon and frequently
attached to the caudal extremity of the pupa. Tutt says (Nat. Hist. of
the British Lepidoptera, vol. 1, p. 180), “the antenna-cases on dehiscence
divide into the cover of the first and that of the remainder, each separate
from the head, yet still held together sufficiently to keep their places
fairly.”®

The Larva.

Head small, flattened ; the front is narrowed caudad, the lobes of the
epicranium extend caudad to a considerable distance behind the meeting-
point of the front and vertical triangle, there is a single large and conspicuous
ocellus on each side. Body when full-grown cylindrical, attenuated caudad,
segmental incisions well defined ; prothorax tumid; no true legs, but eight
pairs of membranous prolegs without hooklets (some species without
prolegs), two pairs on thorax and six on abdomen; dermis transparent.
Mines in leaves, and lives on the parenchyma.

The Ovum.

Large for the size of the moth; flat and scale-like ; roundish oval in
outline ; micropyle at one end. Laid singly and attached to food-plant.

Chief Characteristics in Each Stage.
The chief characteristics to be noted in each stage of the life-history
as an aid to the identification of the species :—
The Imago.—(1) Colour of head, basal joimt of antenna, and _ pro-
thoracic collar; (2) colour and markings of wings and cilia, and presence
of cilial lines ; (3) colour of thorax, abdomen, and legs.

200 Transactions.

The Ovum.—(1) Where situated, whether any particular portion of the
leaf or stem is favoured more than any other part; (2) size, colour, and
sculpture.

The Larva.—(1) General colour of body during early stages and when
full-grown ; (2) the colour and shape of the head; (3) markings on the
prothorax, visibility of cephalic ganglia and prothoracic shield ; (4) colour
and appearance of ventral nerve-chain; (5) colour of intestinal canal ;
(6) dorsal marks on last three abdominal segments ; (7) saetal plan.

The Mine.—(1) The food-plant ; (2) situation on stem or leaf, whether
in upper or lower surface ; (3) in what particular part of the leaf; (4) its
course—straight, tortuous, or vermiform; (5) whether a simple gallery,
blotch, or combination of both; (6) discoloration of surrounding leaf-
substance ; (7) the deposition of the frass—granular, lumpy or fluid, fine
or coarse, colour, copious or scanty, how deposited in the mine.

The Cocoon.—(1) Situation, whether within the mine or without ;
(2) size, shape, and colour.

The Pupa.—(1) The relative lengths of the thoracic appendages ; (2) the
arrangement of the dorsal abdominal spines: (3) the relative lengths of
the coxae ; (4) relative size.

(9.) Nepticula ogygia Meyr. (The Olearia Gallery-Nepticulid).

Nepticula ogygia Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 21, p. 187, 1889;
vol. 47, p. 231, 1915.

The Imago.

Meyrick’s Original Description.—“‘g. 7mm. Head and palpi pale
whitish-ochreous. Antennae grey. Thorax and abdomen grey, sprinkled
with ochreous-whitish. Legs dark grey, apex of joints whitish. Forewings
lanceolate ; pale grey, coarsely irrorated with black; an obscure cloudy
ochreous-whitish suffusion towards costa at 2; an obscurely-indicated pale
spot in disc before middle : cilia whitish-ochreous-grey, with an obscure line
of dark scales round apex. Hindwings and cilia light grey.”

The above description was taken from a single specimen, most possibly
caught in the field. During the last few seasons I have been fortunate
in rearing a good series of this rather rare little moth. There is a slight
degree of variation in some of the specimens, principally in the amount
of dark irroration in the forewing, which in some specimens is quite
scanty, and the moth appears to the naked eye as light grey instead of black.
The following description is taken from freshly emerged specimens :—

Head and palpi pale yellowish-ochreous, collar and basal joint of
antenna whitish. Antennae pale grey, under 1, about 3. Thorax grey,
densely irrorated with black. Legs and abdomen light grey. Forewings
pale grey, thickly irrorated with black scales ; a small pale area on dorsum
near tornus (this appears to be the most constant marking, and is quite
conspicuous when the wings are folded at rest, when the two areas form a
small saddle-shaped spot on the dorsum); in the female there is a second
similar area on costa, and frequently the two may form an obscure light
band across the wing; a very diffuse pale spot in disc at 4, frequently
absent ; a series of four small black spots in middle of wing, one at 4,
3,1, and the fourth less distinct near termen; these spots are definitely
fixed as to position, but one or more or all may be absent, that at } being
the most constant: cilia pale grey with bluish reflections, a distinct black
cilial line. Hindwings dark grey; cilia dark grey.

Warr.—Leaf-mining Insects of New Zealand. 201

The imago of this moth is not very common in the field, though its
mines may be found in large numbers.on the food-plants. This may be
accounted for by the fact that it rarely flies except in bright sunshine, the
slightest dullness sending it to cover amongst dead vegetation, and in
crannies in the bark of the food-plant, from which it requires fairly rough
treatment to dislodge it, and even then will prefer to run to a new hiding-
place rather than take to the wing. At rest its coloration is very pro-
tective, and in consequence it is a most inconspicuous object. In the
sunshine its movements are quick and restless, and it rarely ventures far
from its food-plant.

Distribution.

Meyrick records the joriginal specimen from Dunedin in January :
I have found it there during the last few seasons. ‘Typical mines, but
empty, were found at Dawson’s Falls, Mount Egmont, in December of
1917, in Olearia Cunninghamu (?). Not being in Dunedin during the
latter half of December and the first two months of the year, I have been
unable to record the activities of this moth during these months. My
first observations are dated July, 1919, when I obtained full-grown larvae,
these pupating during the early part of the month, and beginning to
emerge at the end of the first week of September. Larvae and cocoons
were again obtained in July, 1920. In September of both years imagines
were found, and many ova; a few larvae were found early in the month
in 1919, these pupating in the second week and emerging during the
first week of November, while numbers of larvae were pupating towards
the middle of September, 1920, emerging towards the end of October.
A number of imagines were obtained about the middle of November.
There are therefore probably four, if not five, generations a year, but there
is a fair amount of overlapping. Imagos may be looked for towards the end
of June, early September, the end of October, and throughout November,
and in January and possibly March. Jt is probable that hibernation takes
place in the cocoon.

Food-plants.

Olearia nitida (now O. arborescens and O. divaricata) and O. macrodonta,
the former apparently beg the favourite. Chiefly around the margin of
the bush. At Mount Egmont in O. Cunninghamii (2).

The Ovum and Egqg-laying.

The Ovum.—Oval, wafer-like, flattened against the leaf where it is
attached, rounded above. Micropylar end slightly broader than its nadir.
Around the outer margin of the egg the shell is slightly produced so as to
form a flattened foot or fringe closely applied to the surface of the leaf.
This fringe is a slight degree wider at the micropylar end of the egg.
A large number of eggs were measured, and their dimensions varied but
little ; in the fresh state this is the easiest way to distinguish the egg
from that of N. fulva, which is larger. Average length of fresh egg,
including fringe, 0-42 mm.; average transverse diameter, 0-30 mm. ;
average height, 0-12 mm. Kmpty shells are smaller than the above, and
without including the fringe, which is inconspicuous, the average length
and breadth is 0-40 mm. by 0:29mm. There is a slight roughening of
the shell, but otherwise no definite sculpture or reticulation. The micro-
pyle is situated at the broader end of the egg, but its structure was not
observed. ‘The shell is only very slightly roughened ; shiny, strong, trans-
parent. The colour is bright blue when first laid. As the embryo develops,

202 Transactions.

the blue colour becomes replaced by yellowish, especially at one end.
Later the white embryo can easily be seen within the shel]. After hatching,
the shell becomes filled with particles of white frass. The egg is easily
found, and the empty shell, which is strongly attached to the leaf, persists
long after the larva has left the mine and pupated, the shiny white shells
being quite conspicuous at the commencement of the galleries.

Egg-laying.—This naturally takes place durmg those months in which
the imagos are to be found (see above), The ova are deposited singly,
invariably on the upper side of the leaf with the one exception of the
August-September brood mentioned below. The most favoured position
for the egg is alongside the midrib of the leaf, and the locality next in
favour is alongside one of the coarser veins or ribs. A number of eges may
be found on any one leaf, but it is likely that these have been deposited
by several females. It has been noticed that. in such cases the majority
of the eggs were laid on the basal half of the leaf. When the August—
September eggs are being laid the food-plant, O. nitida, is sending out its
fresh spring buds, and on the hairy outer side (w lat will ia be the
underside) of the bud leaves many of the ova of this moth are attached,
with peculiar consequences, as will be seen.

The Mine. (Plate XL.)

The mine is a narrow, usually more or less tortuous gallery, constructed
entirely under the upper cuticle of the leaf. The larva burrows directly
through the bottom of the egg into the leaf-substance ; and following this
there is no purple discoloration of the leaf in the ego area such as there is
in the case of N. fulva on the same food-plants. The gallery i is not a long
one, its average length ranging from 4 cm. to 6cm.; its course follows
the coarser ribs of the leaf, these and the midrib forming a bar te progress
across them. For this reason, and on account of the ova being usually

Fic. 5.—Mines of N. ogygia in leaf of O. nitida. Natural size.

deposited alongside the midrib of the leaf, most of the mines will be found
to be within the primary loops formed by the veins—+z.e., those nearest
the centre of the leaf. -Towards the outer margin of the leaf neither the
midrib nor the coarser veins form very serious obstacles, and may be
crossed by the mines. The width of the mine increases very gradually,
and at its terminal portion is not more than 1-5mm. The frass (sec
Plate XL) is black and coarsely granular, abundant, and occupies an almost
unbroken chain along the middle half or three-quarters of the gallery ;
it is entirely absent in the terminal half-centimetre of the mine; it is

Warr.—Leaf-mininy Insects of New Zealand. 203

deposited against, and remains attached to, the roof of the mine. Indi-
vidual anes of 0. nitida may contain many mines, but these never inter-
fere with one another, and, however cramped the room at disposal, a
gallery will seldom ever cross itself, tending rather to become closely
vermiform, with its loops applied to, but not encroaching upon, each other.

I have rarely found more than three or four mines in any one leaf of
O. macrodonta ; and frequently the mines on this plant cause the leaf-tissue
in their immediate vicinity to become discoloured with a reddish tinge.
The length of time occupied in constructing the mine is short—two or three
weeks in all. I have several times noted ova, and on returning some three
weeks later have found nothing but empty mines. The colour of the mine
is ight brown, and the black frass under the thin transparent cuticle causes
it to become very conspicuous. On holding the leaf up to the light the
mine is a pretty and striking object. When full-fed the larva emerges
through a senacircular cut in ‘the roof of the gallery at its terminal part,
and makes its way to the ground. There remains a curious fact to be noted :

In the case where the ova are laid on the leaf-buds of 0. nitida it is not the
upper surface of the leaf to which they are attached, this surface being
snugly tucked away in the interior of the bud; it 1s to what will become
the under-surface of the leaf, and amongst the thick covering of hairs that
protect it at this time, that the ova are firmly cemented. No matter
whether it be the upper or lower surface to which the egg is attached, the
mine is always constructed close against the actual upper surface. The
midrib here, even in these small succulent leaves, prevents, in all but a few
cases, the larva from mining from one half of the leaf to the other; the
consequence is the mine becomes closely looped backwards and forwards
in the direction ot the long axis of the growing leaf, so as to fill almost
completely one half of the leaf. In this looped vermiform fashion the
mine has progressed from the margin of the leaf towards the centre, as
though the larva were aware that any other mode of tunnelling would
cut off the sap-supply and leave it short of food. The mine usually
progresses in a looped, vermiform fashion, from the margin of the leaf to
the centre ; but in very young leaves it often happeis that when the thin
half has been destroyed the tunnel actually enters the midrib. The course
then taken is always downwards, the point of emergence lying 1 in. or less
below the base of the leaf.

It is rare to find more than one larva mining in any one of these young
leaves. These mines have a curious effect upon the subsequent growth
and shape of the leaves. Practically one half of the leaf has been destroyed,
but the other half has all the time had its sap-supply (even when the larva
was in the stem, for the mine is very small, probably one-third of the
transverse diameter of the stem), and has grown accordingly ; the result
of one half of the leaf growing and the other not has been to cause 16
to become curled around the axis. During November a large number of
these curled leaves are to be found on the food-plant. Except 1 in the very
young leaves there is little of the mine to be seen on the under- surfaces ;
in the older leaves there may be a slight darkening of the colour along the
track of the mine, and also the surface may be slightly elevated. The
entire mine is in the spongy parenchyma of the leaf and leaf-stem.

The Larva.

Length when full-grown, about 4mm. The ground-colour is very pale
green, with a comparatively broad dark-green central line (intestinal canal

204 Transactions.

containing food) commencing in the first abdominal segment, to the end
of 6. A narrow dorso-lateral line on the last segment. Most of the internal
organs can be distinguished. Headpiece pale amber-brown, darker round
external margins, clypeal sutures, and mouth-parts. Head almost wholly
retracted into the prothorax. No true legs or prolegs, but protrusible
fleshy enlargements on the ventral surface of segments 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,
and on the mesothorax and metathorax. The larva is cylindrical, slightly
flattened dorso-ventrally. The mesothorax has the greatest diameter, then
the metathorax and segments 1 to 7, which are about equal; 8, 9, 10
attenuated ; segment 9 about the shortest in the body ; segments not deeply
incised but evenly rounded. Ventral chain of fairly large somewhat
elongated grey diamond-shaped ganglia, quite distinct with double con-
necting bands, the thoracic ganglia larger and more elongated than the
abdominal ones. Cephalic ganglia dark grey, easily distinguished as back-
ward extensions of the head-capsule into the prothorax, and when the
head is retracted extend into the mesothorax and are not so easily dis-
tinguished. Head flattened, bluntly triangular. Skin covered with a fine
pile; tubercles and setae present, setae comparatively long, the longer
ones being about two-thirds the length of their respective segments. The
details of the setal plan are left for a future paper. The colour of the larva
when it leaves the mine is pale yellow throughout. The larva mines
dorsum uppermost. It can easily be seen in the mine by holding the leaf
up against the hght. The frass-track ends abruptly, and the remainder
of the mine is filled by the light-coloured larva, its dark central ine making
it at once conspicuous. Even under ordinary circumstances a practised
eye can tell at once whether a mine is inhabited or not, by the nature of its
wider extremity ; in the empty mine this end is very light in colour and
in strong contrast to the remainder of the gallery, is devoid of frass, and
contains the conspicuous semicircular outlet cut by the escaped larva. In
inhabited mines the wider extremity is lighter in colour than the rest owing
to the absence of frass, the narrow dark central line of the larva taking
the place of this latter; but most characteristic of all is the shghtly domed
roof of this portion of the mine, caused by the larva within. The colour
of this part of the mine is a somewhat paler green than the rest of the
leaf-surface, whereas in the empty mine it is yellowish or light brown, light
erey, or very pale green, according to the length of time since it was vacated.

The Cocoon.

Somewhat ovate, mussel-shaped, ends rounded, anterior end slightly
flattened and broader than its nadir. The outlet of the cocoon is guarded
by a pair of flattened closely-applied lips extending across the whole front
of the cocoon. Length averaging 3mm., width 2-2-5 mm.,. height 1-1-5 mm.
Colour at first whitish, changing to light green, to dark brown ; occasion-
ally the cocoons retain their green colour throughout. Interior of cocoon
whitish. Texture thin but dense, forming a kind of skin, and surrounded
outside, except where attached to external objects, by a small amount of
light flocey silk. Situated amongst dead herbage on the ground in the
neighbourhood of the food-plant. Two days are usually occupied in the
construction of the cocoon. After the last larval moult the cast skin remains
attached to the caudal end of the pupa; in many other genera it is extruded
from the cocoon. Pupal period, of course, depends on local climatic condi-
tions. A number of specimens pupated Ist July, 1919, and emerged 8th
September, 1919—seventy days; another batch pupated 15th September,

Watr.—Leaf-mining Insects of New Zealand. 205

1920, and emerged 24th October, 1920—thirty-nine days. It is possible
that the larva hibernates in the cocoon.

The Pupa.

Female.—Ventral view: In outline the front is rounded and bluntly
prominent ; laterally there is a small incisura between it and the base of
the antenna; this latter occupies the lateral outline for only a very short
distance. The upper half of the lateral outline is evenly curved convex.
and is formed by the forewing; the lower half is also curved convex but
is interrupted by the depression between each segment, it is occupied by
segments 3 to 10 inclusive; a small amount of the prominent spiracles
appears on the lateral aspect of each segment, those on the eighth being
especially prominent. The last abdominal segment is bluntly rounded
and is slightly notched caudad ; the genital opening can be detected on its
ventral surface. Only a little of the eye is freely exposed, its upper third
being covered by the base of the antenna, and its lower third by the maxillary
palpus. The maxillary palpus is well developed, its expanded base resting
against the antenna, and its bluntly pointed mesial extremity touching ~
the labrum. This latter broad and rounded.
Labial palpi narrow, and reach just below the
lower extremities of the maxillae. The maxilla
is broad above, its base resting against the mesial
half of the maxillary palpus and portion of the
labrum between it and the labial palpi ; its caudal
extremity does not reach quite so far as that of
the labial palpus. First legs broad and_ short,
reaching from the maxillary palpus above to about
half-way between the caudal extremities of the
first and second coxae; a slight slip of the femur
is interposed in the upper third between the base
of the leg and the maxilla; appearing as a short
extension caudad is the tibia of the second leg,
reaching to the caudal extremity of the second
coxa. Second legs narrow in their upper third, and Fre. 6.—Pupa of N. ogygia.
occupy a position between the antennae laterally
and the first legs, second tibiae and second coxae
mesially ; at their upper extremity they rest against the maxillary palpus
and become fairly broad about their middle, extending caudad to about the
middle of the fourth abdominal segment, which is here exposed ; appear-
ing from beneath the extremity of the second leg is a short process, the
tibia of the third leg. Third legs appear from beneath the forewings in
the angle between them and the third tibiae ; they soon meet in the
mid-lne and extend to the upper border of the last abdominal segment.
Antenna narrow, plainly segmented, lies close against but terminates slightly
higher than the second leg. The coxae of all three legs are broad and of
about equal length. Between the third coxae above and the third legs
below a small area of the ventral surface of the third, fourth, and fifth
abdominal segments can be seen. It is here and about the eyes and labrum
that the first colour-changes take place. Forewing somewhat narrow,
terminates caudad in a fairly acute point on a level with the caudal
extremities of the third legs. In some specimens a very slight slip of
the hindwings appears at the caudal extremity of the forewing, between it
and the third ieg.

206 Transactions.

Dorsally : The prothorax is a very narrow strip; the mesothorax and
metathorax fairly large ; only a small portion of the hindwings is exposed ;
spiracles on all the abdominal segments 1 to 8 inclusive, and situated on
prominent elevations, the greatest being on the second segment ; segments
3, 4, 5, 6, 7, bear a single row of small stout brown spines near their upper
margin, this line is interrupted in the centre by the medio-dorsal ridge
and extends laterad to within a short distance of the spiracular elevation ;
segment 10 bears a pair of fairly prominent upcurved hooklets, dark brown
in colour. The surface of the abdominal segments is slightly roughened
dorsally by a minute pile when viewed with a hi in. objective. Head-sutures
not very distinct. A slightly elevated medio-dorsal ridge extends from
the eighth segment to the prothorax. Free movement between all the
abdominal segments except the two caudal ones.

Laterally the head is situated somewhat ventrad. The ventral outline
is slightly convex, almost straight. Dorsal profile well rounded ; meso-
thorax slightly prominent anteriorly ; first abdominal segment somewhat
sunken ; abdomen well rounded; spiracular eminences very prominent,
in descending order of magnitude from above down, the second being the
‘ largest. The two upturned hooks on segment 10 conspicuous. Forewing
occupies about one-third of the whole lateral body-surface. Head and
thoracic appendages occupy the cephalo-frontal third, the abdomen the
caudo-dorsal third. Colour at first pale green, later changing to dark grey.

Male—The abdominal segments 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8 bear the dorsal
row of spines; the antennae are shehtly longer Fel the second legs,
and the forewings slightly longer than the third legs, these latter extend-
ing as far as the caudal extremity of the last segment. The chief sexual
differences are the presence of the dorsal spines on segment 8 and the
greater length of the antennae.

Average Measuremenis of Puna.

| Length from Transverse Ventro-dorsal

MEU ONO) Extreme Front., Diameter. Diameter.
} Mm, Mm. Mm.
Upper border of maxillary palpi 0°28 0°69 | 0°52
Bottom of labial palpi 0°55 096 | 0°69
Bottom of first legs 0°89 1:00 | O71
Bottom of second legs 1-44 0°93 0°83
Bottom of third legs 2°17 0:41 0°38
Extreme length 2°28 66 ag

| |

Dehiscence.

The pupa is extruded from the cocoon to a level a little below the end
of the second legs. Splitting takes place vertically on the dorsum along
the mid-dorsal ridge of the vertex, prothorax, and mesothorax, and
transversely along the epicramial suture as far laterad as the antennae.
Cephalad the basal joint and rest of the antennae become detached in one
piece, but this remains attached to the narrow strip of the vertex which
keeps it from becoming displaced and lost; the antenna usually remains
more or Jess attached to the other appendages caudad. The headpiece
remains attached ventrad to the mandibles and other structures.

After emerging the moth usually rests upon some horizontal surface
while the wings attain their full length ; this accomplished, they are thrown
perpendicularly over the back, their dorsal surfaces in contact, and remain

Warr.—Leaf-mining Insects of New Zealand. 207

thus for ten to fifteen minutes, after which they are dropped to their normal
position and the imago becomes active. The imagines emerge in the daytime.

(10.) Nepticula perissopa Mevr. (The Rangiora Nepticulid).
Nepticula perissopa Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 51, p. 354, 1919.

The Imago.

Meyrick’s Original Description— “32. 6-Tmm. Head and eye-caps
whitish-ochreous, centre of crown dark grey or blackish. Thorax dark
violet-fuscous. Abdomen grey. Forewings broad-lanceolate ; pale greyish-
ochreous, more or less suffused (especially in g) with violet-grey, and
coarsely and irregularly strewn with dark-fuscous scales, pepecially towards
apex, where in Q they form a suffused dark blotch occupying } of wing;
an elongate dark-fuscous spot on fold at +; an elongate blackish spot in
disc beyond middle, in Q surrounded by a nearly clear space: cilia pale
greyish-ochreous, basal 2 coarsely irrorated with blackish round apex and
upper part of termen. Hindwings grey: cilia light ochreous-grey.

General Description Female. 683mm. Head light yellowish-brown ;
base of antennae whitish, antennae about 4, dark grey. “Thorax and abdomen
dark grey to black. Forewings broad, eround- -colour whitish with a pale:
violet reflection in a bright light, irrotated with black scales; at about 3
the whitish scales predominate slightly so as to form a fairly broad and
sometimes quite distinct pale transverse bar across wing; the black scales
predominate in the terminal } of the wing, and near the apex surround a
distinct round spot, black in some lights, golden-brown in others ; a similar
but smaller spot in centre of wing a little beyond 4, the light transverse bar
before mentioned separating the one from the other. In some specimens
there may be shght evidence of a second light transverse bar across wing
to the inner side of the central spot. A black cilial line; cilia dark grey
with violet and reddish reflections.

In the male the black scales greatly predominate, and there is little or
no evidence of light transverse bars. The central spot is sometimes missing.

Distribution.

Two specimens were caught by Mr. Hudson on Mount Egmont in
February. It was here also that I first found mines with larvae and
pupae—at Dawson’s Falls, 23rd December, 1917, at an elevation of 2,500 ft.
I have also found it since in the Botanical Gardens in Wellington, where
it is fairly common. I noted the following dates: 19th June, 1919, larvae
and cocoons found: 20th September, 1919, larvae, cocoons, and one imago ;
first week of October, 1919 and 1920, larvae, pupae, and imagines found.
There are probably three broods. Old mines have been found both at
Aberfeldy and at Long Acre, in the Wanganwi district.

Food-plant.
Brachyglottis vepanda (rangiora).

The Ovum.

I have not yet seen the egg in the fresh state; the following
description is taken from a number of empty shells persisting at the
commencement of the mines :—

Class: Flat (?). Shape: Wafer-like, oval, slightly broader at the
antericr end, domed above. Dimensions: Length, 0-51mm.; transverse

208 Transactions.

diameter, 0-38 mm. Sculpture: Nil. Micropyle: Not observed. Shell:
Shiny, smooth, transparent, strong; 1s firmly cemented to the leaf, and
persists at the commencement of the mine for many weeks filled with frass.
Colour: The empty shell appears white and shiny, and is easily found.

Egg-laying.

The ova are laid singly, and there are rarely more than one or two to
a single leaf. In all the cases I have come across the egg is attached to the
upper surface of the leaf, and with a marked preference for a situation in
the vicinity of the midrib or one of the coarser veins. I have noticed that
in the great majority of the species of leaf-miners which construct fairly
long galleries there is a preference for this site near the midrib or one of
the coarser veins, and the larva almost invariably commences to mine along
this boundary towards the outer margin of the leaf, in the region of which
the greater part of the mine will be constructed. In cases where the egg
is laid in more open spaces on the leaf there is no such immediate choice
of direction towards the outer margin, but once the larva reaches either
the midrib or one of the coarser side veins it will mine along it until it
reaches the outer portions of the leaf. The advantages of mining in the outer
parts are obvious; but if the eggs are deposited with a definite idea it is
puzzling to account for their not being laid near the outer margin of the
leaf in the first place. It appears that it is really immaterial where the
egg is laid, as the larvae do not seem to suffer any inconvenience through
the egg not being attached to one or other of the ribs; one is therefore
led to believe that the choice of any particular part of the leaf is not made
out of consideration for the future larva.

The Mine. (Plate XLI, figs. 1, 2.)

The mine is a long narrow gallery terminating in an expanded blotch,
and is constructed immediately beneath the upper cuticle of the leaf. Its
general direction is, as a rule, from within towards the margin of the leaf.
The gallery portion in its earlier part has a beaded appearance when viewed
under a low power, owing to the actual width of the mine being somewhat

Fic. 7.—Mine of N. perissopa in rangiora-leaf. Natural size.

smaller than the diameter of the cells through which it passes; all the
leaf-substance within the cell is eaten, and so the margin of the mine is
slightly scalloped in appearance. This early part of the mine is, as a rule,
far less tortuous than the later portions. The latter two-thirds of the
gallery is frequently very tortuous, and it may at times even cross the

‘ERANSAONEA. INST Wor, aiiile Pirate XL.

Mine of NV. ogygia, showing character of frass-deposition. Camera-lucida drawing by
transmitted light; slightly diagrammatic ; enlarged.

Luce p 208.

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vou. LIIL. Pratt XLI.

RI
“ Log
Bag

ASr
eeorsan
rin

b

Se!

Ne

man
f os
SS

| bes

Fic. 1.—Mine of N. perissopa. Camera lucida; transmitted light; slightly diagram
matic ; enlarged.

Fic. 2

ae

—-Portion of early part of gallery of N. perissopa, to show character of frass-
deposition. Camera lucida; diagrammatic; greatly enlarged.

Prare MIT

TRANS. ONE“. Ens, Wor. lr.

‘poniepuo YS] poytusues f eprony

VAOULB)

“‘DAqQuavid) “NT JO SUT ANOF JO

suoyasod Apresy

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vou. LILI: Prate XLIII.

Fig. 1.—Mine of NV. fulva in leat of O. nitida, as seen on upper surface
of leaf. X 3. Photo.

Fre. 2.—Mine of NV. fulva in leaf of O. nilida, as seen from underside ot
leat with the under-cuticle removed, showing frass-granules
packed in central portion of blotch. xX 7. Photo.

Watr.—Leaf-mining Insects of New Zealand. 209

midrib of the leaf, usually an effectual barrier except in its upper sixth.
Occasionally in large leaves the course of the gallery will be but little
defiected. The gallery may average 6in. in total length. I have found
that the Wellington mines are as a general rule much larger and less
tortuous than the Egmont ones, which are frequently so tortuous as to
be almost confined to about a square inch of the leaf-surface exclusive of
the blotch; in such cases the leaf-substance between the convolutions
of the gallery soon becomes dead and of the same colour as the gallery,
and so simulates a blotch which may be separate from or coextensive with
the actual blotch. The blotch is irregular in shape, its margin fairly even,
and may average ? square inch in area; its construction occupies about
a week.

Frass is plentiful, finely granular, black, and in the gallery is deposited
in the central three-fourths of the mine; a tendency is sometimes seen
for the frass to be deposited in a double row, but this is infrequent and
generally not very marked. In the blotch the frass is found chiefly in
the earlier portion, and is arranged in rows or shallow loops, convex for-
wards, across the mine in the track taken by the larva. The last act of
the larva is to prepare an outlet at the margin of the blotch, and just
within this it constructs its cocoon.

The early part of the gallery frequently follows the midrib, margin, or
one of the coarser veins of the leaf, but these latter do not form very
serious barriers to the young larvae. The width of the gallery, though
irregular, increases gradually till it suddenly expands into the blotch. The
average width would be about 1mm. The blotch is frequently against
the margin of the leaf, and always includes a small portion, }1in. or so,
of the terminal portion of the gallery. The midrib and veins are more
effectual barriers to the blotch than they are to the gallery. Colour of the
mine in the freshest portion pale green, but the cuticle rapidly becomes
dead and brown over the roof of the mine. Frequently irregular portions
of the gallery become reddish-brown, but the darkest discoloration is in the
immediate neighbourhood of the ovum and the first 1 mm. or 2mm. of
the mine. The blotch becomes brown very rapidly, even while the larva
is at work. The mine becomes very conspicuous in consequence of these
colour-changes. In the blotch, before the cuticle dies, the frass rows are
clearly discernible. The frass is deposited against the upper cuticle, to
which it adheres; sometimes in the gallery it may occupy a narrow, more
or less uninterrupted central line.

On the underside of the leaf the mine can hardly be seen, its presence
being sometimes made known by a slight swelling of the under-surface
along its course. Beneath the blotch, however, the under-cuticle becomes
loose and wrinkled, and loses its slightly roughened appearance.

The Larva.

When young the larva is white in colour, flattened, moniliform ;
alimentary canal greyish-brown. In the fully-fed larva the body is cylin-
drical, only very slightly flattened dorso-ventrally ; length about 5mm. ;
head flattened, retractile, rounded, in the younger larvae bluntly triangular ;
segments well rounded but not deeply incised, the mesothorax has the
greatest diameter, the metathorax and first seven abdominal segments being
about equal, segments 8 to 10 acutely attenuated; there is a deep constric-
tion between 8 and 9; 9 is very small. Ground-colour palest green, almost
white; central marking fairly broad, light yellow from the head to the

210 Transactions.

eighth abdominal segment ; head pale yellowish-brown, sutures and mouth-
parts reddish and darker. Cephalic ganglia not noticeable; ventral chain
not noticeable ; no conspicuous markings; the thin brown lateral lines on
the dorsum of the last segment are situated so far laterally as to be almost
out of sight when the larva is viewed dorsally. Surface of body covered
with a very minute pile. Setae inconspicuous ; main setae about half as
long as their respective segments. The larva mines dorsum uppermost.
It is a frequent prey to minute hymenopterous parasites, the pupal
duration of which is about fifteen days.

The Cocoon.

The cocoon is constructed within the blotch close against its outer margin,
where the larva, previous to the construction of the cocoon, cut a slit-like
opening through the lower cuticle; this sht may be 4mm. to 5mm. in
length, but is very inconspicuous. The presence of the cocoon is made
known by this slit and by a slight bulging of the under-cuticle where it
is situated. It is rarely noticeable from above, though sometimes the
cuticle covering it may become slightly lighter in shade where the cocoon
is attached. The cocoon can easily be found by holding the mine against
the light. It is attached to both the roof and the floor of the mine, but
more firmly to this latter, from which it is almost impossible to detach it
completely. When seen against the light the anterior third is hghter in
colour than the rest, as the pupa is situated farther back and the structure
of the cocoon is here somewhat less dense. At the anterior end of the cocoon
its floor and roof can easily be split apart; this is the prepared outlet for
the pupa. The cocoon is oval in shape, broader at its anterior end, 4-5 mm.
by 2mm., flattened top and bottom 1mm. The silk on the outside is
pale-vellowish and compact, and within this is an inner cocoon of white
silk which also has its prepared anterior outlet. When the imago is
ready to emerge the pupa is thrust out the anterior end of the cocoon and
through the slit in the under-cuticle, the anal segments being retained
within the cocoon. The presence or absence of the empty puparium indi-
cates the state of affairs within the cocoon. Emergence takes place on the
under-surface of the leaf.

The Pupa.

Ventral view: Outline oval; front bluntly rounded; a slight incisura
between front and base of antenna, this latter slightly prominent. The
last six abdominal segments occupy the lower third of the lateral profile.
Spiracles prominent, especially on 8. Last segment rounded with a slight
caudal notch; genital opening showing on the ventral surface. The eye
is covered over its cephalo-lateral third by the base of the antenna, and
slightly caudad by the maxillary palpus. Fronto-clypeal suture not very
distinct. Maxillary palpus well developed; reaching from the antenna
laterad to the labrum, of which it sometimes falls slightly short ; broadest
at its base against the antenna. Labial palpi narrow, slightly bulbous
in their caudal half; extend caudad farther than the maxillae. Maxilla
broad cephalad ; occupies the mesial half of the maxillary palpus ; pointed
caudad. First legs fairly short and stout, broader cephalad; extend to
just below the first coxae; the femur occupies a small narrow strip
between their upper half and the maxilla, and abuts on the maxillary palpus
cephalad. Second legs may not reach so far cephalad as the maxillary
palpus, but extend caudad as far as the junction of the fourth and fifth
abdominal segments. From beneath them, and extending farther caudad

Warr.—Leaf-mining Insects of New Zealand. 211

to meet in the mid-line, are the tibiae of the third legs. The tibiae of 2
appear from beneath the caudal extremity of the first legs and reach about
half-way between the caudal extremities of the second and third coxae.
Third legs appear from beneath their corresponding tibiae. They meet
in the mid-line and extend as far caudad as the upper border of the last
segment. Antennae narrow, slightly tapering, segmented but not deeply ;
terminate in the female between the caudal extremities of the third coxae
and second legs; in the male extend, together with the forewings, to the
caudal extremity of the last abdominal segment. Coxae of all three legs
broad, the first longer than the second and these longer than the third.
A small area of the ventral surface of the abdomen is disclosed between
the caudal extremities of the last coxae. Forewings in female terminate

Pupa of N. perissopa.

Fic. 8.—Ventral view. a, antenna; mp, maxillary palp; /, labrum; c, clypeus;
f, front ; Ip, labial palpi; m, maxilla; 1,, first leg ; ly, second leg ; lz, third
leg ; fly, femur of first leg ; cy, first coxa ; Cy, second coxa; c3, third coxa ;
tly, tibia of second leg; tly, tibia of third leg; w, wing.

Fie. 9.—Dorsal view. v, vertex ; f, front; a, antenna ; pt, prothorax ; mst, mesothorax ;
mtt, metathorax ; w, forewing ; wh, hindwing; Aj, first abdominal segment ;
ds, dorsal spines.

Fie. 10.—Lateral view.

in a pointed extremity just above the caudal extremity of the third legs ;
in the male extend to the lower margin of the last abdominal segment.
Hindwings—occasionally a very narrow slip of these is to be seen between
the third legs and forewings, and extending very slightly caudad to these
latter.

Dorsally : Front shallow; prothorax very narrow; mesothorax large ;
metathorax about half the length of the mesothorax. Hindwings extend
caudad as far as the second abdominal segment. Spiracles on prominent
elevations, segments 1 to 8 inclusive, the largest being on 2. Segments 3,
4, 5, 6, and 7 in the female bear a row of small spines somewhat irregularly
distributed so as almost to form two transverse lines at the upper extremity
of each segment; the male has these on segment 8 also; they are
interrupted in the mid-line by a sight medio-dorsal ridge. Under a fairly

919 Transactions.

high power the body-surface is seen to be roughened with light transverse
rugae. Segment 10 bears a pair of short brown upturned spines. It
should be noted that the figure was taken from a dried specimen, and so
does not show the rounded fullness of the fresh pupa. Movement can
take place between all the abdominal segments with the exception of the
soldered caudal ones.

Average Measurements of Pupa.

Meaeurement at eee ae
| Mm. Mm. Mm.
Upper border of maxillary palpi .. eal 0:28 | 0-76 0°55
Bottom of labial palpi fc ett 0°55 | 0°93 0°66
Bottom of first legs | 1-00 | 1-10 | 0°69
Bottom of second legs 1°55 1:07 0°71
Bottom of third legs 2°31 0-41 0:48
Extreme length 2°50 he ve

Dehiscence.

The pupa is extruded as far as its caudal segments through the slit.
Dorsal splitting takes place along the central vertical line of the meso-
thorax, prothorax, and vertex; transversely along the epicranial suture.
The antennae become detached and are retained only by a small slip of
the vertex dorsally ; in this manner the headpiece is freed both dorsally
and laterally, but is held ventrally by the mouth-appendages.

(11.) Nepticula tricentra Mey. (‘The Groundsel Nepticulid).

Nepticula tricentra Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 21, p. 187, 1889 ;
vol.-47, p. 231; Llp.

The Imago.

Meyrick’s Original Description—*?. 6mm. Head and palpi grey-
whitish. Antennae, thorax, and abdomen grey. Legs dark grey, apex of
joints whitish. Forewings lanceolate; pale grey, irrorated with darker ;
two or three small round black dots in an irregular longitudinal series
towards middle of disc : cilia light grey. Hindwings and cilia light grey.”

General Notes——The amount of dark irroration varies greatly, in some
specimens being very light and the three black spots very conspicuous, in
others it is very dense and in ‘places leaves irregular paler areas on wing,
these tending to form a pale transverse bar across wing at ? and in the
region of 4. The male is a most minute moth, 4-5mm., but otherwise
differs in no marked particulars from the female. It might be more
correct to say that the ground-colour of the wing was light yellowish-brown,
and irrorated with dark grey to black scales more or less condensed into
three rather diffuse transverse bars across wing, one in the region of the
base, one somewhat constricted in the middle at 4, and the third occupying
the terminal + of the wing; in the middle of each of these bars the scales
are condensed to form a small spot. In perfect specimens there is a black
cilial line. In some specimens the dark irroration is regularly distributed
throughout the wing, and in such cases there is no evidence of transverse
marking.

Warr.—Leaf-mining Insects of New Zealand. 213

Distribution.

I have found this moth in Wellington and in Dunedin, where it is com
mon. Larvae were found in May, July, August, November, and December.
Meyrick records one specimen from Christchurch, in March.

Food-plant.
Senecio bellidioides. It is usually only the lower leaves that are attacked.

The Ovum and Egg-layvig.

The egg is most inconspicuous. It is, however, like all the other
Nepticulid eggs, relatively large; oval, wafer-like, domed above, and rather
wider at the micropylar end. Colour pale greenish-yellow. Laid singly
and well attached to the under-surface of the leaf, usually against one of
the coarser veins, but otherwise in no fixed position. The shell is shiny,
unsculptured, transparent, and extremely fragile. After the hatching of
the larva it crumples up, rarely persisting long at the end of the mine.
Average dimensions are 0-30mm. by 0:20mm. Laid singly, often a number
on one leaf.

The Mine. (Plate XLII.)

This is a simple, narrow, exceptionally tortuous gallery, more closely
applied to the upper than to the lower surface of the leaf. It is not till
about hali-way through the larval stage that the mine becomes ‘at all
conspicuous. In the earlier half of the mine the larva may cross its tracks
time and again, and those of neighbours also if these happen to be in the
way. Viewed under the microscope by transmitted light this early part of
the mine is a beautiful object. On the upper surface of the leaf it has a
silvery appearance when held in the light, otherwise is greyish in colour.
A number of mines may be constructed in a single leaf and the entire
leaf-substance consumed. In the last 2cm. of the mine the gallery is

Bae nl ee ae
\ \ \ - \
-- - \ rs =

Fie. 11.—Mine of N. tricentra in leaf of
S. bellidioides. Natural size.

considerably widened, its edges scalloped and irregular, and owing to its
tortuousness this part frequently resembles a blotch. The frass is black,
fairly copious, and occupies a more or less unbroken central line; it is
homogeneous in consistency, and rests on the floor of the mine. The
midrib of the leaf is a barrier in the early stages, but the final part of the
gallery frequently crosses it. Average length of the mine, 3in. to 4 in. ;
final width, 2mm. to 4mm. The larva makes its exit through the upper
cuticle. I have rarely found the mine more than 12 in. to 18 in. from the
eround. In one specimen under observation the final 2 cm. of the gallery
were mined in four days.

214 Transactions.

The Larva.

Length when fully fed, 4-5mm. Ground-colour bright grass-green ;
dorsal band yellowish-brown, more greenish in younger larvae. Seoments
not deeply incised ; body cylindrical, caudal attenuation gradual. Head
light amber-brown. Cephalic ganglia and ventral chain not “noticed in any
specimens. Prolegs as in other Nepticulid larvae. The dorsal linear
structures In segment 10 are situated caudo-laterad and are not very notice-
able dorsally. Setae relatively short, about one-third the length of the
corresponding segment. Body-pile relati ively coarse. The larva mines
dorsum uppermost.

The Cocoon.

This is of the same shape as that of N. ogygia ; mussel-shaped, with
flattened anterior hp. Constructed of fine silk closely woven to form a thin
weatherproof skin. Average size, 2mm. by 2-5-3mm. Is surrounded by
a scanty amount of loose silk. The cocoons are spun amongst dead herbage
around the food-plant, a favourite place being between the stem and the
base of the leaf-stalk of the food-plant itself. Colour on construction white,
changing to green and later to dark brown. All cocoons found in the open
were brown, whereas the great majority constructed in captivity in a dry
box were white or very ‘pale green, and these when placed in a moist
atmosphere weeks later turned brown within twelve hours, so there is no
doubt that moisture affects the colour of the silk. In captivity a number
of cocoons were very minute, being only about half the normal size; these
were most likely constructed by poorly nurtured larvae, since it was not a
matter of difference of sex. The imagines in these cases were very minute.
The larva remains dormant in the cocoon for about a week before the final
moult,

The Pupa.

Ventral view: Front prominent, bluntly rounded in the male, somewhat
bluntly pointed in the female. Last segment usually hidden behind the
caudal extremities of the third legs and forewings. Eye two-thirds covered
by the basal joint of the antenna and maxillary palp. Maxillary palpus
reaching from the antennae to the labrum, of which it sometimes falls rather
short ; covers the caudal margin of the eye. Labial palpus narrow, extends
shghtly farther caudad than the maxillae.
Maxillae triangular, with the base against the
lower border of the maxillary palpus. First
legs stout, broadest in their upper half, extend
as far as the caudal extremities of the second
coxae in both sexes. The femur occupies a
small narrow slip separating the upper extremity
of the first leg from the maxilla, more notice-
able in the male. Second legs reach to about
half-way between the caudal extremities of the
first and second, their narrowed cephalic ex-
tremity reaching the lower border of the maxillary
palp. The second tibiae do not appear; the
Fic. 12.—Pupa of WN. tricentra. third appear only very slightly from beneath

To scale. the tips of the second legs. Third legs meet-

ing in the mid-line shortly after appearing

from under the antennae lateral to the extremities of the second legs,
thereafter extend in both sexes as far as the lower border of the last abdominal

Watr.—Leaf-mining Insects of New Zealand. 215

segment. Antennae narrow, segmented, extend slightly beyond the second
legs in the female, slightly farther in the male to the point where the third
legs meet in the mid-line. Coxae— the first relatively large, the second
and third very narrow, the second smallest and oreatly reduced by the
first legs. The amount of ventral abdominal surface showing between
the last coxae and the legs is small. Forewings terminate in both sexes a
short distance above or below, or on the same level with, the third legs.
Hindwings not seen on this surface in either sex.

Dorsally : : Prothorax almost obliterated in the mid-dorsal line. Spiracles
prominently , elevated on all segments 1 to 8. Dorsal spines forming a
relatively broad band, three or four deep, transversely across the upper
third of segments 3 to 7 inclusive in the female, and 3 to 8 inclusive in
the male. Hach band is interrupted in the mid- dorsal line. The pair of
small upturned dorsal hooks is situated on segment 10 in the male, on 9
in the female. Movement takes place between all the abdominal segments
excepting the last three. Colour at first bright green, becoming somewhat
yellowish, and later dark giey to black. The only note I have regarding the
pupal duration is— “ Pupated 25th May, 1919; emerged 14th July, 1919:
forty-nine days.”

Average Measurements cf Pupa.

| |
| |
Leng Tom Transver V =
Measurement at ength irc nsverse entro-dorsal

|

Extreme Front. 7 Diameter. , Diameter.

Mm | Mm. Mm.
Upper border of maxillary palpi .. eal 0-34 | 0°67 0°51
Bottom of labial palpi .. a net 0°48 | 0-77 0°57
Bottom of first legs sie = a | 1:07 | 0°94 0°64
Bottom of second legs .. se: 43+} 1-4] | 0°80 0°67
Bottom of third legs Se oc Sic 2°07 | 0:20 0-10
Extreme length a Re Pe 2°10

Dehiscence.

The pupa emerges as far as the sixth or seventh abdominal segment.
The headpiece is separated laterally by the separation of the antennae,
and dorsally by splitting along the epicranial suture. Vertical splitting
takes place along the central line of the mesothorax and prothorax, and
vertex dorsally. The antennae remain attached by a small slip of the
vertex only.

(12.) Nepticula fulva n. sp. (The Olearza Blotch Nepticulid).
The Imago.

Female, 8mm. Head and prothorax light yellowish-brown ; antennae
under 1 and over $ dark brown ; abdomen ash grey ; legs licht- brownish.
Thorax and forewings pale-whitish densely irrorated with darker brown
scales ; a small irregular black spot in wing near dorsum at }, another in
centre a little beyond 4, a third in centre of wing near termen ; the central
spot is the most constant. Cilia hght brown, a brown cilial line found only
in very perfect specimens ; the whole wing and cilia with bronzy reflections,
seen only i in some lights. Hindwings and ‘cilia grey-brownish. In the male
the brown scales in ‘the forewings are largely replaced by darker grey ones,
and the central spots, though still present, are not so prominent.

216 Transactions.

Distribution.

I have come across this moth only in Dunedin, where its mines are
very numerous, and the food-plants are often badly infected. In the last
two years I have found larvae in each month except January and February,
when I have been out of Dunedin; they may be found at almost any time
during the year. Ova were found to be most abundant in April, May,
September, and October. The imagines may be found at any time during
the summer months; they are active in the sun about the food-plant.

Food-plants.
Olearia Traversvi (akeake), O. nitida (now O. arborescens and O. divari-

cata), O. macrodonta, O. Cunningham (heketara), O. Colensor (tupare),
O. avicennraefolia (akeake). Of these, O. niteda and O. macrodonta are

the ones most attacked.
The Ovum and Egg-laying.

The egg is relatively large, and when newly laid is bright blue in colour.
Empty shells are white and filled with frass. In shape oval, wafer-like,
domed above; a narrow flattened and somewhat ragged fringe surrounds
the foot. The shell is strong, transparent, shiny, devoid of sculpture except
for a slight roughening. Dimensions are—tota] length, 0-48 mm. ; width,
6-38 mm.; height, 0-12mm._ It is strongly attached to the surface of the
leaf, and persists for a considerable time even after the mine has been
vacated. The eggs are laid singly, but a considerable number may be
deposited on one leaf. They are laid on the upper suriace, but otherwise
have no fixed locality, though the upper and outer two-thirds of the leaves
appear to contain the majority of the mines. Some ova may be found
laid on entirely dead portions of the leaf, over long-disused mines, and even
sometimes upon or overlapping one another, when the larvae must perish.
The egg-capacity of the moth is not known. The period of incubation may
be anything from seven days to a month, or longer, according to local
climatic conditions.

The Mine. (Plate XLIII, figs. 1, 2.)

This is a blotch on the under-surface of the leaf. The hatching of the
egg is made known by the leaf-tissue in its immediate vicinity becoming
dark purple. This dark-purple spot is the chief naked-eye characteristic
of this period distinguishing this species from N. ogygia, being absent in the
latter. The larva immediately eats its way through the bottom of the shell
into the leaf and descends to the lower cuticle. The first portion of the
mine is a narrow, fairly straight gallery (fig. 13), which can be traced on the
under-surface of the leaf by a slight prominence of the cuticle ; on the upper
surface a trained eye can follow its course, as this is marked out by a
number of very minute white dots, these being small areas of dry cuticle
where the larva has eaten nearer the surface. The average length of this
preliminary gallery is about 1cm., and it now abruptly expands into a
relatively large blotch, which at first is more or less roughly circular in
shape, but in most cases soon becomes rectangular owing to the coarser
ribs of the leaf confining it within their boundaries. The area occupied
by the blotch is from 2 to slightly over 3 square centimetres. The larva
does not readily attack the coarser cell-walls of the internal leaf-substance,
but, separating the lower cuticle from these cells, it attacks the substance
within them, thus causing the characteristic external appearance of the

Warr.—Leaf-mining Insects of New Zealand, 217

mine on the upper surface of the leaf, and when the under-cuticle is
stripped off the mine gives it the honeycomb appearance. The preliminary
gallery often becomes absorbed into the blotch. The larger leaves may
contain a considerable number of mines; I have found from twenty-six to
thirty on one leaf of O. nitida. They occur in any part of the leaf, but the
majority in the outer portions. Leaves on all parts of the tree are equally
attacked. Neighbouring mines sometimes coalesce and become continuous
with one another. The frass is black and granular, and fairly plentiful
in the blotch, where it occupies the central two-thirds, being packed into
the excavated cell-spaces in the roof of the mine. Many of these cells are
entirely emptied of their contents by the larva, and the upper cuticle soon

Fic. 13.—Mine of NV. fulva in O. nitida, Natural size.

dries and becomes white externally. As the blotch enlarges, more of these
minute dots appear, closer together and more numerous in the central
portion of the mine. On the under-surface the blotch can be made out
more clearly, owing to the detachment and consequent looseness of the
cuticle over the part. In mines still tenanted by the larva the under-
surface is more or less bulged, and is slightly lighter in colour than the rest
of the leaf. When full-fed the larva eats a small semicircular outlet at the
margin of the blotch, through the lower cuticle, and descends to the ground
to pupate. The mine is not conspicuous till after the larva has left it,
when the part of the leaf affected becomes dead and shows in violent

contrast to the rest.
The Larva.

Length when full-grown, about 5mm. Ground-colour pale green ;
central marking dark olive-green in its first half, darker in its caudal half.
Head pale greyish-brown; darker reddish-brown sutural lines; almost
acutely triangular in shape; retractile. Cephalic ganglia and ventral chain
not observed. Segments well rounded, moniliform ; last three abdominal
segments extended, the tenth directed dorsally with narrow dark dorso-
lateral lines. Setae fine, fairly long. Body covered with a minute pile.
Saetal plan has been left for a future paper. Fleshy protuberances take
the place of prolegs. The larva mines dorsum uppermost.

The Cocoon.

This is constructed outside the mine amongst dead foliage at the foot
of the food-plant. The colour of the cocoon blends with that of its
surroundings and makes it most difficult to find. In the breeding-jars the
cocoons are always constructed between two fairly closely applied surfaces
in the darkest corners at the bottom of the jar, and they are fairly firmly
attached. The construction of the cocoon usually occupies about two

218 Transactions.

days, after which the larva lays up for a week or more before the final
moult ; it is likely that the larva hibernates in this fashion. The silk is at
first a very pale green, but in almost every case quickly becomes a dark
brown. Some cocoons may be lighter in colour than others, and a few
remain pale green throughout. The shape is somewhat more quadrilateral
than ovoid, the length being about one and a half times the width at the
middle ; the ends are rounded, and the anterior end is considerably wider
than its nadir, and possesses two flattened closely-applied lips which extend
the full width of the cocoon. The cocoon is somewhat flattened above
and below. The texture is very close, firm, and strong, the silk being so
woven as to form a thin skin-like fabric without any pores or openings
even when viewed under the microscope. The exterior of the cocoon is
provided with a small amount of loose floccy silk, but this is not very
noticeable. Average length, 3mm.to 4mm. There is no separate inner
lining.
The Pupa.

Ventral view: Front bluntly rounded, in female somewhat pointed.
Terminal segment in male somewhat quadrilateral in shape, slightly broader
than long; in the female is bluntly rounded, about twice as broad as Jong,
and fairly deeply notched anteriorly by the genital opening. Eye about
two-thirds covered by the basal joint of the antenna and maxillary palpus.
Maxillary palpus well developed and stretching transversely between the
antenna and the labrum. Labial palpi slightly longer than the maxillae.

Pupa of N. fulwva.
Fic. 14.—Ventral view. Fic. 15.—Lateral view. Fie. 16.—Dorsal view.

Maxilla broad above, abuts against the labrum, maxillary palpus, and femur
of the first leg; sharply pointed candad. First legs fairly stout, of almost
even diameter throughout; extend from the maxillary palp: to slightly
below the caudal extremities of the second coxae in the male, but falling
slightly short of this in the female. Only a very small slip of the first
femur appears medially at the uppermost extremity. Second legs extend
from « narrow pointed cephalic extremity a little below the lateral
extremity of the maxillary palpi to about half-way between the caudal
extremities of the first and third legs; somewhat expanded opposite the
second coxae; the tibiae of 3 appear from beneath their caudal extremities

Warr.—Leaf-mining Insects of New Zealand. 219

but only occupy a small area; they are somewhat more evident in the
female and almost meet in the mid-line. The tibiae of 2 appear as « slight
caudal extension of the first legs, and are more evident in the female.
Third legs appear from beneath the caudal extremities of 2, and, meeting
in the mid-line, extend in the male as far as the lower margin of the last
segment, in the female to a little below the upper margin of the eighth
segment. Antennae rather wide, segmented: m the male fall slightly
short of the caudal extremities of the forewings and third legs; in the
female extend only a slight distance beyond the second legs and third
tibiae. Coxae relatively narrow; the first are the longest, and the third
are slightly longer than the second. A variable amount of the ventral
abdominal surface can be seen below the third coxae between these and the
second and upper part of the third legs. Forewings occupy only a narrow
strip ventrally, extending not quite so far caudad as the third legs. A very
narrow slip of the hindwings may extend a short distance beyond their
tips, more marked in the female.

Dorsally : Prothorax very narrow and almost obliterated in the mid-
Ime. Spiracles on prominent elevations on segments 1 to 8. A_ single
transverse row of small dorsal spines in the fore part of segments 3 to 7
inclusive in the female, 3 to 8 inclusive in the male ; interrupted in the
mid-dorsal line. The small pair of dorsal upcurved hooks appear to be
on segment 10 in the male and segment 9 in the female. [t appears that
movement can take place between all the abdominal segments excepting
the last three. Colour at first pale green, changing later to dark grey.

Pupal period varies according to climatic conditions. I have reared
imagines towards the end of September from larvae that pupated in the
middle of July. The followmg periods are from my note-book: One
specimen pupated 28th March, 1920; emerged 30th May, 1919—sixty-one
days. Larvae pupated 24th May, 1919: emerged 13th July, 1919—forty-
nine days. Pupated 15th July, 1920: emerged 28th September, 1920—
seventy five days. During October and November, 1919, pupal period not
longer than twenty-one days.

Average Measuremenis of Pupa.

Length from | Transverse | Ventro-dorsal

|
SLES DG Teter Front.. Diameter. | Diameter.

Mm. ee Mm.
Upper border of maxillary palpi .. Ae 0°30 0-7 | 0-52
Bottom of labial palpi... ore or 0°61 0- 98 | 0°63
Bottom of first legs Se at o- | 1°10 1:08 | 0-70
Bottom of second legs .. Se 56 1:70 | 0-90 | 0-77
Bottom of third legs ee Be - 2°40 | 0°30 0°30
Extreme length ae St 3 2°67 56 | ye

Dehiscence.

Vertical splitting takes place dorsally along the mid-line of the meso-
thorax and prothorax, and transversely along the epicranial suture. The
antennae become almost completely detached, only a small slip of the
vertex retaining them dorsally; thus the head is freed laterally and
dorsally, but remains attached ventrally.

Before emergence the pupa is extruded from the cocoon as far as the
fourth or fifth abdominal segment.

290 Transactions.

Art. XXV.—Some New Zealand Amphipoda: No. 2.*

By Cuaries Cuitton, M.A., D.Sc.. M.B., C.M., LL.D., F.L.S., C.M.ZS8.,
F.N.Z.Inst., Hon. Mem. Roy. Soc. N.S.W.; Professor of Biology,
Canterbury College, N.Z.

[Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 3rd November, 1920; received
by Editor, 31st December, 1920; issued separately, 20th July, 1921.)

Apherusa translucens (Chilton). (Fig. 1, A to K.)

Panoploea translucens Chilton, 1884, p. 263, pl. 21, fig. 3 a-e.
Apherusa translucens Stebbing, 1906, p. 308.

This species was described from three specimens taken in 1884 in Lyttelton
Harbour, but, as the description was based on the female only, the species
has remained somewhat obscure. It was at first placed under the genus
Panoploea G. M. Thomson, owing to its supposed resemblance to P. debilis
G. M. Thomson. This species, however, has proved to be identical with
Pherusa novae-zealandiae G. M. T., and has been placed by Stebbing in
the genus Leptamphopus. The genus Panoploea has been retained for the
other species described by Thomson, P. spinosa, which belongs to another
family. The species described as Panoploea translucens was thus left
without a genus, and Stebbing has assigned it to the genus Apherusa
A. Walker. This genus seems somewhat ill-defined and without well-marked
characteristics, but so far as they go the characters of the species now under
consideration agree with those of the genus. Apherusa translucens seems
to be somewhat rare in New Zealand, and | have very few specimens, and
all of these somewhat imperfect. Among them, however, is a male, and
I am therefore now about to give the characters of this sex and an
amended description of the species, as follows :—

Body smooth, back without any dorsal teeth. Head without rostrum.
Pleon segment 3 with postero-lateral angle scarcely produced, posterior
margin smooth, straight or slightly convex, except above angle where it
is slightly concave, inferior margin with 5 spmules. Hye large, oval.
Gnathopods | and 2 similar in structure, those of the male considerably
stouter than those of the female, the first im each sex slightly larger than
the second. In the male the first gnathopod with propod widest at the
beginning of the palm, rather more than half as broad as long, anterior
margin straight, palm about as Jong as the hind-margin, regularly convex
and fringed with rows of setules but without special defining spine; hind-
margin with 5 or 6 small tufts of fine setules. In the female the basal
joint of first gnathopod showing a constriction about one-third its length
from the base, remaining joints much more slender than in the male.

* For No. 1 of this series see Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 52, pp. 1-8, 1920.

Cuinton.—Some New Zealand Amphipoda. 221

Hic. 1.—Apherusa translucens.

A. First gnathopod of male. E. First uropod.

B. Second gnathopod of male.* F. Second uropod.

C. Basal joint of first gnathopod of G. Third uropod.
female. H. Telson,

D. Second gnathopod of female. K. Third pleon segment.

*The branchia of this appendage has been drawn as it appeared in the preparation
made. The irregularity is doubtless due to some abnormality.

222 Transactions.

Gnathopod 2 similar to the first in both sexes, but slightly smaller and
with basal joint straight. Basal joint of peraeopoda 3-5 moderately
expanded, oval, posterior margin with minute shallow crenations or ser-
rations. Uropods | and 2 slender, similar, the outer ramus much shorter
than the inner, inner margin of each ramus fringed with very minute
spinules. Uropod 3 stouter and shorter, branches broadly lanceolate,
about as long as peduncle. Telson oval, narrowing posteriorly, margin
entire or with one or two minute setules on each side of the apex.

Length, about 9 mm.

Locality.—Lyttelton Harbour.

This species shows considerable resemblance both to A. cirrus (Bate)
and to A. juriner (M.-Edw.). If differs from the first in having no dorsal
teeth, in this respect agreeing with A. gwrinei, but the shape of the third
pleon segment agrees closely with that of A. crus, thus differing from
A. jurinei. The telson agrees closely with that of A. gurined. In neither of
these species does Stebbing speak of any sexual differences in the gnatho-
poda. Walker (1912, p 600) has drawn attention to the variation in the
shape of the third pleon segment in A. guriner, and to sexual differences in
the antennae in that species. Unfortunately the antennae are wanting
in my specimens of A. translucens, and I am therefore unable to say
whether similar differences are to be found in it.

Apherusa levis (G. M. Thomson). (Fig. 2, A to F.)

Amphithonotus levis G. M. Thomson, 1879, p. 330, pl. 16, figs. 1-4;
1881, p. 215, pl. vu, fig. 6: Thomson and Chilton, 1886, p. 148:
Stebbing, 1906, p. 741.

This species was described by G. M. Thomson in 1879, and was referred
to the genus Amphithonotus as agreeing well with the generic characters
given by Spence Bate in the Catalogue of the Amphipoda of the British
Museum. It appears, however, that the species at that time referred to
Amphithonotus really belong to other genera, and the genus therefore
lapsed. I have had some difficulty in deciding which is the proper genus
to which Mr. Thomson’s species should be referred, but its resemblance
in nearly all points to the preceding species, Apherusa translucens, is so
close that I am putting it down to the same genus. The only point in
which it differs from Stebbing’s description of the genus (1906, p. 304) is
that the telson is distinctly cleft posteriorly, though not deeply so, while
he describes the telson as being “entire.” I presume, however, this
means ‘simple ’’—that is, not divided—and the telson of the present
species could quite well come under this description. Moreover, some of
the species which he ascribes to Apherusa have the telson distinctly
toothed or serrate posteriorly, and the margin therefore not entire.

Apherusa levis agrees with A. translucens in having the first and second
gnathopods in each sex similar, the first being very slightly larger than
the second, and both pairs in the male being considerably larger than
corresponding pairs in the female. It differs, however, in the presence
of a well-marked rostrum and in the shape of the telson; there are also
slight differences in the gnathopods. It may be re-defined as follows :—

Body quite smooth, without dorsal teeth. Cephalon produced into a
distinct rostrum. Eye large, oval with anterior margin straight or slightly

Cnitton.—Some New Zealand Amphipoda. 223

Fig. 2.—A pherusa levis.

A. Rostruni. D. First gnathopod of female.
B. Peduncles of first and second E. Telson,
antennae of male. F. Brood-plate.

C. First gnathopod of male.

224 Transactions.

concave. Superior antenna slightly longer than the inferior, both slender,
with many-jointed flagella. In the male the peduncle of each antenna
bears many tufts of very fine short hairs, as shown in fig. 2B. These are
not present in the female. The gnathopods of the male considerably
larger than those of the female, and the first gnathopod larger than
the second in each sex; in the male the propod is large, widest at the
commencement of the palm, which is defined by 3 or 4 stout setules; in
the female the propod is smaller and narrower and not widened distally.
Telson narrowing posteriorly, extremity with a shallow cleit dividing the
posterior position into two rounded lobes, margins quite entire and without
setae.

Length, about. 8 mm.

Localities.—Otago Harbour ; Blueskin Bay; Akaroa.

The brood-plates of the female in this species are characteristic and
form an easy mark by which the species may be recognized. They are
oval in shape, widening somewhat distally, and the margins towards the
apex bear a number of very long setae, longer than the whole joint. These
setae show, on the basal portion, alternate light and dark bands, as indicated
in fig. 2F, in which only some of the setae are put in and only three of them
filled in in detail.

Atyloides serraticauda Stebbing.

Atyloides serraticauda Stebbing, 1906, p. 362: Chilton, 1909, p. 627 ;
1912, p. 497. A. calceolata Chilton, 1912, p. 497, pl. 11, figs. 21-23.

Atyloides serraticauda is a species widely distributed in Antarctic and
Subantarctic seas, and some specimens belonging to it were taken at Auck-
land Islands in 1907. Large specimens are well marked by the distinct
serrations on the anterior side-plates, the side-plates of the segments of the
pleen, and on the posterior margins of the lobes of the telson. In smaller
specimens these serrations are much less distinct. The species described
by me from the South Orkneys under the name of A. calceolata proves to be
without doubt a male of A. serraticauda. As stated in the original descrip-
tion, it resembles that species in nearly all characters, but differs in the
presence of calceoli on the lower surface of the peduncle of the first antenna
and on the upper surface of the peduncle of the second antenna; the
gnathopods are also slightly stouter, and differ a little in shape from those
of the female. The arrangement of the calceoli on the antennae of the
male is similar to that described by Walker (1912, p. 600) for Apherusa
jurinet (M.-Edw.).

Lembos philacantha Stebbing.
Lembos philacantha Stebbing, 1906, p. 598; 1910, p. 605.

This species was taken by the “ Challenger ’’ Expedition in Bass Strait
at a depth of 71 metres, and described by Stebbing in the report of that
expedition. It has been taken since at different places on the Australian
coast. It has not hitherto been recorded from New Zealand, but I have
one specimen from the Chatham Islands that agrees well with Stebbing’s
description and must be referred to his species. The relation of this species
to others of the genus found in the Southern Hemisphere requires investiga-

tion.

Cuitton.—Some New Zealand Amphipoda. 225

Photis brevicaudata Stebbing. (Fig. 3, A to E.)

Photis brevicaudata Stebbing, 1888, p. 1068, pl. 108; 1906, p. 606 ;
1910, p. 648.

Several specimens that certainly belong to this species were obtained
near the Gannet Islands, off the west coast of Auckland, in January, 1915,
at a depth of about 50 metres. The species were originally described from
specimens obtained by the “Challenger” Expedition off Melbourne,
Australia, at a depth of 60 metres, but only the female was then taken.

My specimens agree well with Stebbing’s description and figures of the
female; in the first gnathopod the palm is slightly concave, as shown in
his detail figure. The male specimens differ from the female in the size
and shape of the second gnathopod, but particularly in the great elonga-
tion of the fourth peraeopod. The second gnathopod of the male has the
shape in general like that of the female described by Stebbing, but the
propod is larger, the palm much more excavate, and the angle defining it
much more marked. The fourth peraeopod in the older males is very
greatly enlarged, being much larger and broader than the fifth, as will be
seen by comparing figs. 3p and 3E. The basal joint is broad, narrowing
distally, the meral joint is greatly elongated, being longer than the carpus
and propod together; the details as to the proportions of the joints can
be best learnt from fig. 3p. The other appendages agree well with the
description given by Stebbing.

In the male specimen from which fig. 38 of the second gnathopod was
taken the first gnathopods were unsymmetrical. One, shown in fig. 3A, is
practically the same as that of the female. The one from the other side
(fig. 3c) has the propod similar to that of the second gnathopod, though
rather smaller, but the carpus is much longer than in the second gnathopod,
and therefore more like that of a normal first gnathopod.

The great enlargement of the fourth propod in this species recalls the
somewhat similar development of the same appendage in FHurystheus
crassupes (Haswell).

Stebbing describes the telson as “‘ very short, much broader than long,
apex rounded,” and figures it without setules. In the specimen I have
examined the apex is less rounded, and bears setules on either side as in
P. macrocarpa Stebbing and other species of the genus.

Jassa falcata Montagu.

Cancer (Gammarus) falcatus Montagu, 1808, Trans. Linn. Soc., vol. 9,
p- 100, pl. 5, fig. 2. Podocerus validus Thomson and Chilton,
1886, p. 143. Jassa pulchella and Jassa falcata Stebbing, 1906,
pp. 654, 656. J. falcata Sexton, 1911, p. 212; Chilton, 1912,
p. 511; Stebbing, 1914, p. 371.

This species had been collected in New Zealand by Thomson about the
year 1885, and identified with Dana’s Podocerus validus from Rio de Janeiro.
About the same time I had obtained numerous specimens from a buoy in
Lyttelton Harbour, and had figured both male and female forms. The
species has proved to be specifically identical with Jassa falcata, originally
described by Montagu from the south coast of England, and now known
to be very widely distributed both in northern and southern seas. There
are probably two forms of the male, both different from the female, and the
immature stages in the development of the adult male characters have led
to much confusion and multiplication of species. Fuller accounts will be
found in Mrs. Sexton’s paper quoted above and in my report of the
Amphipoda of the “ Scotia’ Expedition (1912, p. 351).

8—Trans.

Transactions.

226

Fie. 3.—Photis brevicaudata Stebbing.

peraeopod of male.

Fifth peraeopod of male.

D. Fourth

E.

A. First gnathopod of male.
B. Second gnathopod of male.

C. First gnathopod (abnormal) of male.

Cututon.—Some New Zealand Amphipoda. 227

Jassa frequens (Chilton). (Fig. 4, A to D.)

Podocerus frequens Chilton, 1883, p. 85, pl. 3, fig. 2. P. latipes
Chilton, 1884, p. 258, pl. 19, fig. 2a-d. Jassa frequens Stebbing,
1906, p. 656.

This species was described under the name Podocerus frequens in 1885
from a number of small specimens obtained in Lyttelton Harbour, and
although male and female were described it is probable that none of them
were quite fully developed. In the following year other specimens similar
in general character but differing somewhat in the second gnathopods, and
particularly in the greatly broadened character of the fourth peraeopod,
were obtained from the same locality and were named Podocerus latipes,
it being suggested, however, that they might prove to be only a variety
of P. frequens. In 1906 Stebbing combined these two species under the
name Jassa frequens, regarding the form described as P. latipes as the male.

The species is fairly common in Lyttelton Harbour at the roots of
Macrocystis and other seaweeds above low-water level, and I have numerous
- specimens and can therefore add something to the descriptions previously
given. Iam not certain about the generic position of this species, but on
the whole it seems to come within the characters of Jassa, the name now
adopted for the genus Podocerus, except that I cannot find upturned teeth
on the outer ramus of the third uropod, both rami being apparently free
from these teeth. The broadened character of the fourth peraeopod proves,
however, not to be confined to the male, but to be present also, sometimes
apparently even to a greater degree, in the female. The differences between
the two sexes in the second gnathopod are not greatly marked, but in the
female the palm of the propod is slightly concave and the basal part of the
propod is not produced into a distinct process as it is in the male; in the
male this process is stout and truncate at the end, but the whole gnathopod
is not greatly larger than in the female. One or two specimens, however,
which, from the shape of the second gnathopod, would be considered males,
bear brood-plates on some of the peraeopoda.

Ischyrocerus anguipes Kroyer.

Podocerus cylindricus Kirk, 1879, p. 402. Wyvillea longimana
Haswell, 1879, p. 337, pl. 22, fig. 7; Stebbing, 1906, Be 648.

: Podocerus longimanus Chilton, 1884, p. 255, pl. 17, fig. 2 a-e.
Ischyrocerus anguipes Sars, 1894, p. 588, pl. 209 ; Stebbing, 1906,
p. 658.

This species was first recorded from New Zealand by T. W. Kirk in
1879 from specimens collected at Worser Bay, Wellington, which were
by him identified as Podocerus cylindricus Say, the iceuetcion! however,
being subsequently questioned by Miers (1880, p. 125). In the same year
Haswell had described Wyvillea longimana from Port Jackson, establishing
for it the new genus Wyvillea. In 1884 I identified specimens taken at
Lyttelton as being the same as Haswell’s Wyvillca longimana, and pointed
out that his generic description had apparently been based on a misinterpre-
tation of the terminal uropods, and that the animal in question was the
same as the specimens referred by Kirk to Podocerus cylindricus, which
I had been able to examine. Owing, however, to Miers’s doubt as to the
possibility of an Arctic species being found also in New Zealand, I adopted
Haswell’s specific name, and therefore named the species Podocerus longi-
manus. In 1888 Stebbing in his notice of Haswell’s paper says, “ The

8*

228 Transactions.

Fic. 4.—Jassa frequens (Chilton).
A. Second gnathopod of male. C. Second gnathopod of female.
B. Fourth peraeopod of the same. D. Fourth peraeopod of same.

Cuitton.—Some New Zealand Amphipoda. 229

figure which Mr. Haswell gives much resembles Ischyrocerus (Podocerus)
anguipes Kroyer. Mr. Chilton supposes that the description given of the
pleopoda [uropoda] is the result of an oversight, and that the genus must
be cancelled in favour of Podocerus. It must, however, be observed that
Mr. Haswell’s description of the maxillipeds is quite inconsistent with this
conclusion.”” In Das Tierreich Stebbing (1906, p. 648) retains the genus
Wyvillea Haswell, describing the maxillipeds as “ exunguiculate, inner and
outer plates rudimentary, palp three-jointed,” and to this genus he ascribes
two species—viz., W. longimana Haswell and W. haswelli (G. M. Thomson).
This description of the maxillipeds must, I think, be based on Haswell’s
original description, which was apparently incorrect. In the specimens from
Lyttelton, which I feel sure are rightly referred to Haswell’s species,* the
maxillipeds are normal and closely resemble the figure given by Sars for
Ischyrocerus anguipes. 1 have also been able to compare my specimens
with an Arctic one from Davis Strait sent to me by Dr. W. T. Calman,
and have no hesitation in identifying them both as belonging to the one
species. I have already pointed out (1920, p. 6) that the other species,
Wyvillea haswelli (G. M. Thomson), is a species of Hurystheus. In this
the maxillipeds are also normal. Consequently the genus Wyvillea must
be finally dropped.

The Lyttelton specimens are all rather small, the largest about 6mm.
long; but those examined by Kirk were very much larger, the second
gnathopod (now in my collection) of one specimen being itself 5 mm. long.
Stebbing gives the length as varying from 4mm. to 15mm. The Davis
Strait specimen that I have examined is about 12mm. in length.

The differences between the male and female, as pointed out by me
in 1884 from New Zealand specimens, closely agree with those described
and figured by Sars in 1894. The special characters of the second gnathopod
of the male are only acquired when the animal is fully adult, the immature
stages being at first similar to those of the female. I have one immature
male specimen in which the gnathopod closely resembles the figure given
by Sars of Ischyrocerus minutus Lilljeborg, a species which Stebbing con-
siders a synonym of J. anguipes Kroyer.

Ischyrocerus anguipes has been recorded from South Africa by Barnard,
and is another example of an amphipod first described from northern seas
which proves to be also widely distributed in the Southern Hemisphere.

Corophium crassicorne Bruz.

Corophium contractum Stimpson, 1855, P. Ac. Philad., vol. 7, p. 383.
C. contractum G. M. Thomson, 1880, p. 6; 1881, p. 220, pl. 8,
fig. 9: Thomson and Chilton, 1886, p. 142. C. crassicorne
Thomson and Chilton, 1886, p. 142; Sars, 1894, p. 615, pl. 220;
Stebbing, 1906, p. 690. ?%C. bonellai Sars, 1894, p. 616, pl. 221,
fig. 1; Stebbing, 1906, p. 691 ; Walker, 1914, p. 559.

In 1880 Mr. G. M. Thomson (1880, p. 6) obtained by the dredge in
Dunedin Harbour two specimens of a species of Corophiwm which he identi-
fied as ©. contractum Stimpson, a species described from Japan. Both
Mr. Thomson’s specimens were stated to be adult females. In a paper
published in the following year (1881, p. 220) he repeated the observations
and description which he had given of his specimens, and added a figure

=

*Since this was printed specimens quite similar to those from Lyttelton have been
sent to me from Coogee, close to Port Jackson, New South Wales, the type locality for
Podocerus longimanus Haswell.

230 Transactions

of the whole animal. Shortly after this I collected in Lyttelton Harbour
specimens that agreed with the description given by Mr. Thomson, and I
therefore identified them as C. contractum. At the same time, and in
association with these specimens, I collected others similar in most characters
but differing in the form of the second antenna. These specimens appeared
to be closely similar to the descriptions and figures given of C. crasst-
corne Bruz. in Spence Bate’s Catalogue of the Anvphipoda in the British
Museum and in Bate and Westwood’s British Sessile-eyed Crustacea, and
were accordingly named C. crassicorne. Since the specimens identified as
C. crassicorne were associated with those identified as C. contractum and
apparently were males—at any rate, not bearing eggs—I concluded from the
general resemblance between the two that they were male and female
of the one species. As C. crassicorne was recorded from Europe, I looked
up the works mentioned above to see if there was any mention of a form
similar to C. contractum to represent the female of C. crassicorne in Kurope,
and found that C. bonellii Milne-Edwards appeared to be very similar to
the New Zealand specimens I had identified as C. contractum, and I con-
cluded therefore that it was probably the female of C. crassicorne. On
writing to the Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing asking for information as to whether
this conclusion was correct or not, he replied that some authorities con-
sidered C. crassicorne and C. bonellia to be male and female of the one
species, while others, including Sars, considered them as distinct species.

In view of this difference of opinion, and in the absence of specimens
from Europe, or sufficiently detailed descriptions to investigate the matter
fully, the question was for the time left an open* one, and in the list
of the Crustacea Malacostraca of New Zealand, published in 1896 by
Mr. G. M. Thomson and myself, the two species C. contractum Stimpson
and ©. crassicorne Bruz. were included with the following note after the
last-named: ‘‘ This species is taken along with C. contractwm, and it
is probable that they are only male and female of the same species.
CO. bonellzi (Milne-Edwards) is probably the same as C. contractum.—C. C.”
(1886, p. 142).

For various reasons I was unable to give further attention to this
particular question for many years, though on several occasions when
specimens of Corophiwm were collected at different parts of the New Zea-
land coast both forms—z.e., “‘C. contractum Stimpson” and “ C. crassi-
corne Bruz.”’—were taken together, thus fully confirming my opinion that
these were male and female of the same species, whatever might be the
case with the C. crassicorne Bruz. and C. bonelli in Europe.

In the meantime many important works on the Amphipoda have been
published which contain more or less direct evidence on the point at issue :
e.g., Sars in his great work on the Amphipoda of Norway in 1894 still
keeps the two species separate, and describes forms which he considers to
be male and female of C. crassicorne, the female form being different from
the specimens which he refers to C. bonellii. Of this latter species he
describes no male, saying, “It is very strange that I have never met with
males of this form, though I have collected the species in several different
places. Perhaps the sexual difference is so very slight as to escape atten-
tion’ (1894, p. 617). In Das Tierreich Amphipoda, Stebbing (1906, p. 690),
apparently following Sars, describes male and female forms of C. crassi-
corne, and considers C. bonellii a separate species, of which only the female
is known. :

I do not propose to go into the history of the various opinions that
have been expressed as to the relation of C. crassicorne Bruz. and

Cuitton.—Some New Zealand Amphipoda. 231

C. bonellit M.-Edw. It is evidently a difficult question, and probably will
not be thoroughly settled till we know more of the life-history and sexual
differences of these animals. The latest discussion with which I am
acquainted is given in a paper by Walker (1914, p. 559), where he points
out that C. acherusicum Costa is a synonym of C. bonellii, and in which he
regards this species as distinct from C. crassicorne Bruz. He had previously
(1909, p. 343) recorded C. bonella from the Indian Ocean, but at that time
had evidently been in considerable doubt about the identification, for in
the copy of his paper forwarded to me he had altered the printed name
C. bonellia to C. crassicorne. In 1914 he says the name C. bonellzi should
be left as printed.

I shall content myself with a statement of the facts of the New Zealand
species as they appear to me. The male specimens have the very large
stout second antennae corresponding precisely with the figures given by
Sars for C. crassicorne Bruz., and in other points the animals appear to
agree closely with his description and figures except for the slight differ-
ence in the third uropod which is mentioned below. The female specimens
also seem to agree closely with the description he gives for the female of
C. crassicorne, though there appears to be some variation in the second
antenna, the number of spines on which does not always agree precisely
with the figure, and in some specimens these appendages agree more closely
with his figure of C. bonellii. These two forms have been constantly found
together in New Zealand. and I feel certain that they must be looked upon
as male and female of the one species. Doubtless, as in other species, the
adult characters of the second antenna in the male are only gradually
attained, and the immature stages more or less closely resemble the female
form. In an attempt to settle the question I got specimens some years
ag0, through the kindness of Mrs. Sexton, Plymouth, from the Dutch
‘coast, sent by Dr. Hoek as “ C. crassicorne,’ and others from the laboratory
at Plymouth labelled “C. bonelli.””, The Plymouth specimens were appa-
rently all females—at any rate. I have not found an adult male among
them; but those from the Dutch coast contained both males and females,
the males agreeing closely with Sars’s description of C. crassicorne. After
careful comparison of both sexes of these specimens with the New Zealand
forms I have failed to distinguish any character that I consider of specific
importance, and J] am therefore labelling and recording the New Zealand
specimens as C. crassicorne Bruz. I have also specimens from Port Jackson,
New South Wales, agreeing minutely with the New Zealand forms.

Sars says that that C. bonellii is distinguished by (1) the absence of a
rostrum, (2) the rounded lateral angle of the head (not sharply acute as in
C. Chanmcorney and (3) the character of the second antenna of the female.
In all the specimens that I have examined for this particular point—v iz., from
New Zealand, “‘C. crassicorne”’ from the Dutch coast, and “C. bonellii ”
from Plymouth—the rostrum is present. The lateral angle of the head is,
as Walker states, difficult to see, but as far as I can make out it varies, in
some cases being somewhat rounded, as described by Sars for C. bonellii,
and in others more acute. With regard to the third point, as already
stated, I find considerable variation in the antennae of the females, and the
New Zealand forms agree, some with the figure given by Sars for C. crassi-
corne, others with that for C. bonellit.

The only point in which the New Zealand specimens differ from the
European ones that I have examined appears to be in the third uropods,
which are slightly broader both in the peduncle and in the ramus, and have
the two rami usually directed slightly towards the median line, instead of

932 Transactions.

projecting directly backwards as shown by Sars for C. crassicorne. The
difference is, however, not great, although it is easy to make considerable
difference in the figure, and the general appearance of the end of the pleon
is very near to that figured by Sars for C. bonellit.*

Although the fully adult males and females in this species appear to be
readily distinguished from one another by the characters of the second
antenna, it is probable that the sexual relations are not always quite so
simple. For example, I have a specimen, now mounted permanently as
a micro-slide, in which the second antennae are stout and have on the under-
surface a stout tooth which corresponds to the tooth found in the adult
male, though not so pronounced; this specimen I should without hesita-
tion consider as an immature male, but unfortunately on the appendages
of the peraeon there are brood-pouches similar to those in the female. In
the two species C. spinicorne Stimpson and C. salmonis Stimpson from
the Pacific, which were redescribed in 1908 by Bradley, the adult females,
as figured by him, have the characters of the second antennae of the adult
male, though these are not developed to quite the same extent.

It is well known that C. crassicorne, like other species of the genus, is
frequently found in brackish and sometimes even in perfectly fresh water.
As far as I am aware, the New Zealand species has been taken in salt water
only, though the allied form Paracorophium excavatum Thomson is found
in brackish and fresh water. Stebbing has described from the brackish
water of Lake Negombo, in Ceylon, a species, C. triaeonyx, which appears
to me to be very close to the New Zealand forms, but differs in having
the third uropods much less broadened. Similarly, in 1912, Wundsch
described C. deviwnm from fresh water near Berlin, a species which, from
his figures, seems to agree very closely with Stebbing’s species in the
characters of the terminal uropods.

* Stebbing (1914, p. 372) records Corophiwm cylindricus (Say) from the Falkland
Islands, saying, “‘The figures and description of the female supplied by Dr. S. J.
Holmes leave no doubt that Mr. Vallentin’s specimens belong to this species.” He
quotes C. cylindricus Paulmier (1905, p. 167, fig. 37) as a synonym, and suggests that
C. quadriceps Dana (2mm. long) from Rio de Janeiro, and C. contractum Stimpson,
1855, from Japan, and the specimens from New Zealand recorded under this name
by G. M. Thomson also belong to the same species. He gives no description of the
Falkland Islands specimens except that they measure only 3mm., as compared with
3-4mm. given by Holmes, and 5mm. by Paulmier, ‘“ probably with reference to a
male specimen which he figures in full.” I agree with Stebbing that the Falkland
Island specimens are probably the same as those from New Zealand, but I do not know
why he assigns them to C. cylindricus rather than to C. crassicorne. In Das Tierreich
Amphipoda (1906, p. 692) he classes C. cylindricus among the “‘cbscure”’ species, but
in the appendix (p. 740) gives references to the description and figures given by
Paulmier and Holmes.

I can find nothing in Holmes’s description and figures inconsistent with the suppo-
sition that the species he describes is the same as the European C. crassicorne, and
certainly the figures he gives of the second antenna both of male and female apply
well to the New Zealand forms that I have referred to C. crassicorne. Similarly, the
description and the figure of the male given by Paulmier apply equally well to the
New Zealand forms. Neither Paulmier nor Holmes makes any reference to or com-
parison with other species.

Barnard (1916, p. 272) records C. acherusicum Costa from Durban Bay. Stebbing
(1906, p. 692) give this species among the “obscure” species, with the remark,
** perhaps identical with C. bonellit.”” Walker (1914, p. 559), after comparing specimens
of each, definitely united C. acherusicum with the older O. bonellii, to which he also
referred ©. crassicorne Hoeck (1879, p. 115).

It seems to me that these facts, which I had not paid special attention to when
writing the remarks given above, show that all the forms to which these varied names
have been given are so alike that they cannot be distinguished even by experts, and
the conclusion I had already come to in the text receives additional confirmation.

Cuinton.—Some New Zealand Amphipoda. 233

It seems evident that a good deal more work must be devoted to the
genus Corophium before the various problems indicated above can be
solved. Probably we are dealing with a widely distributed form which is
in the process of development but has not yet differentiated mto distinct
species, and some of the differences recorded may be associated with the
character of the water in which it lives.

The telson appears to be practically the same in all the specimens—
European, Australian, and New Zealand—that I have examined. It is
broadly triangular, with the posterior margin truncate or slightly convex,
and it bears on the dorsal surface, towards the posterior margin, two ridges
diverging anteriorly and each bearing about four minute blunt spines pro-
jecting upwards. These ridges do not appear to be described or figured

Fig. 5.—Corophium crassicorne Bruz.

A. Telson with second and third uropoda.
B. Telson (more highly magnified).

by Sars or Stebbing, though they are indicated in Sars’s figure of the telson
of C. bonellit (1895, pl. 22, fig. 1, t), and apparently in that of C. affine (L.c.,
fig. 2, t). The telson shows different appearances according to its precise
position when mounted. My specimens, which are all mounted perma-
nently in Canada balsam, have become transparent enough to show the
two ridges pretty clearly. In a specimen of C. triaeonyx Stebbing from
Ceylon the terminal portion of the telson appears to have become doubled
underneath, and consequently the two anterior spines extend clearly
beyond the visible margin. In another specimen of the same species
from Chilka Lake, however, the other spines could be clearly made out.

Phronima sedentaria Forskal.

Phronima sedentaria Bovallus, 1885, p. 354. P. novae-zealandiae
Powell, 1875, p. 21, figs. 1, 2; Stebbing, 1888, p. 1356, pl. 161zB;
Chilton, 1912a, p. 131.

This species is frequently washed up on the coast of New Zealand, and
I have specimens also from the Chatham Islands. It was described by
Powell as a species peculiar to southern seas, but there is no doubt that
Bovallius is right in referring it to the northern species sedentaria. A very
full description and discussion of the synonyms is given by Bovallius in the
reference quoted above. The animal is pelagic, and is invariably found
in its “‘ house,’ which is supposed to be the “test” of a salp or of some
tunicate. The young in various stages of development are frequently found
in the “‘ house’ with the female, but so far as I am aware nothing is known
of the way in which they obtain a “ house’ for themselves. Males are very
rare; I have not seen one among the New Zealand specimens.

234 Transactions.

Euprimno macropus Guérin Memeville.

Euprimno macropus Bovallius, 1885, p. 400, pl. xvii, figs. 23-40,
and pl. xvii, figs. 1,2. Primno latreillei, Stebbing, 1881, p. 1445.

This species was recorded from the neighbourhood of New Zealand by
Stebbing in the “ Challenger”? Reports under the name of Primno latreillet.
Bovallius unites P. latreiler, P. meneviller Stebbing, and P. antarctica
Stebbing with Huprimno macropus. I have a specimen washed up on
the Ocean Beach of Dunedin that agrees with the description given by
Bovallius, and also with that given by Stebbing of P. latreillet, and from
comparison of the two I feel convinced that Bovallius is correct in uniting
the species.

REFERENCES.

Bars, C. SPENCE, 1862. Catalogue of the Specimens of Amphipodous Crustacea in the
Collections of the British Museum, London.

Bate AND WeEstwoop, 1863. British Sessile-eyed Crustacea, vol. 1.

—— 1868. Ibid., vol. 2.

Bova.uius, C., 1885. Contributions to a Monograph of the Amphipoda Hyperiidea.

BraDwey, J. C., 1908. Notes on Two Amphipods of the Genus Corophiwm from the
Pacific Coast, Univ. California, Zool., vol. 4, pp. 227-52, pl. 9-13.

Cuitton, C., 1883. Further Additions to our Knowledge of the New Zealand Crustacea,
Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 15, pp. 69-86, pl. 1-3.

—— 1884. Additions to the Sessile-eyed Crustacea of New Zealand, T'rans. N.Z. Inst.,
vol. 16, pp. 249-65, pl. 17-21.

—— 1909. The Crustacea of the Subantarctic Islands of New Zealand, The Subant.
Islands of N.Z., pp. 601-71 (with 19 text-figs.).

—— 1912. The Amphipoda of the Scottish National Antarctic Expedition, Trans.
Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. 48, pp. 455-519, pl. i, ii.

—— 19124. Miscellaneous Notes on some New Zealand Crustacea, Trans. N.Z. Inst.,
vol. 44, pp. 128-35.

—— 1920. Some New Zealand Amphipoda, No. 1, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 52, pp. 1-8,
with text-figs.

HAswWELL, W. A., 1879. On some Additional New Genera and Species of Amphipodous
Crustacea, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., vol. 4, pp. 319-50.

Kirk, T. W., 1879. Notes on some New Zealand Crustacea, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 11,
pp. 401-2.

Miers, E. J., 1880. On the Squillidae, Appendix, Ann. Mag. Nat. His., ser. 5,
vol. 5, p. 125.

Sars, G. O., 1891-95. An Account of the Crustacea of Norway: I, Amphipoda.

Sexton, E. W., 1911. The Amphipoda collected by the ‘“‘ Huxley” from the North
Side of the Bay of Biscay, 1906, Jour. Marine Biol. Assoc., vol. 9,
pp. 199-227, pl. iii.

SreBBING, T. R. R., 1888. Report on the Scientific Results of the Voyage of H.M.S.
‘“* Challenger’? during the Years 1873-1876, Zoology, vol. 29, Report on the
Amphipoda (2 vols. text, 1 vol. plates).

—— 1904. Gregarious Crustacea from Ceylon, Spolia Zeylanica, vol. 2.

—— 1906. Amphipoda, 1, Gammaridea, Das Tierreich, 21 Lieferung, Berlin.

—— 1910. Crustacea of ‘‘ Thetis” Trawling Expedition, Australian Mus. Mem. 4,
pp. 567-658, pl. 47-60.

—— 1914. Crustacea from the Falkland Islands collected by Mr. Rupert Vallentin,
F.L.S., pt. 2, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., pp. 341-78, pl. 1-9.

THomson G. M., 1879. Additions to the Amphipodous Crustacea of New Zealand,
Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 5, vol. 4, pp. 329-33, pl. 16.

—— 1880. New Species of Crustacea from New Zealand, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.,
ser. 5, vol. 6, pp. 1-6, pl. 1.

—— 188]. Recent Additions to and Notes on New Zealand Crustacea, Trans. N.Z.
Inst., vol. 13, pp. 204-21, pl. 7, 8.

Tuomson, G. M., and Cuiton, C., 1886. Critical List of the Crustacea Malacostraca
of New Zealand, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 18, pp. 141-59.

Watker, A. O., 1909. Trans. Linn. Soc., 2nd ser., vol. 12, pp. 323-44, pl. 42, 43.

—— 1912. Apherusa jurinei (M.-Edw.), Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 8, vol. 10,
pp- 600-1.

—— 1914. Species of Amphipoda taken by the “Runa,” July and August, 19138,
Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 8, vol. 13, pp. 558-61.

Wounopscu, H. H., 1912. Eine neue Species des Genus Corophium Latr. aus dem
Miggelsee bei Berlin, Zool. Anzeiger, vol. 39, pp. 729-38, with text-figs.

Myers.—Life-history of some New Zealand Insects. 235

Arr. XXVI.—The Life-history of some New Zealand Insects: No. 1.

By Joun G. Myers, F.E.S.

[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 27th October, 1920 ; received by Editor,
31st December, 1920 ; issued separately, 20th July, 1921.]

Plate XLIV.

THis paper is the first of a series which it 1s hoped to publish on’ the
biology of New Zealand insects, chiefly those belonging to the Hemiptera.
The life-history of not a single species of our endemic Heteroptera has
been studied. This is to be regretted, if only because, as Kirkaldy (3)
says, “from ovum to adult many of the Hemiptera undergo very remark-
able changes of form, much more interesting in reality than the ecdyses
of Lepidoptera or other Heteromorpha.’’ Ctenoneurus hochstetteri Mayr.,
the subject of this study, is a very abundant member of the family
of ‘flat bugs,” or Aradidae, the species of which, like certain beetles
(Brontopriscus) and spiders (Hemicloea spp.) are dorsoveutrally flattened
in a manner admirably adapted te a subcortical habitat.

I am indebted to Mr. E. B. Levy for the trouble he took in photograph-
ing the eggs and insects, and to Mr. David Miller for kindly reading the
manuscript and making many valuable suggestions.

Ctenoneurus hochstetteri Mayr. (Hem.-Het.)

Neuroctenus hochstetteri Mayr., Reise der ** Novara,” Zool. ii, pl. 4,
fig. 47, Hem., p. 166. Crimia attenuata Walk., Cat. Hem.-Het.
Brit. Mus., pt. vii, p. 22. Mezira maorica, Walk., loc. cit., p. 28.
Neuroctenus hochstetteri Mayr., Hutton, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 30,
p. 175, 1898. Ctenoneurus hochstetteri Mayr., Kirkaldy, Trans.
NZ Insts, vol. Ale pe e2d,, 1909.

Distribution —Owing to the lack of collectors interested in Hemiptera,
the range of most of the species is unknown. This insect is probably
generally distributed throughout the country ; it is certainly abundant at
Wanganui, Wellington, and Auckland.

Habitat —Although this bug is abundant beneath almost any loose bark,
it shows a decided preference for tawa (Bezlschmiedia tawa). This prefer-
ence is perhaps more due to the looseness of large flakes of bark on dead
tawa than to any superiority in the food-supply. Prostrate logs are as
much affected as standing stumps, and the number of the msects harboured
by them is amazing. Both on the under-surface of the bark and upon the
trunk beneath, the massed bugs may form black patches 6in. or more
in diameter, and composed of individuals of various ages, all exuding,
especially if crushed, that peculiar and characteristic ‘‘ buggy’ odour,
familiar to those who have met the bed-bug.

Life-history Owing to the difficulty experienced in artificially rearing
any specimen through more than a few stadia, this account does not claim
to be complete. The early instars live for weeks with very little attention,
but the older nymphs and the imagines die with disappointing rapidity.

236 Transactions.

The Egg (Plate XLIV, fig. 1; text-figs. 1, 2).—Average length,
15mm. It is long, elliptical, and pure-white, the surface rendered beauti-
fully punctate by the reticulation of numerous narrow ridges enclosing
regular hexagonal pits. The position of the micropyle was not determined.
The ova are deposited promiscuously or in patches on the bark or portions
of the trunk, and are gummed lightly by the long axis of the egg.
A patch of eggs may measure as much as 4in. in diameter, and on
removal of the bark be visible at 15 or 20 yards distance.

Ctenoneurus hochstetteri

Fic. 1.—Egg, showing sculpture. x 20.
Fic. 2.—Egg, showing dehiscence (sculpture omitted).

In the laboratory eggs hatched within one month, but that this is the
normal period is uncertain. Individuals of most instars are found through-
out the season, and the relative periods of the life-cycle probably vary with
the time. Eggs hatch as late as April.

Ctenoneurus hochstetteri. Nymphs.
Fic. 3.—Second instar, just after first ecdysis. 35.
Fie. 4.—An intermediate instar. x 11.
Fic. 5.—A late instar. xX 8.

Dehiscence of the chorion occurs along approximately two-thirds of one
side of the egg to one end, with one or two transverse fissures not extending
more than half-way round the egg. Hatching is accompanied by some
difficulty, the young nymph carrying the egg-shell for as long as three to
six days. The edges of the shell fit round the first segments of the abdomen.
The oolemm edges project as a delicate iridescent envelope.

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vou. LITI. Pruate XLIV.

|E. B. Levy, photo.

Fie. 1.—Ctenoneurus ho

ie)
ow
Ma]
>
=~
—
a
~

Eggs (mostly hatched) in situ on under-surface of
tawa-bark.

|4£. B. Levy, photo.

Fic. 2.—Ctenoneurus hochstetteri. Imagines and nymph of advanced age.

Face p. 236.]

Myrrs.—JLife-history of some New Zealand Insects. 237

The first instar only is white or colourless, except for a bright yellow
area surrounding the orifice of the scent-gland, and caused by the appear-
ance of that gland showing through the transparent exoskeleton. The
head is smooth and shining, while the rest of the dorsal surface appears dull.

In October and November the first ecdysis occurs after about six days.
The cuticle splits along the mid-dorsal line of the thorax. The second
instar shows little structural change ; but colour appears as a dark grey
on the head, two grey streaks separated by a narrow pale line along the
whole dorsal surface, and dark spots on the lateral edges of each segment.
The scent-gland opens on a raised area of a dark colour. The individuals
of the first and second instars show a habit of standing remarkably high
on their legs, a peculiarity noted by Kershaw and Kirkaldy in an Oriental
species.

The subsequent nymphal history is marked by an enormous increase in
the size of the body relatively to the length of the appendages ; by the
appearance of spines on the lateral margins of the head; by the growth
of tubercles and spots on the posterior margins of the abdominal segments ;
by the increase of granulation over the whole dorsal surface ; and, above
all, by the gradual curving of the mesonotal and metanotal posterior
margins with the formation of wing-pads, of which those of the meso-
thorax, forming the rudimentary tegmina, soon cover entirely those of the
metathorax. The compound eyes of the second and subsequent instars
are brilliant red.

Although Osborn considers five instars to be the normal number i the
Hemiptera, Kershaw and Kirkaldy note eight in the case of Dindymus
sanguineus Fabr., an Oriental Pyrrohocorid ; and there is every indication
that Ctenoneurus hochstetteri passes through an equally large number of
stadia. The difficulty of ascertaining the exact number of instars may be
increased by individual as well as seasonal variation. Such a variation,
according to Tillyard, is well known to occur in certain dragon-flies, where
the nymphal instars are extremely numerous.

Maternal Solicitude—Although J. H. Fabre has cast the weight of his
authority against the classic example of De Geer’s “‘ grey bugs” (Hlasmucha
grisea) and their display of parental affection, it may be of interest to note
that imagines of C. hochstetteri are sometimes found carrying several first
or second instar nymphs on their backs and sides in a manner comparable
to that of Lycosid spiders. Considering the gregarious habit of the species,
perhaps we should rule cut maternal solicitude as an explanation ; but it
is significant that these young nymphs do not apparently cling to older
nymphs which closely approach imagines in size.

REFERENCES.

~
1. J. C. W. Kersnaw and G. W. Kirxarxy, On the Metamorphoses of Two
Hemiptera-Heteroptera from South China, nt. Trans., p. 59, 1908.
. —— Biological Notes on Oriental Hemiptera, No. 1, Jour. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.,
p. 596, 1908.
. G. W. Kirxatpy, On the Interesting Nature of Heteropterous Metamorphoses,
The Entomologist, p. 58, 1908.
—— Upon Maternal Solicitude in the Hemiptera, &c., The Entomologist, pp. 113-20,
1903.
. H. Oszporn, The Meadow-plant Bug (Miris dolabratus), Jour, Ag. Res., vol. 15,
No. 3, 1918.

Pe ww N

ri

938 Transactions.

Arr. XXVII.—A Revision of the New Zealand Cicadidae (Homoptera),
with Descriptions of New Species.

By Joun G. Myers, F.E.S.

[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, Ist June, 1920; received by Editor,
18th August, 1920 ; issued separately, 20th July, 1921.)

Plates XLV, XLVI.

In 1908 Kirkaldy pointed out the urgent need for a revision of the New
Zealand species of Melampsalta. This paper is an attempt to supply the
want.

I must first acknowledge a deep debt of gratitude to Mr. G. V. Hudson.
Without his encouragement the paper would not have been commenced ;
without his assistance it would not have been completed. He has also
honoured me by furnishing the plates, which form a most valuable portion
of the paper. My thanks are due also to Professor H. B. Kirk, who
kindly read the text.

In the difficult work of establishing the synonymy much valuable help
was received from manuscript notes of Mr. Howard Ashton, of Sydney, to
whom Mr. Hudson sent a collection of Cicadidae in 1907. In some few
instances my own researches have Jed me to conclusions at variance with
those of Mr. Ashton, particularly with regard to the much-disputed synonymy
of the multifarious forms of M. cruentata Fabr.

In field-work and collecting, Mr. T. C. Cockcroft’s keen assistance has
been invaluable.

In the order Hemiptera, or Rhynchota, the suborder Homoptera con-
tains two very distinct divisions, based on the position of the rostrum.
Of these, the Auchenorryncha comprise the cicadas and leaf-hoppers, while
the Sternorrhyncha include the springing plant-lice, the true plant-lice (or
aphides), and the scale insects.

The Auchenorrhynchous Homoptera form a much-neglected group, of
which the importance, both economic and biological, is, however, extremely
great. As the suctorial mouth-parts of these imsects inflict only very
minute wounds on plants, the damage they do to crops is apt to be largely
underestimated. That their study is not only of purely scientific interest
is demonstrated by the fact that, according to Osborn, at least one-fourth
of all the grass in North America is annually destroyed by leaf-hoppers.

To show the affinities of the Cicadidae it will be necessary to indicate
briefly the classification of the Auchenorrhyncha. Under the system pro-
posed by Kirkaldy the group is divided into two main “ superfamilies ”—
the Cicadoidea, containing the families Cicadidae, Jassidae, Membracidae,
and Cercopidae (the frog-hoppers or cuckoo-spit insects so common in
Europe, and occurring also in New Zealand); and the Fulgoroidea, con-
taining the famous lantern-flies, of which the luminosity is now generally
doubted if not absolutely disproved, and a multitude of smaller, often very

Myrers.—fevision of the New Zealand Cicadidae. 239

beautiful forms, for which no one has yet found popular names. It is
proposed to devote a later paper to the leaf-hoppers generally.

Of the families themselves, the Cicadidae, though attaining a very high
degree of specialization in their stridulatory organs, are yet to be considered,
as a whole, the most primitive. In general points of structure, particularly
of the head and thorax, and in wing-venation, the cicadas are considered
by Osborn to approach, more closely than do other Auchenorrhyncha, the
Psyllidae, which Tillyard believes to be the oldest family of the Sternor-
rhyncha. Though this lends additional colour to the view that the
Cicadidae are the most primitive of the Auchenorrhyncha, fossil cicadas,
according to Tillyard, do not occur before the Cretaceous, long after
typical Jassids and Fulgoroids had appeared.

So much for the present state of knowledge—or, rather, speculation—
with regard to the phylogeny of the family. With respect to structure,
the Cicadidae are characterized by—Ocelli three, on vertex. Head and
antennae very short. Rostrum long, with three joints. Thorax large,
with a narrow transverse pronotum and a large mesonotum carrying
posteriorly a cruciform elevation. Tegmina and wings usually hyaline.

The subfamily Tibiceninae may be recognized by the entirely uncovered
state of the sound-organs in the male ; while the genus Melampsalta Amy.
(= Cicadetta Kol.), to which all our species belong, is identified by the
union or close contiguity of the bases of the ulnar veins of the tegmina
at the end of the basal cell.

The genus Melampsalta, though occurring in Europe and Asia, has its
headquarters in Australasia. Of the thirteen New Zealand species, the
common and variable M. cruentata (angusta) occurs also in Adelaide and
Victoria (Goding and Froggatt). All the others, with the possible but
highly improbable exception of M. quadricincta, are endemic.

With regard to the biology of these beautiful insects, which are popu-
larly but very inaccurately known as “locusts,” very few details are
known. During the summer months almost every type of country, be it
bush, meadow, swamp, seashore, scrub, or alpine slope, is enlivened by the
song of one or more peculiar species. I should like to emphasize the fact
that practically every species described may be distinguished in the field
by characters—such as song, habitat, and, may I say, psychology—other
than those usually considered by the systematist. It has been noticed that,
even in the most variable forms, the song is practically the same through-
out the species. It is, however, rather difficult to describe and to utilize
for a written description.

I have observed either oviposition or, much more frequently, the marks
of the process in two species, M. cingulata and M. cruentata. In the latter,
for example, a twig of Macropiper excelswm was gashed to the centre for
about 2in. In the former a female M. cruentata was operating on a fairly
soft, green stalk of fennel (Foeniculum), with her body parallel to the stem
and her ovipositor working with a vigorous, vertical, saw-like motion at
right angles.

The nymphs on hatching are said to drop to the ground, beneath which
the whole of the nymphal instars are passed. It is hoped to obtain next
season more precise information regarding the events subsequent to hatch-
ing in the New Zealand species. The nymphs at a later stage, with their
very powerful, fossorial first pair of legs, and their smooth, yellowish
integument, are familiar objects to the gardener. The duration of the
subterranean existence of the New Zealand species is not known; but

240 Transactions.

that it may, at least occasionally, extend beyond a season is demonstrated
by the occurrence of full-grown nymphs of M. cingulata at the end of
May (Hudson, Ent. Mo. Mag., vol. 55, p. 181, August, 1919). The
famous periodical cicada (Libicen septemdecim) of North America spends,
of course, seventeen years beneath the surface.

When the time of emergence of the New Zealand species is at hand
the full-grown nymph makes its way to the surface and climbs, often to
a height of some feet, a tree or any other convenient support. The two
sand-dune species are necessarily confined to short, unstable herbage.
Dehiscence takes place along the mid-dorsal line of the thorax, and
emergence occurs at night, or at least after sunset. The nymphal
exuviae remain, abundant and familiar objects, hanging to the support.

Probably the most noticeable characteristic of the imago is its song,
which is produced only by the male. For an account of the sound-producing
apparatus of the New Zealand species the reader is referred to a paper by
Powell in the Transactions of the New Zealand Institute, vol. 5, p. 286.
Though our large species, M. cingulata, can produce a surprising volume of
sound, it is excelled by many foreign species, notably by an Australian form,
of which McCoy, quoted by Distant, gives the following account: “ It
produces almost a deafening sound from the numbers of the individuals
in the hottest days, and the loudness of their noise, which, beginning with
a prolonged, high-toned whirr like that of a knife-grinder, or the letter R
loudly prolonged in a high pitch, continued for a minute or two, breaks
into a series of diminuendo ‘ squawks,’ like that of a frightened duck in a
farmyard, loud enough to be heard some hundred yards off, and stunning
our ears with the shrilling and squalling. This, kept up with ‘ damnable
iteration,’ as Falstaff says, by hundreds of individuals all day long, would
tax the patience of a saint, if such existed in Australia.”

Though the cicada is usually linked with the cricket in contrast to the
conventional provident and industrious ant, and though the life of the crgale
is considered an Arcadian existence by the Provengal peasant, its enemies
are by no means few. First in importance probably are birds of various
species, but especially house-sparrows (Hudson, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 23,
p- 51, 1891). Other insects, such as mantids, other carnivorous Orthoptera,
dragon-flies, ichneumons, and hornets, have been recorded outside New
Zealand as exploiters of the Cicadidae. In New Zealand I have seen the
carnivorous Heteropteron, Cermatulus nasalis Westw., that butcher of
noctuid caterpillars, attack a male M. cruentata much larger than itself.
The bug had inserted its rostrum into the end of the cicada’s abdomen.
The “singer,” attempting to fly, was actually swinging by its exserted
extreme abdominal segments, while the bug, gripping with its claws the
rough toetoe (Arundo conspicua) leaf, held back hard, though nearly pulled
off its perch by the larger insect, which kept up a shrill, screaming stridu-
lation, very different from its normal happy note.

Finally, the fungus Cordyceps Sinclar attacks the nymph and (less
frequently) the imago, occupying every part of the body with mycelial
hyphae, in a manner similar to that of the well-known C. Robertsit, the
“vegetable caterpillar.”

Measurements—All dimensions are given in millimetres, and are the
averages of large series where such could be obtamed. Instead of giving
the expanse, I have measured the tegmen itself, thus allowing the im-
portant taxonomic ratio of body-length to tegmen-length to be more
readily used.

Myrers.—-Revision of the New Zealand Cicadidae. 241

1. Melampsalta cingulata Fabr. (Plate XLV: fig. 5, 3; fig. 6, 2.)

Tettigonia cingulata Fabr., Syst. Ent., 680, 9, 1775. Cicada cingulata
Hudson, Man. N.Z. Ent., p. 118, 1892; Trans. N.Z. Inst..
vol. 23, p. 50, 1891. C. zealandica Boisduval, Voy. “ Astrolabe,”
Ent., pl. 10, fig. 6, 1832. C. indivulsa Walk., Cat. Hom. B.M.
Suppl. 33, 1858. Crcadetta cingulata Kirkaldy, Trans. N.Z. Inst.,
vol. 41, p. 28, 1909.

Head black; frons with pale- brownish median area, continuing on
vertex. Notum black. Pronotum with median, longitudinal yellow or green
streak. Mesonotum with five more or less interrupted green or ochraceous
longitudinal stripes, the median one very short. Cruciform elevation forms
two diverging green crescents. Abdomen black. Segments edged with
spots or broken lines of brown and more or less silvery pubescence. In
female seventh abdominal segment cinctured more or less conspicuously
with yellow. Ventral surface—abdomen usually uniform black; some-
times brown with black segmented margins. Tegmina—costa strongly bowed
at distal end of radial area, brown or olivaceous. Distal ends of first and
second ulnar areas black. Bases of tegmina and wings green or olivaceous.

Long. corp. 22-26 mm.; tegmen, 35-40 mm.

Distribution —Auckland to Southland (Hutton). December to April.

This is probably, by reason of its size, abundance, and loud note, the
most conspicuous species of the family. In habits it is essentially arboreal,
delighting to perch on bare trunks and the larger branches, though posts
and even buildings in the towns are not disdained. At Wanganui I have
counted at many as thirty-nine on a single telegraph-post. The extreme
wariness of this cicada, together with its habit of perching at a consider-
able height, renders it a difficult insect to catch. One of the “ vegetable-
caterpillar’ fungi, Coryceps Sinclawz, attacks this species both in the final
nymphal and in the imaginal instars. M. cingulata is nearest M. strepitans,
from which it is distinguished by its larger size, longer tegmina with
greenish basal areas, and very varied song

2. Melampsalta strepitans Kirkaldy. (Plate XLV, fig. 7, ¢.)

Cicada cingulata var. obscura Hudson, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 23, p. 51,
1891. Circadetta strepitans Kirkaldy, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 41,
p. 28, 1909.

In colour and markings resembles M. cingulata ; but abdomen more
often concolorous, and pattern extremely indistinct. Silvery pubescence,
especially on abdomen, much more pronounced than in M. cingulata. Bases
of tegmina and wings clouded with orange. Costa olivaceous, strongly bowed
at distal end of radial area. Proximal junctions of ulnar veins separated
much farther than in M. cingulata.

Body very short and stout; tegmina short and broad. Long. corp.
19-21 mm. ; tegmen, 22-24 mm.

Distribution. — Kekerangu; Tasman River, Mount Cook (Hudson) ;
Wellington ; Christchurch. December to February.

This very distinct species was discovered by Mr. Hudson on boulders
in a river-bed of the Kaikoura Mountains, Marlborough. Its song was
described as loud and chattering. I have taken it in February on a rocky
slope at the top of the cliff near Red Rocks, Wellington, where it was
discovered by Mr. T. Cockeroft. The note is loud and distinct, differing

242 Transactions.

from that of M. cingulata in its much more intermittent though monotonous
character. The insects frequent rocks and stumps in the full sunshine,
showing little liking for trees, thus differing from the tree-loving M. cingu-
lata. They are extremely wary. It was proved that sight is their chief
guide by approaching from the opposite side of the rock on which they
were resting. A front approach was practically impossible.

3. Melampsalta cauta n.sp. (Plate XLV, fig. 8, 3.)

Head green in male, cinereous in female, with two black triangular spots
posterior to ocelli, which are red. Pronotum black with maroon overmarkings ;
anterior and posterior borders pale green, connected by pale-green median line
Mesonotum deep reddish-black laterally ; anteriorly two large red obconical
marks bordered with black, followed by a pale-green area containing three
black spots forming a triangle. Cruciform elevation conical, shining green.
Abdomen g almost uniform black, with faint reddish segmental margins ;
ventrally dull bluish-black ; genital segments long and narrow, shining black.
Abdomen 2 black with segmental margins maroon-red. Indications of faint
silvery median stripe. Ventral surface brownish. Indications of yellowish
cincture on seventh abdominal segment. Costa reddish or reddish-olive,
passing into black on post-costal area.

Body slender; tegmina long. Long. corp. 20-21 mm.; tegmen,
26-28 mm.

Distribution —Ohakun ; Karori: Day’s Bay, Wellington. December
to March.

This species is perhaps nearest M. scutellaris in markings, but is per-
fectly distinct. It frequents bush in hilly country, showing a preference
for tree-trunks and logs, and exhibiting probably a greater wariness than
any other member of the family. The nature of the country adds to the
difficulty of its capture. The song is composed of two notes, much louder
than that of M. cruentata, though much less varied and less loud than that
of M. cingulata, which the insect strongly resembles in habits.

Miss Stella Hudson discovered this species at Ohakune.

4. Melampsalta scutellaris Walk. (Plate XLVI: fig. 3, 3; fig. 4, 9.)

Cicada scutellaris Walk., Cat. Hom. B.M., 1850, 150. C. arche, L.c.,
195. C. tristis Hudson, Trans. N.Z. Inst:, vol. 23, p. 52, 1891.
Cicadetta scutellaris Kirkaldy, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 41, p. 27,
1909.

Goding and Froggatt (Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., vol. 29, p. 642), follow-
ing Stal, consider C. arche a synonym of the Australian M. telxiope Walk.
Kirkaldy (l.c., p. 27) regards C. arche as a doubtful species and its
synonymy with M. telaiope improbable. However this may be, our New
Zealand M. scutellaris, which Kirby (Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 28, p. 457,
1896), places in synonymy with C. arche, is certainly distinct from
M. telxiope. Walker’s type of C. arche is a “specimen bleached almost
beyond recognition ” (Kirby).

Head brassy to bronzy green. Vertex concolorous. Pronotum greenish
with slight blackish markings and paler median streak widening posteriorly.
Streak often dull-reddish. Mesonotum with four obconical pinkish areas
from anterior border, streaked with black, the two median areas half the
length of the two laterals. Cruciform elevation glabrous-green, conical.

Myrrs.—Revision of the New Zealand Cicadidae, 243

Abdomen almost uniform bronze or greenish-bronze, sometimes segmental
margins greener, or reddish. Ventral surface—¢ greenish ; abdomen dark ;
opercula pale-greenish : 2 pale yellowish-green ; abdomen with dark median
stripe. Tegmina—distal end of fifth ulnar area more acute than in any other
species. Costa olivaceous. Highth apical cell twice as long as broad.

Long slender body, tapering antero-posteriorly ; tegmina long. Long.
corp. 16-20 mm. ; tegmen, 21-25 mm.

Distribution — Wellington ; Wanganui.

‘‘ Eixceedingly sad and feeble song” (Hudson). Hasily recognized by
the almost inaudible note, bronzy colour marked with green or reddish, and
slender build. Prefers low herbage and bushes, and is less wary than the
other species, though extremely difficult to locate. The eighth apical cell
of the tegmen is always easily twice as long as broad.

This species is very frequently caught in Kpeirid-spider webs. January
to middle of May.

5. Melampsalta muta Fabr. (Plate XLVI: fig. 5, 3; fig. 6, 2.)

Tettigonia muta Fabr., Syst. Ent., 681, 17, 1775. Cicada cutora
Walk., Cat. Hom. B.M., 172, 1850. CC. ochrina Walk., l.c.,
Suppl. 34, 1858. C. aprilina Hudson, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 23,
p- 53, 1891. Melampsalta cuterae Kirby, Trans. N.Z. Inst.,
vol. 28, p. 456, 1896. M. muta Distant (part), Ann. Mag. Nat.
Hist., vol. 9, p. 326, 1892. -Cicadetta aprilina Kirkaldy, Trans.
IN-Z Inst.; vo). 41, p:-28,.1909

‘A long series of this insect (cwterae) stood in the British Museum
collection under the name of Cicada muta (our M. cruentata), among which
were only two specimens really belonging to the latter species. This is
probably the reason why Mr. Distant so positively maintains that C. aprilina
is not distinct from C. muta” (2.e., our cruentata). (Kirby, l.c., p. 456. The
parentheses are mine.)

General colour wholly and invariably vivid grass-green. Two short longi-
tudinal black lines on anterior portion of mesonotum. Remainder green.
Cruciform elevation—two brownish-green swellings with a grass-green pro-
jection between them. Golden longitudinal median stripe on abdomen only.
Legs pale green with red tarsi. Mesosternum pale reddish (black in
cruentata). Tegmina—veins green, olive-green, or reddish-brown.

Long. 19-21 mm.; tegmen, 23-27 mm.

Sexes similar; practically no variation.

Distribution. — Wellington ; Auckland; Taupo. No authentic South
Island records. ;

This is an extremely beautiful and very distinct species, differing from
M. cruentata, its nearest relative, in markings, habits, note, habitat, time
of greatest abundance, and sometimes in size. It is essentially the cicada
of the bushes. As its colour might indicate, leaves are its habitual
environment, whence its rather harsh note is frequently heard late in the
season; but it is amazingly difficult to detect its location. The note is
monotonous and insistent, with no variation. It is much louder than that of
M. cruentata, with a grating, harsh quality absent from the notes of the
other cicadas.

February and March. One female of this species was taken at electric
light im the evening.

244 Transactions.

6. Melampsalta cruentata Fabr. (Plate XLVI: fig. 9, 3g; fig. 10, 9;

fig. 11, red variety of 3.)

Tettigonia cruentata Fabr., Syst. Ent., 680, 10, 1775. Crcada sericea
Walk., Cut. Hom. B.M., 169, 1850. C. rosea Walk., l.c., 220.
C. angusta Walk., l.c., 174. OC. balinea Walk., l.c., Suppl. 34,
1858. Melampsalta rosea Stal, Oefv. Vet. Ak. Fork., p. 484, 1862
(quoted by Distant). M. muta Distant (part), Ann. Mag. Nat.
Hist., vol. 9, p. 326, 1892; Kirby (vars. 6-8), Trans. N.Z. Inst.,
vol. 28, p. 455, 1896. M. sericea Kirby, l.c., p. 456. M. angusta
Distant, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., vol. 9, p. 326, 1892 ; Goding and
Froggatt, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., vol. 29, p. 643, 1904. Cicada
muta Hudson (and vars. flavescens, cinerascens, rufescens), Trans.
N.Z. Inst., vol. 23, p. 51, 1891. Cicadetta cruentata and angusta
Kirkaldy, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 41, p. 28, 1909.

g. General colour dark red, brownish, or olivaceous, with a silvery or
pale median stripe from frons to tip of abdomen. Mesonotum with two
heavy black obconical patches, variable in size. Cruciform elevation
always paler. Abdomen—segmental margins red, brownish, or olivaceous,
remainder dark. Costa olivaceous or reddish. Tegmina and wings clear.

Long. 14-17 mm. ; tegmen, 18-21 mm.

2. Resembles male except in larger size and the following: General
colour pale greenish, olivaceous, yellowish, ochreous, or bright red.

Long. 18-23 mm.; tegmen, 20-24 mm.

Both sexes extremely variable in colour, size, and intensity of markings.
Pale median stripe always present, sometimes edged with darker, especially
on the anterior segments of abdomen. The eighth apical cell of the tegmen
is nearly as broad as long.

Distribution.—Probably generally distributed throughout the country
at low levels. It is interesting to note that this is the only species not
endemic. Goding and Froggatt (‘‘Monograph of Australian Cicadidae ”’)
record it from Adelaide and Victoria.

This is the common cicada of the open country from November to May.
In contradistinction to the shrub-loving M. muta, it shows a decided prefer-
ence for grass, herbage, and swamp-vegetation on or near the ground.
The species is extremely variable ; but the continuous median stripe is
constant, and the note varies but little. In tone the song is intermediate
between the shrill, weak chirping of M. scutellaris and M. cincta and the
rather harsh, insistent stridulation of M. muta. Observations in the field
emphatically confirm Distant’s opinion that the two extreme forms (angusta
and cruentata) are one and the same species.

Var. subalpina. (Plate XLVI: fig. 12, 3; fig. 13, 9.)

Cicada muta var. subalpina Hudson, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 23, p. 51,
1891. Melampsalta muta Kirby, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 28,
p. 455, 1896. Cicadetta muta Kirkaldy, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 41,
Pyciseloo9.

General colour vivid green occasionally suffused with reddish. Genital
segment with two dark lateral lines. Cruciform elevation tinged with red or
yellow. The obconical spots of the mesonotum sometimes marked with
red. Legs sometimes green with red tarsi. Tegmina and wings suffused
with green (distinction from type). Veins green, costa reddish.

Size larger than type. Long. 18-23mm.; tegmen, 23-28 mm.

Myers.—Revision of the New Zealand Cicadidae. 245

This is a well-marked green variety which sometimes bears a great
superficial resemblance to M. muta, from which it is readily distinguished
by the pale median stripe of the pronotum. Its note also seems inter-
mediate between that, of 17. cruentata (type) and that of M. muta.

“That this is no more than a variety is proved by the fact that
specimens have been known to mate with the typical red variety of the
species.” (Hudson.)

This is such a distinct variety that further study may justify its
elevation to specific rank.

Distribution. —Silverstream, Wellington (T. Cockcroft); Mount Arthur
and Dun Mountain, Nelson; Arthur’s Pass; Tapuaenuku, Kaikoura
Mountains ; Murchison.

7. Melampsalta fuliginosa n. sp. (Plate XLVI, fig. 2, 9.)

2. Head black. Notum uniform dead-black with slight scattered indica-
tions of golden pubescence. Abdomen black with silver median dorsal stripe.
Segmental margins laterally olivaceous. Ventral surface fuscous brown.
Abdominal segments edged with paler.

In size, shape, and ratio of body-length to tegmen-length resembles
M. cruentata. Long. corp. 21 mm.; tegmen, 21 mm.

Distribution. — Wellington. One specimen. February.

This is described from a unique female specimen. It may possibly
prove, when a series can be obtained, to be only an extreme variety of
the highly variable M. cruentata. However, in the absence of any inter-
mediate forms it seems at present sufficiently distinct.

8. Melampsalta indistincta n. sp. (Plate XLVI: fig. 7, 3; fig. 8, 2.)

Eyes brown. Head pubescent, brownish-grey. Vertex with central pale
area, Pronotum dark-brownish with small lateral dark streaks obscured
by white pubescence. Median line of pronotum pale-yellowish, edged with
darker and expanding to full width at edge of mesonotum, though interrupted
by two black spots. _Mesonotum black with two olive-brown lateral streaks.
Abdomen black with indications of a pale median dorsal streak and with
segmental margins pale brown at the sides. Sides of abdomen with silvery
pubescence. Cruciform elevation pale with black apex. Costa and veins
pale-brownish. Ventral surface—g pale brown with black median area,
2 uniform pale yellowish-brown.

Long. corp. 14-17 mm. ; tegmen, 17-20 mm.

Distribution. — Pipiriki, Wanganui River, . Auckland (Hudson); Pae-
kakariki. ‘‘ Amongst boulders in hot sunshine. Note very distinctive.”
January.

This little species was discovered by Mr. Hudson.

9. Melampsalta cincta Walk. (Plate XLV, fig. 11, 3.)

Cicada cincta Walk., Cat. Hom. B.M., 204, 1850. C. muta var.
minor Hudson, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 23, p. 52, 1891.

General colour tawny or reddish with black markings. Pronotum with
pale median longitudinal band containing posteriorly two distinct black dots.
Two diagonal black streaks laterally. Mesonotum heavily marked with
black ; a faint silvery median streak. Approximately anterior third o |
abdomen black, remaining segments edged posteriorly with red, especially
laterally. Silvery median longitudinal streak varying in intensity. Bases
of Soe and wings brilliant red. Anal area of wing outlined more or

246 Transactions.

less vividly with carmine. Costa and veins green. Post-costal area red.
More oy less silvery pubescence on whole surface. Sexes similar. Meso-
sternum almost wholly pale.
' Long. corp. 15-18 mm. ; tegmen, 16-21 mm.
Distributton.—Taupo; Wellington (Hutton). River-bed of the Manawatu
at Palmerston North ; Pipiriki, Wanganui River; Motueka, Maitai (Hudson).
This well-marked species is confined to the sand-dunes not far above
high-water mark, among Spinifexr hirsutus, Coprosma acerosa, and Scirpus
frondosus. Its note is shrill and weak, somewhat resembling that of the
small cricket. In common with the other littoral species (M. leptomera
n. sp.) 1t exhibits considerable unwillingness to fly ; and the males are out
of all comparison much more abundant than the females.

10. Melampsalta leptomera n. sp. (Plate XLVI, fig. 1, 9.)

Markings generally as in M. cincta. General colour pale tawny with
black markings much obscured by abundant short silvery pubescence. Median
pale longitudinal band throughout rather indistinct. Pronotum almost as
in M. cincta. Mesonotum black with two pale-brown longitudinal marks
containing posteriorly a black dot. Mesosternwm black. Abdomen black
with the segmental margins faintly red ; but the whole appearing grey, owing
to white closely-appressed pubescence. Bases of teqmina and wings, costa,
post-costal area, and veins orange-yellow. Body and wings very long and
narrow. Sexes similar.

Long. corp. 16-20 mm.; tegmen, 18-23 mm.

Distribution —Lyall Bay, Wellington. January, February.

This striking species occurs nearer the actual beach than M. cineta,
almost exclusively among pingao (Scirpus frondosus), the tawny leaves of
which it resembles in colour. The favourite position is low down in the
axil of a leaf, with the folded tegmina and convexity of the back fitted
into the concavity of the base of the leaf. The insect is extremely difficult
to detect. It is comparatively unwilling to take to flight, and sometimes
falls to the ground with folded wings, rather than attempt to escape
in the usual manner. Possibly this is due to the windy nature of its
habitat. The note is extremely weak, though not so high-pitched as that
of M. scutellaris.

11. Melampsalta quadricincta Walk. (Plate XLV: fig. 3, 3; fig. 4, 2.)
Cicada quadricincta Walk., Cat. Hom. B.M., 191, 1850. C. nervosa
Walk., I.c., 213. C.cassiope Hudson, Trans. N.Z: Inst.. vol. 23,
p. 54, 1891. Melampsalta quadricincta Goding and Froggatt,
Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., vol. 29, p. 645, 1904. M. cassiope Kirby,
Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 28, p. 457, 1896. M. mangu White,
Ent. Mo. Maq., vol. 15, p. 21,1879. M. mangu Kirby, l.c., p. 457.

The type of C. quadricincta Walk. is labelled “New Holland,” but
no specimens came under the notice of Goding and Froggatt when they
monographed the Australian Cicadidae. Considering, therefore, the generally
vague character of foreign-locality labels in 1850, I think we are justified,
in the absence of other evidence, in concluding that M. quadricincta syn.
cassiope, the common alpine cicada of New Zealand, 7s endemic.

General colour black with long hairs (especially in the female) and pale
pubescence. Frons heavily hirsute ; tawny spot on each side. Vertex—some
indication of pale median area. Pronotum considerably wider than head.
Mesonotum almost uniform black. Cruciform elevation tawny. Segmental
margins of abdomen more or less tawny or reddish. Ventral surface pale
ochreous. Wings perfectly transparent, short. Costa and veins fulvous,

Myers.—fRevision of the New Zealand Cicadidae. 247

2 considerably larger.

Long. corp. 19-23 mm. ; tegmen, 18-22 mm.

For specimens of this species and all information respecting it I am
indebted to Mr. G. V. Hudson. It is the common alpine cicada of New
Zealand ; elevation, 2,500—4,000 ft.

“Song extremely low—a short muffled rasp, followed by a very faint
shrill hiss, about one and a half times as long as the rasp. Written while
cicada was singing.” (Hudson.)

Distribution—Dun Mountain; Mount HKarnslaw; Kelly’s Creek, Otira
(1,000 ft.); Tapuaenuku, Marlborough; Mount Arthur; Lake Harris,
Wakatipu. Probably generally distributed on South Island mountains.
January, February.

12. Melampsalta nigra n.sp (Plate XLV: fig. 1, 3; fig. 2, 2)

Very stout and squat. Shining deep black except where obscured
by dark pubescence and hairs. No signs of markings. Head with coarse
forwardly-directed black hairs. Eyes very deep brown. Ocelli red, sepa-
rated by a deep groove. Surface of head coarsely punctate, more or
less pubescent. Pronotum with two rugose grooves diverging from the
posterior median elevation. Pubescence pale and sparse, hairs long
and dark. Pronotum considerably wider than head. Mesonotum more
or less smooth. A little greyish short pubescence in 9. Cruciform eleva-
tion prominent, uniformly black. Long dark hairs covering the thorax
are visible in profile. Abdomen short and thick. Dark hairs and greyish
pubescence, the latter prominent on the segmental margins cf the female.
Last body-segment (preceding genital segments) pale in 9. Dorsal portion
of genital segments shining black, sides and under flaps paler. Legs brownish,
except anterior pair which are black. Tegmina and wings suffused with
brown. Veins very heavy and black.

Sexes similar in size. Long. corp. 16 mm.; tegmen, 16 mm.

For specimens of this isect and all information regarding it I am
indebted to Mr. Hudson.

Distribution —Arthur’s Pass: rocks and shingle in hot afternoon
sunshine ; 4,600—5,200 ft. 11th February, 1920.

“On eastern side of Arthur’s Pass (4,500-5,200 ft.) there are shingle-
patches and mountain-grass interspersed. Here a new species of cicada
was abundant. Extremely wary and difficult to approach. Note of male
very short. quick, faint, and low-pitched— quite different from that of
M. quadricincta.” (Hudson.)

13. Melampsalta iolanthe Huds. (Plate XLV, fig. 9, 2.)
Cicada iolanthe Hudson, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 23, p. 53, 1891;
Man. N.Z. Ent., p. 119, 1892. Cicadetta rolanthe Kirkaldy, Trans.
N.Z. Inst., vol. 41, p. 27, 1909.

Head very hairy, fuscous. Notwm dark olive-brown with indistinct black
markings, pubescent. Anterior and posterior borders of mesonotum glabrous,
reddish-brown. Cruciform elevation reddish-brown, ridged. Abdomen black,
segmental margins brown or reddish. Costa reddish-brown. Genital seg-
ments reddish. Ventral surface pubescent. Body exceedingly short and stout.
Wings short. Median markings absent.

Long. corp. 15 mm. ; tegmen, 16 mm.

Distribution.— Taupo; Nelson; Canterbury (Hutton); Wellington
(Hudson).

This is the smallest species. December to March. (Hudson.) It has
become rather rare, and I have not yet taken a specimen myself.

248 Transactions.

ARTIFICIAL Ky To SPECIES OF MELAMPSALTA.

1. Tegmen with two adjacent black spots at? .. ois at 2
Tegmen without black spots in sb Ne 3
2. Tegmen 27 mm. or longer, base green or olivaceous +6 .. WM. cingulata.
Tegmen 24 mm. or less, base orange .. =e 36 .. M, strepitans.
3. Apex of fifth ulnar area acute oe x u .. M. scutellaris.
Apex of fifth ulnar area obtuse ie oe or an 4
4, Continuous median dorsal stripe xe te a avs 5
Median stripe wholly or partially absent at bit ae 6
5. Bases of wings red, costa green ae aa ne .. WM. cincta.
Bases of wings orange, costa yellow .. os 3 .. M. leptomera.
Tegmina and wings colourless “es 3 a .. M. cruentata.
6. Colour vivid grass-green .. oF at a -. MM. muta.
Colour dark : a ue 7
7. Two obconical red black- edged marks. on mesonotum a ae MEN cauta:
No such marks on mesonotum : : oe ic 8
8. Conspicuous median stripe on abdomen only — Be .. MM. fuliginosa.
Stripe faint or absent 56 ae ar we 9
9. Veins black, heavily marked — be io ae Se nigra.
Veins normal 5 iG uk Ae 10
10. Distinct pale median stripe 01 on pronotum Ae be .. M, indistincta.
Pronotum practically concolorous... oc ve oie 1]
11. Size larger, colour black, much pubescence .. Ae .. WM. quadricineta.
Size smaller, colour dark tawny, less pubescence = .. M. iolanthe.

LITERATURE CITED.

BorspuvaL, Voyage de *‘l’ Astrolabe” (Ent.), 1832.

Distant, W. L., Annals and Magazine of Natural History, 1892.

Monograph of Oriental Cicadidae, 1892.

Fasrictus, Systema Entomologiae, 1775.

Goprne, F. W., and Froagarr, W. W., Monograph of Australian Cicadidae, Proc. Linn.
Soc. N.S.W., vol. 29, pp. 561-670, 1904.

Gossarp, H. A., Periodical Cicada, Ohio Agric. Exp. Sta. Bull. 311, 1917.

Hupson, G. V., Manual of N.Z. Entomology, 1892.

—— New Zealand Cicadae, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 23, p. 49, 1891.

Hutton, F. W., Synopsis of Hemiptera of New Zealand described previous to 1896,
Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 30, p. 167, 1898.

Kirey, W. F., On the Cicadidae of New Zealand, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 28, p. 454, 1896.

Kirkatpy, G. W., Hemiptera, Fauna Hawaiiensis.

——— Leaf-hoppers, Haw. Sugar-planters’ Exp. Sta. Bull. No. 1, 1906.

List of Hemiptera (excluding Sternorrhyncha) of Maorian Subregion, 7'rans.
N.Z. Inst., vol. 41, p. 22, 1909.

Maruatt, C. L., The Periodical Cicada, Bull. 71 (n.s.), Bur. Ent. U.S.A. Dept. Agric.

OssorN, H., Leaf-hoppers of Maine, and other papers, in Rep. Maine Agric. Expt. Sta.,
1915-16.

Trttyarp, R. J., Mesozoic Insects of Queensland, pt. 7, Hemiptera-Homoptera, Proc.
Linn. Soc. N.S.W., vol. 44, p. 857, 1919.

Wa ker, F., List of Homopterous Insects in British Musseum, 1850.

ibid., Supplement, 1858.

Wuire, F. B., List of Hemiptera of New Zealand, Entomologist’ Monthly Magazine,
Violas 1879.

SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES.

Since writing the above I have been enabled to read Distant’s Synonymic
Catalogue of Homoptera, pt. 1, Cicadidae (B.M.N.H., 1906), from which
most of my synonymy was obtained through Mr. H. Ashton, of Sydney.
The list includes, however, several items which need incorporating in the
revision. It appears that, m the main, all Distant’s conclusions are corro-
borated by New Zealand experience of the insects and of their bionomics.
It should be noticed that M. arche Walk. is not synonymous with the
New Zealand M. scutellaris Walk., as Kirby maintained. This conclusion of
Distant therefore proves the endemicity of M. scuwtellaris, which had been
impugned by Kirby’s contention.

Melampsalta strepitans Kirk.—Reasons for following Kirkaldy in elevat-
ing M. cingulata var. obscura Huds. to the rank of a species under this
name [ have given at considerable length.

Myers.—Revision of the New Zealand Cicadidae. 249

Melampsalta muta Fabr—With regard to this species it must be
emphatically maintained that it forms no part of H. muta Huds. in Trans.
N.Z. Inst., vol. 23, p. 51, 1891. Hudson consistently kept this species,
under his name, M. aprilina, distinct from all the varieties of MW. cruentata
Fabr. (Hudson’s M. muta and M. cincta Walk.).

Melampsalta quadricincta Walk.—It should be noted that there are
still no further grounds than Walker’s authority for believing that this,
our common alpine cicada, occurs in Australia.

The following are additional notes on distribution and time of occur-
rence :

Melampsalta cruentata Fabr.-—The Dominion Museum possesses twelve
specimens (two females and ten males) of the variety subalpina Huds.,
collected by W. L. Wallace, of the W. R. B. Oliver expedition to the
Kermadecs in 1908. They were common on Sunday Island amongst ngaio
(Myoporum laetum) from the end of August to March. Unlike the common
form of M. cruentata, the variety subalpina is remarkably constant—a
character well exhibited by the twelve museum specimens. It should be
noted that, whereas the angusta form occurs in Australia (Goding and
Froggatt, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., vol. 29, p. 643, 1904), apparently the
only form in the Kermadecs is variety sudbalpina.

in New Zealand itself the time of appearance of M. cruentata is evidently
much earlier than previous records indicated. Mr. T. Cockcroft found a
small dark male with the typical crwentata song on a bank with a northerly
aspect at Upper Hutt on the 17th October, 1920. I have no records from
the North Auckland district, where, judging from its appearance in August
in the Kermadecs, it is probably much earlier.

Melampsalta muta Fabr.—This species was heard frequently, and a
male was taken by T. Cockcroft as late as the 3rd June last season in
Wellmeton. In the Wellington district, therefore, there are onty three
months during which cicadas have not been taken.

General Notes on Occurrence.

There are indications that this season’s work will materially extend
the known range, both seasonal and geographical, of the New Zealand
cicadas. Judging from material in hand, it appears extremely probable
that at least two more alpine species exist. These will be described at the
end of the season, when more specimens are available. Meanwhile cicadas
from all parts of the Dominion will be received and acknowledged with
gratitude by the writer at the Biology Laboratories, Wellington. Already
I am indebted to Messrs. Hamilton, Cockcroft, Roberts, Grimmett. Harris,
Campbell, Lindsay, Philpott, Clark, and other indefatigable collectors, not
to mention Mr. G. V. Hudson, who has always allowed me access to his
own representative collection.

This supplement does not claim to bring our knowledge of the family
in New Zealand up to date, as it is being sent to press in the middle of the
season. .

On Taxonomic Characters in the Cicadidae.

It has been suggested that the male genitalia will prove of great value
in determining some of the difficult species (Kirkaldy, Trans. N.Z. Inst.,
vol. 41, p. 28, 1909).. The work of investigating the differences in genitalia is
now in hand, and progressing as well as the paucity of material in the rarer
species will allow. So far, however, our hopes have not been abundantly
realized. Genital differences are often of the greatest value in separating
genera ; but our cicadas belong, unfortunately, all to the same genus.

250 Transactions.

A Revision of Hutton’s Plesiotypes in the Cicadidae.

Future workers on the family will find it difficult to follow Hutton’s
observations on the cicadas in his “Synopsis of the Hemiptera of New
Zealand ” (Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 30, p. 167, 1898) without some knowledge
of his plesiotypes. These, it is gratifying to learn, are being kept in their
original arrangement at the Canterbury Museum, where the Curator kindly
allowed me to examine them. The following species are represented :—

1. Melampsalta scutellaris Walk.—Two females are labelled correctly,
and two other specimens appear over the name MM. dejecta Huds.

2. M. cingulata Fabr.—Two typical examples.

3. M. strepitans Kirkaldy.—One specimen labelled correctly as MW. cingu-
lata var. obscura Huds., and one other wrongly identified as M. mangu
F. B. White.

4. M. cruentata Fabr-—A long series of this common and difficult
species 1s divided under the names M. muta, M. cutora, M. cruentata, and
M. angusta. The M. muta series consists of specimens of M. cruentata var.
subalpina Huds. It is interesting and rather puzzling to note that there
is not a single true specimen of MW. muta (cutora, or cuterae) mn the collection.
The Chatham Islands seem to possess a constant and well-marked variety
of M. cruentata, represented here by six specimens, and characterized
by a dark-ochreous ground-colour, marked extremely heavily with black.
I shall have occasion elsewhere to mention the tendency towards melanism
in the Chatham Island Hemiptera.

5. M. cincta Walk.—This species is represented by a number of typical
specimens labelled M. iolanthe, and by a series of rather dark forms
lacking the green costa and standing above the name M. cincta.

6. M. quadricincta Walk.—This is correctly labelled M. nervosa Stal,
which falls into synonymy. There is another specimen unlabelled.

7. M. iolanthe Huds.—There is one unlabelled specimen.

EXPLANATION OF PLatTE XLV.

Fie. 1.—Melampsalta nigra n. sp., male.

Fic. 2.—Melampsalta nigra n. sp., female.

Fie. 3.—Melampsalta quadricincta Walk., male.
Fie. 4.—Melampsalta quadricincta Walk., female.
Fie. 5.—Melampsalta cingulata Fabr., male.

Fie. 6.—Melampsalta cingulata Fabr., female.
Fic. 7.—Melampsalta strepitans Kirkaldy, male.
Fic. 8.—Melampsalta cauta n. sp., male.

Fie. 9.—Melampsalta iolanthe Huds., female.
Fie. 10.—Nymph of Melampsalta cingulata,

Fie. 11.—Melampsalta cincta Walk., male.

EXPLANATION OF PratTE XLVI.

Fic. 1.—Melampsalta leptomera n. sp., female.

Fic. 2.—Melampsalta fuliginosa n. sp., female.

Fie. 3.—Melampsalta scutellaris Walk., male.

Fie. 4.—Melampsalta scutellaris Walk., female.

Fic. 5.—Melampsalta muta Fabr., male.

Fig. 6.—Melampsalta muta Fabr., female.

Fie. 7.—Melampsalta indistincta n. sp., male.

Fie. 8.—Melampsalta indistincta nu. sp., female.

Fie. 9.—Melampsalta cruentata Fabr., male.

Fic. 10.—Melampsalta cruentata Fabr., female.

Fic. 11.—Melampsalta cruentata Fabr., red variety, male.
Fie. 12.—Melampsalta cruentata Fabr., var. subalpina, male.
Fie. 13.—Melampsalta cruentata Fabr., var. subalpina, female.

All figures natural size.

TRANS. N.Z. Inst., Vou. LIL. PLATE XLV.

GOV. ide,

lace p. 250.)

TRANG: N-Ze inst. Vion wall Pruate XLVI.

G. V. H. del.

Myers.—Bionomic Notes on some New Zealand Spiders. 251

Art. XXVIII.—Bionomic Notes on some New Zealand Spiders, with
a Plea for the Validity of the Species Araneus orientalis Urquhart.

By Joun G. Myers, F.ES.

[Read before the Wellington Ri dosopincal Society, 27th October, 1920 ; received by Editor.
31st December, 1920 ; issued separately, 20th July, 1921.]

THE following notes, representing some of the results of observations in
the insectary and in the field, extending over a considerable period, are
merely preliminary indications of the fact that our native spiders as well
repay study as those more favoured French species immortalized by Fabre.

Hemicloea alacris de Dalmas.

Below the bark which fits closely on old logs and stumps are found the
ege-cocoons of this species. In appearance each is a dise about lin. in
diameter, adhering closely to the log, since it is not disturbed when the
tight-covermg bark is stripped off. An edging ot flocculent looser silk
fastens it to the wood. On a closer examination the nest is found to be
composed of two similar circular pieces of close-textured, smooth, white
silk, fastened at the circumference and closely imprisoning the eggs, which
are whitish in colour and, unlike those of many other species, non-adherent
to one another. The young are white or colourless, with large swelling
abdomina, dorsally convex, and thus offermg a striking Coubrnct to the
thin bodies of the adults, which are dorsoventrally flattened to an extreme
degree—an admirable adaptation to their life beneath the bark. It seems
probable that the rounded abdomina of the young point to a descent from
typical Drassids (Gnaphosids) with normal abdomina. When opened the
nest is found to contain nothing in the nature of packing. Doubtless the
soft bedding protecting the eges of many other spiders is here rendered
unnecessary by the sheltered position beneath the bark.

Other flat-bodied bark-spiders of the genus Hemicloea are frequently
observed in the course of entomological field-work, but only this species,
with its egg-cocoon, has been determined with certainty.

Argiope protensa L. Koch.

This striking and handsome species haunts low herbage and rushes,
among which its egg-cocoon may be found in February and March. It is
suspended by a loose envelope of white fluffy silk in which the cocoon is
supported by stays in several directions. The cocoon itself, with a length
of in., is cylindrical, rounded at the bottom, with a flat and dilated top.
Its material is very close-textured lustrous silk, bearing a considerable
resemblance to the case-stuff of the bag-moth (Oeceticus omnivorus), but
exhibiting a much smoother surface. Its attractive appearance is heightened
by its colours of greenish-white below, merging into a dark greenish-brown
above, where the flat top with its crenate edges resembles, and probably
fraction as, a lid. As is almost invariably the case, the nest, at least in
captivity, is built in a single night.

252 Transactions.

Chiracanthium stratioticum L. Koch.

Until recently the study of spiders in New Zealand has been almost
entirely neglected ; and, since I was unable to ascertain the scientific name
of this species, I knew it as “ the brown manuka-spider,” a name still used
when Latin polysyllables sound toc pedantic. The retreat is a den of
transparent silk in a spray of leafy manuka. This retreat is fairly large,
built of smooth, white silk, and has only one opening—a neat circular hole
—near which sits the spider, her front legs on the edge of the orifice, ready
for prey. I kept a specimen for several weeks. Once she caught a house-
fly by chase, unaided by silk either to entangle the prey or to swathe it,
as does the Hpeira (Araneus). However, she had stretched entanglements
of fine non-adhesive silk near the den, and flies were caught in these ; but
in no case were the flies rolled up in silk, Hpetra-fashion. The wings and
head were disjointed or torn off.

The Nest.—I have found this in March. Several nearly parallel manuka-
twigs are bound together to form a rough cylinder, by a sheet of stiff white
silk of very close texture. Both the top and the bottom of the cylinder
(length 1-2in.) are flat and closely covered with the same material.
However, this close, opaque sheeting is interrupted, both above and below,
by a small window of jagged outline, covered with silk so thin as to be quite
transparent and thus serve the purpose of a pane of glass. These are the
loopholes of the fortress, at which, either at top or bottom, the self-imimuned
spider is usually to be seen watching. Disturb the window with a twig,
and the wildly waving legs of the female spider are immediately perceived,
just below the transparent covering. Thus might the ingress of an insect
enemy easily be prevented. Thirteen approximately parallel twigs are
incorporated in the structure of the cylinder-walls, and act as strengthening-
pillars. Between two of these uprights I cut the fabric jongitudinally, to
expose the contents of the nest. No sooner was a slit made than the head
of the spider, with extended chelicerae, appeared in the opening, ready to
repel invasion. A pen offered to her was attacked with great fury, the
spider attempting to seize the point with her very long and slender fangs.
She had presumably been a considerable time in the nest without food,
her abdomen being small and shrivelled, scarcely a third the size of a
specimen of equal age but lacking a nest. The egg-ball was approximately
spherical, and was bound tightly to the side of the nest by a silken envelope,
which also kept together the very large yellow eggs. JI had kept this nest
for a week without opening it, and in that time the spider did not emerge
from the nest. I consider it probable that the female of this species
remains self-imprisoned with her eggs to guard them until they hatch,
when she probably dies. However, I found a nest on the 22nd March
which contained young, the mother being still shut in with them, and
exhibiting great activity in their defence.

Philodromus rubrofrontus Urquhart.

Of this species the generic position is uncertain, but fairly abundant
material is in hand for determining it. The spider itself is easily recog-
nized by Urquhart’s description. This crab-spider inhabits manuka-bushes,
where its green colour renders it almost invisible. The nest, formed by
joining leafy manuka-twigs with silk and covering the resulting oval with
criss-crossed threads of fine, shining white silk, is about 1 in. long by 2 in,
wide. There is one fairly round opening on one side, clear of silk and leaves,

Myers.—Bionomic Notes on some New Zealand Spiders. 253

but with these materials forming a network a short distance in front of it,
so that an intruder would thread the maze and discover the entrance only
with the greatest difficulty. With scissors | carefully cut away this labyrinth
and widened the entrance ; then cut down the side and spread out the nest
book-wise. On one side, down the length of the nest was an irregular mass
of white faintly green- tinged eggs, surrounded by a silk sheet which bound
them tightly to the main fabric. Unlike those of some spiders, the eggs were
not mutually adhesive, but fell apart when their enclosing silk was loosened.
The female crouched near by. Another nest contained young spiders in
company with their mother. .

Genus ARANEUS (HPerRa).

Of the common spiders with which I propose to deal here, we come now
to this fascinating genus, the garden-spider. The following key will serve
to distinguish the egg-cocoons of the commoner members of the genus :—

Covering, flocculent silk ; shape hemispherical—

Colour greenish .. us ae A .. A. pustulosus Walck,

Colour orange... ae oe Ae .. A. brouni Urq.

Colour white a Sie .. A, saxitalis Ura.
Covering, smooth, white, close- textured silk ; shape irregular,

varying with exigencies of position .. 56 .. A, crassus Walek.

Araneus brouni Urquhart.

This species is the largest Hpeira in the Wanganui district, and, as
most specimens show a more or less distinct crescent on the surface of
the abdomen, near the cephalothorax, I call it the “crescent Hpeira.”
A nest was built in captivity in a single night in February. The ball of
salmon-pink eggs was covered and securely fastened to the side of the jar
and to a stick by a soft, thick layer of downy silk which was in parts white
and in parts orange. This orange colour was not due to the tint of the
eggs showing through the silk. The female was, naturally, much decreased
in bulk, was very lethargic, taking no food, so that I thought her work
was done and she was about to die. After three days’ abstinence, however,
she ate daily and well. In twenty-seven days from the time of laying the
eggs hatched, and on the same morning I found the mother dead. It would
be interesting to know whether she had performed some last office, such
as opening the cocoon for the young. The young remained in the same
position in the nest and displayed but little signs of life until disturbed,
when the whole living ball pulsated in a queer manner, owing to the
individual struggles of the minute spiders. In sixteen days from the time of
hatching—that is, in the middle of March—the young left the nest. The
details of this exodus resemble those so graphically described by Fabre
in The Life of the Spider (English translation). In the early morning or
previous night the young spiders had swarmed out of the perforated lid of
their jar and were scattered over a film-like web fastened at several points to
the wall above the nest The web was 3ft. high, and extended irregularly
laterally for nearly 4f{t. When touched the tiny spiders immediately
dropped, but rapidly climbed to their former positions up the thread they
had produced in their descent. Next day some still remained in the
jar, but the nest itself was deserted. The web was widened considerably
towards the open door of the shed in which the spider was kept,
and the young spiders were gradually moving farther from the nest,

254. Transactions.

toward the light. On the 19th March the spiders were, for the most
part, about 6in. farther from the nest than on the 17th, but still a few
stragglers remained in the jar. On the 23rd, seven days after first leaving
the nest, all had left the jar, and not a single spider was in sight. All their
movements had taken place at night: during the day they had maintained
the same positions in the web; and yet they all moved toward the light of
the open doorway.

Summary of Life-history of Araneus brouni.—2nd February, nest built
and eggs laid ; Ist March, young hatched, mother died ; 16th March, young
left nest ; 17th, some still in jar near nest ; 18th, moving farther from nest ;
19th some not yet left jar ; 23rd, not a spider i in sight.

Araneus pustulosus Walck.

This is throughout the country one of the commonest Epeirids,
exhibiting a truly surprising variation in colouring and size, but always
recognized by, among other characters, the black ventral quadrangular
area on the abdomen, with the corners marked in white, and by the group
of five posterior prominences.

A captive female built, as usual, in one night a nest in the form of a
hemispheric dome of soft, dark greyish-green silk, covering a ball of pink
egos, and itself confined by a transparent veil composed of loose but strong
strands of fluffy reddish silk, serving to fasten the whole nest to a support.
The outer veil is too thin to affect the general grey-green hue. In this case
the flat base of the dome was attached to the lid of the jar. The spider had
shrunk in size, but was as active and fed as well as before. In about
seventeen days after laying, the eggs hatched ; but two days before, to my
intense surprise, the old spider built a second nest upon the first. The
young of the first nest dispersed in the usual manner, and the second batch
of eggs hatched in about twenty days. This, however, was not to be the
end, for nine days after these had hatched the indefatigable spider con-
structed a third nest, jomed to the other two, and containing the usual
ball of pink eggs. I think this is an unusual procedure—the making of
three separate nests containing fertile eggs, within a few weeks of one
another, the female being enclosed the whole time, without any possibility
of communication with a male; but there is nothing to show that it may
not be a normal occurrence, since nests built in contiguity or even one on
another are by no means rare.

Araneus orientalis Urquhart.

With regard to this very beautiful species, de Dalmas maintains, probably
correctly, that the male described under this name by Urquhart is really
that of Araneus brouni; but I wish to point out that the female of
A. orwentalis is indubitably a distinct species, however thuch the males may
have been confused. This conclusion is based on the following bionomic
and morphological characters :—

The nest, built in captivity in a single night, is almost exactly like that
of A. pustulosus, but is slightly larger and rather more than a hemisphere.
Its silk is dark grey-green in colour, quite different from the flaming orange
fabric of A. brount. The flat base is built on a foundation of strong white
silk. The female spider which constructed this nest agreed in every detail
with the description of A. orientalis (female) of Urquhart. In addition,
after nest-building she regained her appetite and recovered completely,

Myers.—Bionomic Notes on some New Zealand Spiders. 255

after the manner of A. pustulosus, but contrary to the ascertained habit
of A. brount. From the much commoner A. pustulosus, A. orientalis is
readily distinguished by her heavily annulated legs and the two pronounced
antero-dorsal prominences of the abdomen, in both of which characters she
approaches A. brount. She differs from both in the almost complete
absence of a posterior prominence.

With regard to the epigyne, Urquhart (Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 20,
p- 121, 1888) gives the following description: ‘‘ In mature examples a
black, somewhat oval, rather pointed, deep-margined lip about half as
broad as long, one-fourth longer than
breadth of vulva, projects backwards
from beneath the semi-pendulous pro-
cess of the corpus vulvae.’’ Three
mature females have been carefully
examined, and the external genitalia
found to agree substantially with
Urquhart’s description. The long
grooved lip is especially noticeable
and very distinct from anything pos-
sessed by A. brownt or A. pustulosus.
The parts are a deep, shining black.
(See figure.)

While the pattern of the abdomen —Araneus orientalis: 2 Epigyne. x 18.
seems constant, the ground-colour
may be a deep velvey reddish or an equally lustrous green, the whole
effect rendering Urquhart’s name singularly appropriate. Recent experience
also has corroborated Urquhart’s statements both with regard to the sub-
globose, dark-green cocoon, and the scanty irregularity of the web. The
male has not yet been found. Mature females occurred at Wanganui in
March and early April.

Araneus crassus Walck.

This exceedingly common species exhibits several well-marked varieties,
all easily recognizable by the genital palp of the male and the epigyne of
the female, both well figured by de Dalmas. A variety with tesselated
abdomen and a transverse dorsal bar of china-white is exceptionally ’
handsome.

The egg-cocoons may be found abundantly in late autumn. Dead
twigs, branching finely, may be incorporated in an angular capsule of
smooth, white, very tough silk, about 2in. in greatest length, containing
the eggs surrounded by soft flocculent silk. Outside the cocoon is an
entanglement of fine light lines, sometimes extending in every direction for
3in. Unlike most Epeirids, the mother, extremely shrunk after laying,
may often be seen crouching on the cocoon, in defence of which she will
bestir herself with unexpected vigour. Whole leaves may be joined and
covered with silk to form a portion of the nest, which owes its irregularity
to these chance supports.

GENERAL NOTES.

The drone-fly (Evistalis tenax) was eaten with the greatest willingness
by Araneus pustulosus and by other species, in captivity and in the field.
This experiment is not, however, important, as both the fly and the bee

256 Transactions.

which it is supposed to mimic are introduced; and, in any case, bees are
sometimes caught by spiders, though they are handled with great caution.

On the same subject of mimicry and warning coloration the following
experiments offer more interest :—

Araneus brouni m captivity repeatedly refused Nyctemera annulata, the
black-and-yellow day-flying Hypsid moth. The same moth was rejected
time after time by the large hunting-spider, Dolomedes imperiosus (minor)
L. Koch. It is suggestive that both these spiders ate readily many other
moths, from Pyralids to Porinae. The following experiment was tried on
a free specimen of Araneus brouni in its fully-formed web between two
rose-bushes. By lamp-light, in the evening, I placed in its web the
following live moths: first Nyctemera annulata, then Declana floccosa, and
lastly Rhapsa scotosialis—all fair-sized moths. The spider sprang on each
in turn and first applied its chelicerae, without discriminating between the
moths. Then the victims were rotated and swathed in silk in the usual
way, the three cylindrical parcels thus obtained being left hanging in the
parts of the web where they had each been caught. The untimely
destruction of the web prevented my ascertaining whether all these moths
were finally eaten.

Spiders, owing to the ease with which they may be induced to build
their nests in captivity, and the many unexpected peculiarities of habit
which they display, should become favourite objects of study to those
interested in the life-processes of the lower animals.

In conclusion, I should like to express my thanks to the Comte de
Dalmas, of Paris, and to Mr. EK. K. Lomas, for their invaluable assistance
in the identification of specimens and in the procuring of spider literature.
Araignées de Nouvelle-Zélande (Ann. Soc. Ent. de France), by Comte de
Dalmas, is indispensable. To Professor H. B. Kirk and Mr Lomas I am
indebted for reading the manuscript.

Art. XXIX.—Notes on the Hemiptera of the Kermadec Islands,
with an Addition to the Hemiptera Fauna of the New Zealand
Subregion.

By Joun G. Myers, F.E.S.

Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 27th October, 1920 ; received by Editor,
31st December, 1920 ; issued separately, 20th July, 1921.)

THoucH the kindness of the Dominion Museum authorities I have been
enabled to examine a small collection of Hemiptera made in the Kermadecs
during 1908 by W. L. Wallace, of the W. R. B. Oliver expedition. Of
the eight species represented, one is not in a condition to be determined
with accuracy ; one is pelagic, with a wide distribution in the Pacific; one
is common to Australia and New Zealand, though rare in the latter; one is
probably new ; while all the rest are New Zealand species.

Myrrers.—Hemiptera of the Kermadec Islands. 257

Suborder HETEROPTERA

Family CimMIcrIpae.
1. Glaucias amyoti White.

‘““ Two specimens found on Denham Bay beach ”’ (Sunday Island).
This handsome species is common in Australia, but rare nm New Zealand.

Family NABIDAE.
2. Reduviolus saundersi F. B. White.

“Taken amongst weeds, Denham Bay. . . . Found preying on other
insects.”
This species has a fairly wide distribution in New Zealand.

Family GERRIDAE.
3. Halobates sericeus Esch.

Highteen specimens—six females and twelve males—were found on
Denham Bay beach after a heavy storm at sea. This is the first recorded
occurrence of the extremely interesting pelagic genus Halobates Esch. in
the waters of the New Zealand subregion. How far these specimens were
brought from their usual habitat by the storm is, of course, uncertain, but
this species is pre-emiently that of the North Pacific.

Family CapsIpAg.
4. Two unidentifiable specimens, apparently of same species.

Suborder HOMOPTERA.
Family CicaDIDAE.
5. Melampsalta cruentata Fabr. var. subalpina Huds.

This cicada was found commonly amongst ngaio (Myoporum laetum).
The twelve specimens, of which ten are males and two females, are very
typical of the variety, and exhibit surprisingly little variation among them-
selves. It is impossible to separate them from specimens caught in the
neighbourhood of Wellington.

Family FULGORIDAE.
6. Aka finitima Walk.

This, or a closely allied species, was common on the under-surface of
leaves of nikau-palm (Rhopalostylis Baueri). As it is represented in the
collection by nymphs only, the specific identity cannot be determined with
any degree of certainty.

In addition to the species in the above list, there are specimens of a
green Jassid found also in New Zealand, and of a Delphacid, both of which
are in the hands of Mr. F. Muir, of Honolulu, who has kindly consented to
determine them.

Since writing the above I have been informed by Mr. Muir that
the Delphacid possibly represents a new genus allied to Micromasoria
Kirkaldy; but the unique specimen is scarcely perfect enough for
description.

9—Trang,

258 Transactions.

Art. XXX.—WNotes on the Blepharoceridae (Diptera) of New Zealand.

By J. W. CAMPBELL.

[Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 4th November, 1920 ; received by
Editor, 31st December, 1920: issued separately, 20th July, 1921.)

ATTENTION was first drawn to the occurrence of Blepharoceridae in New
Zealand by Dr. Charles Chilton (1906), who described a larva which he
pointed out closely resembled that of Curupira torrentium F. Mill. Seven
years later Mr. C. G. Lamb (1913), of Clare College, Cambridge, described,
from material supplied by Mr. G. V. Hudson, two new genera and species
of Blepharocerid flies. The first of these, of which only males were known,
was called Neocurupira hudsoni, and the second, which was represented by
both sexes (the females immature), was named Peritheates turrifer. In the
following year Professor Mario Bezzi (1914) published descriptions of three
larvae which he had received from Dr. Chilton. He designated them
larva A, larva B, and larva C, the first of which was identical with
Dr. Chilton’s “larva ¢? Curupira,” and “ probably Neocurupira hudsoni
Lamb.” (Bezzi, 1914, p. 118.)

In November, 1919, Mr. W. G. Howes, of Dunedin, and the present
writer took specimens of a third fly, intermediate in size between the two
described by Lamb, while in December of this year Mr. T. R. Harris, of
Ohakune, captured a fourth. These two flies are described in this article,
some notes on larval forms being also given.

There seems to be some uncertainty as to which of the larvae A, B,
and C belong to the two flies described by Lamb. Bezzi associated Neo-
curupira hudsont Lamb with larva A, and Peritheates turrifer with larva C,
leaving larva B unrepresented in the imago. He writes, “The first of the
two genera described by Lamb, called Neocurupira, belongs to my second
subfamily Paltostominae, and apparently differs only in the much longer
proboscis from the Brazilian Curwpira. But I have already shown how
this character is an uncertain one, while both the characters of the assumed
larvae [the italics are mine] show the dorsal covering to have a greater
number of spines than in Cuwrupira, where they are inserted on special
tubercles. The new species Neocurupira hudsoni Lamb, on account of its
colour, aspect, and dimensions, closely corresponds with Curwpira torrentium
and other allied forms in Brazil.” (Bezzi, 1914, p. 116.) Referring to the
larvae, he says (p. 117), “‘ One of them I believe is certainly related to
Neocurupira, while the other two belong to the Apistomyinae, and the
smaller of these is Peritheates.”” He continues (p. 118), “‘ I shall therefore
call the first larva A, which apparently belongs to the group Curupira in
possessing dorsal spines and tracheal gills not arranged in tufts”; and
further (p. 119), “In proportion this larva is much larger than the
others.” Larvae B and © he describes as with ‘“‘ dorsum unarmed and
bare” (p. 122-23).

CaMPBELL.—Wotes on the Blepharoceridae of New Zealand. 259

My own observations on these larvae are that all three have a dorsal
armature with special tubercles corresponding in number and _ position
on their respective segments—i.e., 12 cephalothoracic, 14 on each body-
segment, and 18 on the double 6th segment. The primary spines on A are
large, sharp, and black in colour; those on B and C are transparent and
cone-shaped. The larva B is larger than the others, as it should be if it is.
as [ suspect, related to N. hudsonc.

Bezzi describes the gills of the larvae as follows: Larva A—*‘ Tracheal
gills in single series, those of the anal clump distinct ” (1914, p. 118).
Mr. D. Miller, who has translated Bezzi’s useful paper,* after examining
Dr. Chilton’s specimens says, ‘“‘ Not distinct, apparently six in number.”
Larva B—* Tracheal gills forming a small indistinct tuft near the anterior
margin of the segment, those of the anal tuft apparently distinct ” (p. 118).
Larva C—“ Suckers large, while the tracheal gills placed on the anterior
margin of the segment are small but distinctly visible ” (p. 124).

Bezzi was not quite certain about the gills, and he makes no note of other
important characters; but this can be understood, as his specimens appear
to have dried up. His description of the tracheal gills of Curupira is:
“Tracheal gills not arranged in tufts, but forming 2 rows running from
the anterior to the posterior margin of the segment, one on the right, the
other on the left of the sucker, consisting of from 6 to 8 gills in each row;
anal tuft composed of 4 branches, antennae very short, 2-jointed, lateral
processes simple but very short, dorsum bearing powerful spines.” (Bezzi,
1913, p. 76.) In C. torrentium there are 8 tracheal gills in each row.

Excepting the number of dorsal spines, this arrangement agrees fairly
closely with that found in larva A. Moreover, a comparison of figs. 1 to 27
will show that in the form of the dorsal spines and the arrangement of the

Re

Nise

Fic. A.—1l. Wing of Curupira torrentium (F. Miuil.), (after Bezzi).
2. Wing of Apistomyia elegans (Big.), ?.

tracheal gills larva A stands apart from larvae B and C, which resemble
each other in dorsal armature, but differ in the form of the lateral processes
(figs. 38-40) and in the number and arrangement of the gills. Larva A
apparently belongs to the Paltostominae, and larvae B and C to the
Apistomyinae.

To turn now to the imagines: Bezzi gives a diagram of the wing of
Curupira torrentium F. Mill. (see fig. A, 1, of this article) which shows this

*Mr. Miller’s manuscript translation is deposited in the Dominion Museum,
Wellington.

O*

260 Transactions.

wing to be very different from N. hudsont Lamb in the form of the anal
angle of the wing and the radial fork, while the form of the anal angle of
the wing of N. hudsonz is similar to that of Apistomyia elegans (fig. A, 2),
though the radial fork shows a different stage in reduction in these two
forms. Bezzi has also pointed out (1913, p. 68) the close resemblance
of Apistomyia elegans to Apistomyia collini from Australia. Further, the
subcostal vein is evanescent in P. turrifer (figs. 48 and 53); it is small in
N. hudsoni (figs. 44 and 50); and is still well developed in the first new
species about to be described (figs. 47 and 52). All these characters
in the venation, and the larval characters, require, in my opinion, that
N. hudsoni and P. turrifer be placed in the Apistomyinae, while the new
fly, herein described under the name Curupira chiltoni, should be placed in
the Paltostominae. Moreover, the larva A of Bezzi is a Paltostomid, and is,
I believe, that of Curupira chiltoni, while larvae B and C, being Apistomyids,
belong respectively to N. hudsoni (or a similar fly) and P. turrifer. Support
is given to these relationships by the distribution of the larvae and imagines—
e.g., in a stream at Purau Peritheates and larva C are found together with
Curupira chiltoni and larva A, but I have never taken either larva B or
N. hudson. I hope, however, to confirm or disprove the suggested relation-
ships, at least of larvae A and C, during the coming season.

Referring, in a letter to the author, to the position as stated so far,
Professor Bezzi points out that there may be other larvae more nearly
approaching his description of B and C—2.e., ‘‘ dorsum unarmed and bare ”’—
and that other Paltostomid flies may be found. The discovery of the fourth
fly from Ohakune has in at least one respect confirmed Professor Bezzi’s
opinion. This fly closely resembles N. hudsoni Lamb, but the vein R
has lost its fork, and the wing is smaller. The assumed larva (from
Ohakune) of this fly, which I propose to name Apistomyia harrisi,
closely resembles the Otira larvae, which I take to be those of N. hudsonz.
I have also from Queenstown a Blepharocerid larva (fig. 29) which
has distinct characters, and is probably a closely related but undis-
covered fly.

Returning again to Bezzi’s figure of Apistomyia elegans (fig. A, 2), it
should be noted that Bezzi’s enumeration differs from that used in this paper.
His Mjis is R,; R, has disappeared ; the basal portion of his Mj +2, up
to where it touches R,, is really part of Ry5; Mi+e is not represented,
except that basal part marked M and 7-m (fig. 46). The lost veins are
dotted. This appears to be confirmed by the primitive wing-venation
of Hdwardsina chilensis Alexander; and, furthermore, fig. 49 shows the
bases of insertion of the macrotrichia of Rgi3 on the wing-membrane
of A. harrist. If N. hudsoni and P. turrifer be Apistomyids, we have,
with A. harrisi n. sp., three distinct stages in wing-reduction in this
ancient subfamily.

Curupira chiltoni n. sp. (Figs. 55 to 75.)

Head: Vertex small, finely pubescent, occupied by the large ocellar
turret, around which is a number of stiff bristles. One ocellus anterior,
the other two placed laterally. Space between the eyes projecting out to
form the raised keel described by Lamb. This space is narrower in the 3,
and in both sexes appears broader as it approaches the base of the labrum
Eyes hairy, dichoptic, bisected in both sexes, upper eye-facets larger.

CampBELL.—Wotes on the Blepharoceridae of New Zealand. 261

A single hair arises from each angle of the hexagons (fig. 65). Labrum and
hypopharynx as in fig. B. Internally the labrum bears strong single, double,
and triple spines turned back from the point of the strong beak. This
seems to suggest that our Blepharocerids may prey on other insects, otherwise
this armature seems unnecessary (fig. 70). Mandibles present in 2 (fig 69),
absent in g. Maxillae present in ¢ (fig. 64), absent in ° (figs. 69 and 74).
Labium (fig. 57) long, geniculate, divaricate. Antennae (figs. 62, 71, and 72)
usually 14-jomted. Palpi (figs. 63 and 73) short, 2-joimted.

Thorax of normal form for the family, microscopically pubescent, with
a definite chaetotaxy. Halteres long-stalked.

Legs (fig. 83): Relative dimensions and characters as in P. turrifer,
two spurs on tibiae of hind legs, claws simple, empodium rudimentary.
The colour-scheme is black, with a silvery-grey appearance, probably due
to light-effects. Slight orange colour near the humeral knobs and wing-
bases, legs lighter in colour on the trochanters and bases of the femora.

Wings (fig. 47) ground-glassy in appearance with dark veins, anal angle
obtuse as in Curwpira, membrane covered with fine microtrichia. Costa
covered with strong macrotrichia, as many as 9 in the rows, corresponding
to the primitive veinlets. From the margin of the wing just beyond R,

Fic. B.—Labrum and hypopharynx of C. chiltoni, 3.

fine cilia continue round the wing to the base. The cilia increase in length
as they approach the angle. Reduced Sc is more strongly marked than in
the other three flies. Some of the bases of insertion of the macrotrichia
still carry the spines. R, is a simple vein; Rez forms a fork; both R,
and R, turn upward near the margin. M fuses with the angle of R445,
picking up the original ym in the fusion. Cu, arises as a strong vein,
fuses with the persistent fourth branch of M, forming a fork. The last
vein is 1A or 2A. Here again I have taken the wing of Edwardsina
chilensis (Alexander) as an indication of the lines of reduction. All four
wings show the signs of reduction, making an interesting series, which may
be clearly seen in the region of Ry+5, and to which I have referred
previously in regard to the persistent bases of the macrotrichia. paki

Abdomen (figs. 86 and 87): ¢ with the characteristic laterally com-
pressed and turned-up appearance; @ larger, round, and tapering. Body-
segments with scattered bristles, more numerous near the margins of
the segments. Ventrally on each segment are three groups of bristles

262 Transactions.

(about 12-15 in each) forming a triangle with the apex anterior (figs. 88
and 89).

Hypopygium: ¢ as in fig. 93, 9 as in fig. 94.

Loc.—Otira ; Banks Peninsula, Purau.

Type in my collection.

Apistomyia harrisi n. sp. (Figs. 96 to 109.)

Head (figs. 97 and 98) with large and prominent turret. Eyes bisected
and dichoptic in both sexes, upper eyes small, occupying about } of the
whole eye. Antennae 12-jointed. Labrum (figs. 99 and 101) sharply
pointed, distinctly hairy, and terminating in a strong short spine. Intern-
ally the same type of barbs turned back from the point as in C. chiltone.
Hypopharynx (figs. 101 and 102) short, thick, and grooved. Maxillae
(fig. 96) present in g, mandibles present in 9. Labium (figs. 97, 108,
and 109) long, geniculate, and divaricate, more strongly setose than in
the other three flies, the labella show pronounced sensory organs at the
tips. The labella of the Q are shorter and abruptly tapering at the tip
(fig. 109).

Thorax (fig. 115) normal, finely pubescent, chaetotaxy definite. Hal-
teres long-stalked and pear-shaped. Legs of the characteristic type,
hind femora long, tibial spines large, rather longer and thinner than in
N. hudsoni. Legs of 9 proportionately shorter than in the 3.

Wings (figs. 45 and 46): Wing of 9 larger than that of 3 (the dotted
lines show the primitive position of the absent veins). Fig. 49 shows
the bases of the macrotrichia near the cross-piece of Ry,;. No other
wing in these flies has been noticed with the bases of the macrotrichia in
this position.

Abdomen with scattered hairs on each segment, with the groups of
hairs ventrally as in C. chiltoni. In the ¢ it is laterally compressed and
turned up at the end; in @ it is cylindrical, tapering posteriorly.
Hypopygium in the ¢ of the same type as C. chiltoni, claspers long and
bristly. The 9 hypopygium has broad laminae, and the area surrounding
the ovipositor is covered with a number of large and long tubercles, from
the centre of which projects a stiff blunt short spine. Laterally two short
hairy processes project from the last segment, armed at the tips with the
same type of tubercle and spine.

Colour: The general colour is grey to black. Thorax a deep black
dorsally. The mesothoracic suture is interrupted ; the middle third of the
V of the tipulids is absent. Bezzi quotes Osten Sacken (1913, p. 89),
‘thoracic suture distinct, not interrupted in the middle,” and refers to
the importance of this character (1914, p. 89). In C. chiltont and A. harrisi
the lateral margins are yellow, and the yellow shows as a trident-shaped
marking in fresh specimens between the lateral prominences of the scutellum
of the mesothorax (fig. 115). Darker markings show round the junction of
the femora and trochanters.

Loc.—Ohakune, North Island.

Type in my collection.

Larva of A. harrisi—The Ohakune larvae, which I take to be those of
A. harrisi, have similar characters to the Otira larvae (? N. hudsonz), but
in all stages the latter is the larger. In colour dorsally there is little to

CaMPBELL.-—WNotes on the Blepharoceridae of New Zealand. 263

choose between them, both being uniformly dark-coloured. Ventrally,
however, the Ohakune larvae are lighter in colour. The gill-filaments
increase in number with the age of the larvae, stages with 2, 4, and 7
filaments having been observed. Edwards (1915, p. 208) has noted a
similar increase in Elporia barnardi.

Notes on Eaas, Larvar, AND PUPAE.
Eggs. (Figs. 84 and 85.)

Slide specimens of the adult female C. chaltoni show the elliptical egg,
contrasting with the egg of Bibio johannis, which is cylindrical with
abruptly rounded ends. The egg-membrane and the granulated contents
separate in slide preparations, and the membrane appears covered with
round bosses, corresponding to the developing external layer of cells of
the ege. Eggs that I have found adhering to the underside of stones in a
creek are brown in colour. During the last stages they show distinctly
darker on one side. With a good top lighting, low powers show that the dark
side is the dorsum of the contained larva. Hach segment has 4 spines,
and the antennae and the central plate of the cephalon are clearly discerned.
The light side shows the 6 circular dark rings of the suckers and the faint
outline of the lateral processes. No evidence is available as to how the

Fia. C.—Blepharocerid eggs. 1. Showing patches of eggs. 2. Magnified to show
developing larva.

fly places the eggs on the stones beneath the water. Freshly emerged
larvae appear to have only the anal set of gills; the next stage includes
the addition of one gill on each side for the other segments, and the total
number of gills is reached before the last moult. Spines and gills increase
during the moulting stages. Further search has confirmed my opinion in
regard to Purau Creek. The Blepharocerid there is C. chiltoni, and after
careful search I failed to get a single specimen of turrifer. The flies have
a habit of sitting on the stones with the long hind legs touching the
margin of the running water. With each increase of the flow of the
water the fly will be pushed up about }in. or more, but each time
the fly merely backs down to the original position. It seems probable
that the female dives under to lay; otherwise it seems difficult to
account for the eggs adhering in patches, at depths far beyond the reach
of the insect.

264 Transactions.

Larvae.

Head (fig. D): Bezzi (1914, pp. 119, 122, 123) describes the colour-
scheme of the frontal spot on all three larvae. The frontal spot is a special
plate forming the dorsal prominence of the cephalon. It is subquadrate,
rounded posteriorly, the lateral portions separated from the remainder of
the segment by well-defined connecting membrane. In the centre lies a
definite separate elliptical plate, placed longitudinally, tapering sharply at
the ends, and suggesting some relation to the process of pupation, or
moulting stages of the larvae (fig. 125).

Dorsal armature (figs. 1 to 37): In addition to the primary spiny
armature, all three larvae bear numerous spines, ranging from a minute
single hair, or a group of single hairs (palmate), through the type of cone
or double cone, up to the many varied types of fan-shaped spines.
A study of these spines strongly suggests an evolutionary series. The
largest fan spines range themselves in rows near the anterior margins of the
segments and form groups near the base of the lateral processess. Hach

Fic. D.—Cephalon (diagrammatic) of larva. 1. (Dorsal) showing central plate.
2. (Ventral) showing mouth-parts. 3. (Ventral) showing relation of dorsal
and ventral portions.

segment has also many special flat cells or groups of cells scattered over
the dorsum (figs. 117 to 121), and these also are arranged in rows near the
outer portion of the anterior margins of the segments. Larva B has a
thickly-scattered armature of transparent fan spines, and these approxi-
mate so closely to the maim armature in size in many cases that it is
difficult to pick out the cones from the fans (fig. 119). The integument on
all three larvae shows a well-defined zigzag appearance. At the margins of
the segments this resolves into the scale-like minute processes of the integu-
ment (fig. 120). A view along the margin shows them V-shaped or
W-shaped like the teeth of a saw. In B. johannis the scale processes
have a minute terminal spine. I can detect no terminal spine on these
processes in the Blepharocerid larvae. The three types of lateral processes
(figs. 38 to 40) are distinct in their form and in the type of the spines
or hairs connected with each.

Posterior marginal spines (figs. 41 to 43): Larva A averages 40 spines in
a double row laterally, merging to a single row towards the centre of the
margin. Larva B has about 30 spines in a single row, as also has larva C,

CamMpBELL.—Wotes on the Blepharoceridae of New Zealand. 265

In A and C there is a secondary ventral row of about 10 spines, and in B
there is a secondary row of about 30 spines. In all three the secondary
spines are short and stout.

Gills (figs. 10, 11, 12): Larva A has 7 gills in a series on each segment
(2 double gills, 1 single proclinate, then a space followed by 2 single reclinate
gills). The 4 anal gills are large. Larva B has 7 gills in a tuft on the anterior
margin of each segment (2 double and 3 single), the anal gills large. Larva C
has 4 gills in series on the anterior portion of the segments (1 double and
2 single), the anal gills large. In all three larvae the two posterior of the
anal gills are only one-third the size of the anterior ones. The anal aperture
is just in front of the point of attachment of the anal gills, which lie in a
semicircular depression between the sucker and the posterior margin of the
segment.

Suckers (figs. 122 to 129): The cup of the disc shows fine lines running
to the margin of the suckers (fig. 122), where a specialized rim intervenes, the
cilia from this point continuing from a rounded basis and tapering to a fine
point. The rim shows an irregular pavement appearance, and viewed on
cross-section (fig. 123) shows the vertical short pieces of the rim formation.
The sucker has 6 tracheal (?) apertures (fig. 130), and the anterior margin
has a specialized valve gateway (fig. 127). Underlying the disc appears a
fine transparent pellicle showing very fine marginal cilia. Palmate hairs,
similar to the type found on Culicid larvae, are found near the suckers.

Mouth-parts (figs. 131 to 137): The mandibles are large, black, and
bidentate, the tips of the cusps transparent. The maxillae are complex
and difficult to determine ; they are densely hairy, with a biting-area bearing
small cusps. The labrum bears 2 strong spines on its broad base, and
tapers distally as a long brush lying between the mandibles. The labium
is short, densely hairy, and subtriangular; the palpi appear as 2 small
oval buttons marked with 2 large round black spots with 6 or 7 small dots
between them. The palpi and maxillae, and perhaps the mandibles, have
brushes or bunches of hairs, but the general crowding-together of hairs
makes definition extremely difficult from whole (slide) specimens. The
mouth-parts are set in a depression bounded anteriorly by a raised rim,
behind which lies the base of the labrum. Darkly chitinized lateral bound-
aries show prominently, and carry the origins of the powerful muscles and
ligaments. Strong bristles are inserted along the rim and the lateral portions
of the segment. The developing pupa, contained within the larva, and with
its breathing-tubes chitinized to about half their length, shows stages of
development of the future adult mouth-parts (figs. 138 to 141), and at the
base of the developing mandibles, &c., appear branched hairs similar to
those found on larvae of Culex and Anopheles (fig. 139). These special hairs
I have not found externally on the larvae or adult flies.

Alimentary and tracheal systems (figs. 142 to 145): The alimentary
system, lying centrally, shows diverticula in the form of chitinized pouches
(fig. 126) lying about half-way towards the lateral margin. The tracheal
system shows strong vessels passing round the margins of segments, and the
areas occupied by the dorsal marginal rows of spines. Branches appear to
pass from the gills to the suckers terminating in the 6 apertures. The
spiracles (closed) (fig. 124) of the larva lie at the base of the lateral processes.
One seems forced to assume that the tracheal apertures of the disc have a
perfectly transparent membrane over the aperture, or that the tubes (visible)
(fig. 1380) have no connection with the tracheal system proper. Bearing in
mind the peculiar dorsal armature following the tracheal system, and the

266 Transactions.

specialized cells of the dorsum, it seems possible that the gills and discs
are connected by a system of air-tubes relating to suction alone, and that
the opening and closing of the disc is aided by the use of the valve-gateway
at the anterior margin of the disc. The mechanics of the disc action,
however, need further research.

Pupae.

Bezzi (1913, p. 80) describes the pupae as “ oval in shape, convex and
strongly chitinized dorsally, where the colour is black, and flat and whitish
ventrally. The prothoracic respiratory appendages project forward in the
form of two horns, enclosing the delicate respiratory organs.” The following
notes can be added: When examined under a high power the black dots
resolve into small brown raised bosses (fig. 150). Dark markings appear
at the lateral margins, where they curl over to form the rim of the cradle
for the enclosed occupant (figs. 147 and 149). A group of light-brown spots
appears on each segment, half-way between the centre and the margin,
but these are only visible on slide specimens (fig. 149). Each respiratory
appendage consists of 4 plates.

The presence of Blepharocerid larvae in the vicinity of Dunedin and
Queenstown brings the area of distribution considerably farther south
than the 40° mentioned by Bezzi (1913, p. 71). Dunedin is nearly 46° S
latitude. Altitudes: Dunedin, about 600ft.; Queenstown, 2,000 ft. ;
Arthur’s Pass, Otira, from 1,260 ft.; Ohakune, 2,018 ft.; Purau, about
sea-level.

I have to express my keen appreciation of the kindly interest taken in
my work by Dr. Chilton, Mr. Gilbert Archey, and many other friends, and
of the valuable help they have given me in my attempt to increase, however
slightly, our knowledge of the New Zealand representatives of this family.

LITERATURE CITED,

Bezzi, M., 1913. Bull. Soc. Ent. Ital., vol. 44, pp. 1-113.

1914. Jbid., vol. 45, pp. 115-29.

Cuitton, C., 1906. Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 38, pp. 277-78, pl. 46.

Epwarps, F. W., 1915. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 8, vol. 16, pp. 203-15, figs. 1-22.
Lams, C. G., 1913. Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 45, pp. 70-75, figs. 1-9.

Norte.

In regard to my enumeration of the wing-veins, Dr. Tillyard has kindly
pointed out the improbability of any fusion of R and M in the Blepharo-
ceridae. The error is mine, and bears no relation to the evidence for
wing-reduction in New Zealand forms.

Fie
Fic

Fic.

Fie

Fic.

CaMpBELL.—VWotes on the Blepharoceridae of New Zealand.

. 1—Larva A:
. 2.—Larva A:

3.—Larva A:
. 4.—Larva A:

5.—Larva A:

Ist segment.
body segment.
6th segment.
palmate spines.
group of cells.

Fic

Fie.
Fia.

Fie

. 6.—Larva
7.—Larva
8.—Larva

. 9.—Larva

: fan spine.

: primary spine.
: cone spine.

: antenna.

267

iS)
(62)

Fic
Fie
Fia

Transactions.

. 10.—Larva A: ventral surface.
. 11.—Larva B: ventral surface.
. 12.—Larva C: ventral surface.

CampBELL.—VWotes on the Blepharoceridae of New Zealand. 269

Fic. 13.—Larva B: Ist segment. Fic. 16.—Larva B: primary spine.
Fic. 14.—Larva B: body segment. Fics. 17-21.—Larva B::types of spines

Fic. 15.—Larva B: 6th segment. of dorsum.

270 Transactions.

A
3

26

Wy
e LLNZP)

°

Fie. 22.—Larva C: Ist segment. Fic. 25.—Larva C: primary spine.
Fic. 23.—Larva C: body segment. Fic. 26.—Larva C: fan spine.
Fic. 24.—Larva C: 6th segment. Fic. 27.—Larva C: antenna.

CampBELL.—Wotes on the Blepharoceridae of New Zealand. 271

Fia. 28.—Larva A, from Purau.

Fics. 29, 30.—Larva, from Queenstown.

Fires. 31, 32.—Young larva B, from Ohakune.
Fie. 33.—Adult larva B, from Ohakune.
Figs. 34, 35.—Larva C, from Purau.

Fias. 36 37.—Heads of larva B.

202 Transactions.

Lateral processes and marginal! spines, 6th segment.

Fic. 38.—Larva A. Fig. 41.—Larva A.
Fic. 39.—Larva B. Fig. 42.—Larva B.
Fia. 40.—Larva C. Fic. 43.—Larva C.

CaMPBELL.—WNotes on the Blepharoceridae of New Zealand. 273

Fic. 44.—Wing of NV. hudsoni. Fie. 47.—Wing of C. chiltoni.
Fie. 45.—Wing of A. harrisi, 3. Fie. 48.—Wing of P. turrifer.
Fig. 46.—Wing of A. harrisi, 2. Fie. 49.—Wing of A. harrisi showing

macrotrichia round R4+5,

274 Transactions.

Fic. 50.—Wing-base of N. hudson. Fie. 53.—Wing-base of P. turrifer.
Fia. 51.—Wing-base of A. harrisi. Fig. 54.—Macrotrichia round R4+5 on
Fie. 52.—Wing-base of C. chilton. wing of C. chiltoni

CaMpBELL.—VWotes on the Blepharoceridae of New Zealand.

Curupira chiltoni, ¢, excepting figs. 56, 58.

. 55.—Head (view from behind), showing maxillae.
. 56.—Head of N. hudsoni, showing holoptic eyes.

. 57,—Labium.

. 58.—Labium of N. hudsoni, 3.

. 59.—Tip of labella and portion of same.

. 60.—Four terminal joints of antenna.

. 61.—Two basal joints of antenna.

. 62.—Antenna (complete), 14 joints.

. 63.—Maxillary palp.

. 64.
. 65.—Upper and lower eye-facets, showing bisection.
. 66.—Ocellar turret and insertion of antennae.

Part of labium, maxillary palps, and maxillae.

275

276

Fie
Fie

Transactions.

Al
Ye hy
if
Allg
\ \ Was
A 7
\

Curupira chiltoni.

. 67.—Head of ¢,

. 68.—Head of ¢, contrasting space
between eyes.

Fic. 69.—Mandibles, ?.

Fie

. 70.—Labrum and hypopharynx.

Fic.
Fic.
Fic.
Fic.
Fic.

71.—Antenna.
72.—Antenna, basal joints.
73.—Maxillary palps.
74.—Maxilla, o.
75.—Labium, ¢ and ?.

CampBELL.—VNotes on the Blepharoceridae of New Zealand. 277

Fics. 76, 77.—Claws, hind legs of C. chiltoni, ¢.

Fig. 78.—Tibial spur of N. hudsoni, 3.

Fic. 79.—Claw, hind leg of NV. hudsoni, 3.

Fics. 80, 81.—Tibial spurs of C. chiltoni, 3.

Fic. 82.—lst tarsal joint, front leg of C. chiltoni, ¢.

Fic. 83.—Legs of C. chiltoni, showing relative size of the joints.

278

Transactions.

Nr.)

90

\
’
\
NE
‘ waht
‘ Wt)
ie
MEU tS

Og

Curupira chiltont.

Fie. 84.—Margin of ovum.

Fic. 85.—Ovum.

Fie. 86.—Body, ¢.

Fic. 87.—Body, ?, showing ovum.

Fic. 88.—Ventral surface of body, showing groups of hairs.
Fic. 89.—Central group (enlarged).

Fic. 90.—Body segment, showing microtrichia.

Fic. 91.—A spiracle.

CaMpBELL.—WNotes on the Blepharoceridae of New Zealand. 279

Fic. 92.—Hypopygium of N. hudsoni, ¢.
Fic. 93.—Hypopygium of C. chiltoni, 3
Fic. 94.—Hypopygium of C. chiltoni, ¢.
Fic. 95.—Penis aud bulb of C. chiltoni, 3.

Transactions.

Apistomyia harrisi.

280

Fic. 96.—Maxilla of ¢; mandible of ¢.
Fig. 97.—Head of ¢.

Fig. 98.—Head of ¢.

Fic. 99.—Labrum, ¢ and ?.

Fig. 100.—Labium, ¢? (short labella).

Fic. 101.—Labrum and hypopharynx, 3.
Fic.

102.—Tip of hypopharynx, ¢.

Fic.
Fic.
Fie.
Fic.
Fic.
Fic.
Fie.

103.—Head, ? (antennae removed),
104.—Antennae, basal joints and tip.
105.—Maxillary palp, ¢.
106.—Upper eye, 3.

107.—Upper eye, ?.

108.—Portion of labium, ¢.
109.—Tips of labella, ¢ and ?.

CampBELL.—VWotes on the Blepharoceridae of New Zealand. 281

o ©

©
cco9

ae
w oo

Coa
(ome)

Apistomya harrisi.

Fie. 110.—Hypopygium, ?. Fie. 113.—Tibial spur, hind leg, ¢.
Fre. 111.—Hypopygium, ¢. Fie. 114.—Ist tarsal joint (front leg), ¢.
Fre. 112.—Claw, hind leg, ¢ ; claw, hind

leg, 3.

Fie. 115.—Apistomyia harrisi, @ .
Fie. 116.—Curupira chiltoni, 2.

282

Transactions.

Fic.
Fic.
Fic.

Fic.

Fie

117.—Larva A: 6th segment (dorsal), showing special cells.

118.—Larva A: special cells, enlarged.

119.—Larva B: portion of dorsum, showing four spines of primary
armature and secondary spines surrounding them.

120.—Margin of integument, showing the scale processes.

121.—Fan spine, showing thickness.

Norre.—The posterior half of the segment shows the reduced remains

of the primary spines of the original 7th segment.

CaMPBELL.—Wotes on the Blepharoceridae of New Zealand. 283

Fic. 122.—Cilia and portion of rim and cup.

Fic. 123.—Section of rim.

Fic. 124.—Lateral process, showing spiracles.

Fie. 125.—Central dorsal plate of larva cephalon (pointed end anterior).
Fic. 126.—Internal diverticula (subdermal) of larva.

Fic. 127.—Valve gateway of sucker.

Fic. 128.—Side view of sucker.

Fic. 129.—Sucker, showing six apertures (palmate and minute hairs).
Fic. 130.—An aperture enlarged to show the tube.

284 Transactions.

yi |

va \ \
\\ ‘yy

Meas K

AH
Ny

Fias. 131, 1314.—Maxillary palps. Fie. 135.—Diagram of arrangement of
Fig. 132.—Mandible. parts.
Fie, 133.—Maxilla. Fie. 136.—Labium and part of maxilla.

Fic. 134.—Labrum. Fic. 137.—Labrum and mandible.

CaMpBELL.—Wotes on the Blepharoceridae of New Zealand. 285

INNO

Fic. 138.—Tips magnified. Fie. 140.—Movth-parts of future image.
Fic. 139.—Base magnified. Fie. 141.—Mandible of Culex ? sp.

286 Transactions.

Fic. 142.—Larva A: Ist and 2nd segments.
Fie. 143.—Larva A: 4th segment.

Fic. 144.—Lateral portion of a segment.
Fic. 145.—Two spines and a lateral process.

CaMPBELL.—VWotes on the Blepharoceridae of New Zealand.

Fic. 146.—Pupa, probably N. hudsoni.

Fic. 147.—Pupa of P. turrifer, showing antennae, turret proboscis, &c.

Fic. 148.—Empty case of C. chiltoni.

287

288 Transactions.

149

Fic. 149.—Pupa: dorsal view of posterior segments ; ventral view of
anterior segments and wing-case: showing how pupa splits
for emergence of adult. Central dorsa] markings (on slides).
Lateral markings are ventral.

Fre. 150.—Black appearance consists of dots. The dots enlarged to
show as circular bosses

Miuter.—Vhe Diptera Fauna of New Zealand. 289

Art. XXXI.—Material for a Monograph on the Diptera Fauna of
New Zealand: Part II, Family Syrphidae.*

By Davip Mittzr, F.E.S., Government Entomologist.

[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 27th October, 1920; received by
Editor, 31st December, 1920 ; issued separately, 8th August, 1921.)

Plates XLVII-LI.

Ow1ne to the fact that some four years ago the greater part of my
collection of New Zealand Diptera was accidentally destroyed, I have
not until recently had sufficient material at my disposal upon which to
publish a regular series. It has in four years been possible, however,
to get together a collection very nearly as complete as the original one,
which represented the work of ten years, such rapid reconstruction being
for the most part due to those able entomologists Mr. G. V. Hudson, of
Wellington, Mr. E. Clarke, of Dunedin, Mr. J. R. Harris, of Ohakune,
and Mr. J. W. Campbell, of Christchurch, who have generously presented
extensive collections from various parts of the Dominion, not only replacing
many of the species destroyed, but also bringing to light many new
forms. The preparation of this paper was also simplified by the kindness
of Mr. R. Speight and Mr. G. Archey, of the Canterbury Museum, in
placing at my disposal the late Captain Hutton’s types of New Zealand
Diptera. The invaluable photographic illustrations are the excellent work
of Mr. E.°B. Levy, of the Government Biological Laboratories.

Since the publication of Part I, which dealt in part with the Stratio-
myidae, further representatives of that family have been obtained and
will eventually appear as a supplement to Part I.

The Syrphidae may be characterized as follows: Hyes moderately or
densely pilose, sparsely haired or bare, those of the male holoptic at a
point or more completely, or dichoptic, in which case they may be very
much approximated or more widely separated ; when dichoptic the frontal
orbits may be parallel on upper half but divergent on lower, being thus
angulated (fig. 68); in many cases there is a transverse furrow on the
front connecting the orbital angulation. In profile the eyes may descend
almost to the oral margin, thus practically eliminating the cheeks, or be
much shorter, while in some cases they are comparatively small. The
ocellar triangle is of varying shapes and sizes, sometimes, for example,
being more or less round and reaching from eye to eye, or long and
triangular reaching well on to the front ; the ocelli well developed. Front
varying in width according to sex, clothed with pile, with longer or shorter
dense or scattered hairs, or altogether bare; it may be smooth, trans-
versely wrinkled, or grooved medio-longitudinally. Antennae shorter or
longer, the 3rd joint oval or orbicular (fig. 14); more or less rectangular,
or elongate (fig. 6); arista dorsal in the known New Zealand species, bare

* Part I in Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 49, p. 172 (1917).
10—Trans.

290 Transactions.

or pubescent (hairy in some exotic species). Face of varying shape ;
concave (fig. 48), convex, arched (fig. 5), or vertical (fig. 7) below antennae,
with (fig. 15) or without (fig. 52) a central tubercle or swelling ; sometimes
produced at oral margin (fig. 52); clothed with hairs or bare, and some-
times transversely wrinkled ; oral margin horizontal, descending (fig. 63) or
ascending (fig. 5); cheeks more or less well developed and usually clothed
with hairs. The proboscis well developed, the labella Jarger or smaller ;
the palpi slender or stouter.

Thorax usually robust, sparsely or densely clothed with long or short
hairs or with pile, or altogether bare; scutellum crescentic or quad-
rangular, sometimes tuberculate, clothed or bare. Legs well developed,
slender or stout, the posterior femora sometimes thickened and with a
swelling or a tooth-like process below toward apex or base; the tibiae
and tarsi sometimes broadened and peculiarly developed ; the legs some-
times clothed with longer or shorter hairs and less commonly with bristles
which are most frequent on underside of the posterior femora, on the tarsi,
and abdomen, particularly on the genital segments of the male; claws and
pulvilli small or well developed, the empodium bristle-like or styliform.

The wings usually longer than the abdomen, in some cases shorter ;
incumbent when at rest or held slightly divergent just exposing the
abdomen. The wings vary somewhat in outline, being apically pointed

Fic. 1.—Diagram of a syrphid wing, showing venation.

or blunt, while the anal angle is evenly rounded or strongly developed ;
the alula is usually short, but may be long and narrow, reaching almost
to the posterior margin of the wing (fig. 2); the squamae and anti-
squamae are well developed and fringed with hairs, those on the former
being long and frequently branched, and on the latter short. In colour
the wings are either clear or tinged over the whole or part of the mem-
brane, the base and cell Se being more deeply coloured. The venation
(fig. 1), which is distinct and readily characterizes the family, presents
some interesting peculiarities. The costa ends at its junction with vein
R,+, either at or before the apex of the wing; sometimes there is a
supernumerary humeral vein present; in some cases Sc, is developed,
uniting as a cross-vein, Sc, with R, near the apex of the former; vein
R,+, runs more or less straight, or is strongly curved upward and
sometimes slightly backward at its apex to meet the costa or to unite
with vein R,, thus closing cell R, ; vein R,+, is straight, slightly curved
downward, or deeply looped into cell R,, which is always closed apically
either on, near, or considerably before the costa by the confluence of

Mrituter.—The Diptera Fauna of New Zealand. 291

R,,,; and M,, the latter running almost parallel with the wing-margin ;
basally cell R,; is closed by the cross-vein 7-m, which is more or less
oblique, longer or shorter, and situated before, near, at, or beyond the
middle of cell Ist M,. Intersecting the lower part of the cross-vein r-m
and running through cell R to end in cell R, close to the vein M,+, is a
more or less developed—though sometimes absent—spurious vein charac-
teristic of the family: this is the vena spuria. Basally the vena spuria
may be evanescent, but otherwise arises from the origin of vein R,+,
isually in those forms where the cross-vein r—m lies before the middle of
cell Ist M,, or, where this cross-vein is beyond the middle of cell Ist M,,
the spurious vein originates from the vein M where the latter curves
downward to meet vein Cu at the base of the wing. A little before
7y—m in cell R the vena spuria is swollen knob-like, from whence a vein-
like stump may descend either to evanesce or unite with vein M, or a
spurious cross-vein may connect the vena spuria above with the vein
R,+, near the origin of the latter, which is then somewhat angulated
at this point. The vein M, just beneath the swelling of the vena spuria
and behind the cell Ist M,, is frequently sinuated; from the origin of
this sinuation in some species (fig. 27) an indistinct vein arises perpen-
dicularly into cell M and turns abruptly forward, crossing into cell Ist M,.
The veins M, and M, are united for the greater part of their length,
branching near the wing-margin, the anterior branch, M,, closing the cell
R, as already noted; M, may either continue beyond the fork or be
confluent with M,, which in some cases is angulated, giving rise to a
short stump into cell R, (fig. 22). Connecting the veins M and Cu,+M,
is the cross-vein m running more or less parallel with the wing-margin
and meeting vein M either before the branching of M, in such forms
where M, is continued toward the margin, or at the fork of M, where
M, is confluent with M,. As with vein M,, the vein Cu,+M, is either
confluent with the cross-vein m or is continued beyond toward the margin ;
owing to the fusion of the veins Cu, and M,, the cross-vein m-cw is
eliminated. After the confluence of Cu, and Ist A, Cu, + Ist A either
runs straight to the margin or is more or less prolonged and curved. In
cell Cu, of most species is a distinctly developed vein arising at the origin
of 1st A and, running close to vein Cu, ending beyond the middle of the cell.
The basal “vein” of the alula is connected with the origin of Cu by a distinct
cross-vein and the arculus between Cu and R, or M and R, is well developed.

According to the venation, the species discussed below form three groups.
In the first (Plate XLVII, fig. 6) the costa ends with vein R,+, at the apex
of the wing, which is more or less blunt ; the vein R, +; is practically straight
above cell R,, and the veins Cu, +M, and M, are more or less developed
beyond the cross-vein m and the vein M, respectively ; also the cross-vein
r—m is before the middle of cell lst M, (Syrphinae). In the second group
(figs. 5 and 4), the costa ends before the apex of the wing, which is more
or less pointed; the vein R,.; is gently curved into cell R., the veins
Cu, +M, and M, are confluent with the cross-vein m and the vein M,
respectively, and the cross-vein rm is near or beyond the middle of cell
Ist M, (Milesinae). In the third group (fig. 1) the costa ends distinctly
before the apex of the wing, which is pointed ; the vein R,,; is deeply
curved into cell R, ; the veins Cu, +M, and M, as the second group ;
the cross-vein rm beyond the middle of cel] 1st M,. A further reduction
occurs in this group (Plate LI, fig. 3) in the closing of the cell R, of
some species by the confluence of veins R, and R, +, (Eristalinae).

LOZ

292 Transactions.

The abdomen is ovate (particularly in some females), elongate and
narrow with parallel sides, or sides converging basally or along the middle,
or rectangular; bare, or sparsely or densely clothed with hair, cr some-
times with bristles to a certain extent. In the New Zealand species there
are 4 visible segments in the male and 5 in the female; in the male
segments 5-9 are curved to one side beneath the apex of the abdomen ; in
the female the apical segments are usually retracted within the 5th, but
may be extruded to some considerable length.

The colours of the Syrphidae are frequently more intense in warmer
parts of the Dominion and are usually conspicuous. Although a few are
melanoid, many are brilliantly metallic, or black with yellow or white spots
and stripes ; there are also reflections of various hues caused by tomentum
or the arrangement of the vestiture. On account of the structure, the
flower-frequenting habit, and the mode of flight, many syrphids closely
resemble certain Hymenoptera: the European narcissus-fly (Merodon
equestris Fabr.), sometimes found in New Zealand, bears a_ strong
resemblance to a bumble-bee, while the European drone-fly (Fristalis
tenax Linn.), now well established in this country, is frequently mistaken
for the honey-bee. The absence of indigenous Apidae may account for
the absence among New Zealand syrphids of those densely-haired. and
bee-like species. It is also noteworthy that the native bees are all of the
short-tongued group, and that there is an amount of resemblance between
these insects and certain native syrphids: for example, Lepidomyia deces-
sum Hutton is superficially similar to the native Halictus huttont Cam.*

In the followmg pages some thirty-three species are recorded, three of
which are of European origin, one is found also in Australia, and the
remainder are indigenous ; of these, fourteen are new species. As in Part I,
the terms pro-, epi-, meso-, meta-, and onycho-tarsus are used for the Ist to
5th tarsal joints respectively, as suggested by Williston. Unless otherwise
stated, the term “ front ” refers to the front and vertex.

TABLE OF GENERA.t

1 (ore -vein 7—m before middle of cell 1st My Ae ss 2
Cross-vein 7—m at or beyond middle of coil Ist Ms ee a 9
Subfam. SYRPHINAE.
Species with yellow markings on face or abdomen, or both ... 3
2 Species without yellow markings, but with greyish tomentose
areas or white spots on abdomen 6

Face distinctly convex and produced at knob and mouth (He. 5) Paraqus.
Face not produced, but vertical or slightly concave 4

* An account of the economic aspect of this family, “ Economic Bearing of Hover-
flies,” is given by the author in N.Z. Jour. Agric., vol. 17, No. 3, pp. 129-35 (1918).

} SPECIES LIKELY TO BE CONFUSED.

| Paragus pseudo-ropalus n. sp. (Plate LII, fig. 1; and text-figs. 5, 12.)

| Syrphus ropalus Walk. (Text-fig. 37.)

Myiatropa campbelli n. sp. (Plate LI, fig. 1; and text-figs. 80, 84, 86.)

| Heophahe cargiulli Miller. (Text-figs. 75, 82.)

Heliophilus antipodus Schiner. (Plate L, figs. 1, 4; and text-figs. 63, 66, 70-73.)
| Helophitus trilineatus Fabr. (Text-figs. 74, 76, 77, 79.)

Helophilus campbellicus Hutton.
li elophilus chathamensis Hutton.
Cheilosia cunningham n. sp.
{ula montana n. sp.
Lepidomyia decessum Hutton.

Mituer.—The Diptera Fauna of New Zealand.

Pleurae altogether yellow ; apex of wing clouded ; abdomen of
somewhat spatulate, being narrowed towards base (fig. 13)
4+ Pleurae partially yellow or without markings ; apex of wing not
clouded ; abdomen of ¢ not spatulate, the sides parallel or
restricted in middle .. Sc in
Face yellow or grey with black markings 5 abdominal spots
5) linear if present : bs
Face black; abdominal spots broad or clavate
Abdomen broad and ovate; face vertical, produced only at
oral margin (fig. 7) ; 3rd antennal joint elongate (fig. 6) ;
6 4 posterior femora broad and bristly beneath ; eyes haired...
Roe narrow or rectangular; face not vertical to oral
margin but with a distinct knob in middle; eyes bare ..
Legsnormal . s a a ne
a Legs peculiarly haired (fic. 16) ; posterior tibiae and protarsi
enlarged, or anterior tibiae and tarsi broadened (fig. 45) ..
Rather robust flies ; head more or less distinctly rectangular ;
face vertical or produced slightly forward ; antennae lying
flat on face (figs. 15, 18, 19, and 20)
Rather slender flies; head not distinctly rectangular ;
concave if anything ; ; antennae not flat on face ..
Vein R4+5 deeply looped into cell Rg...
Vein R4+5 moderately or slightly looped .

fice
9

Subfam. ErRisTaLiInae.
10 ar R, closed ..
Cell R, open
Posterior femora with an ‘extraordinarily large triangular tooth
near apex below; vein M, strongly curved to meet Ry+s
a considerable distance from costa
Posterior femora without triangular process, at most with
bristly SNe:
Eyes hairy
| Bees bare :
Eyes dichoptic in both Sexes ;
scutellum normal
7 thorax densely haired ;

vein M, meeting R4+5 on or near costa
12 Sc Efe x

thorax sate! or indistinctly
haired ;

Hyes of ¢ holoptic ;
{ pair of tubercles

13 Seecureiter with e

Subfam. Mresnnasz,

Cross-vein r-m beyond middle of cell Ist My; thorax striped ;

( abdomen with hoary spots ; posterior femora moderately
14 x thickened : :

Cross-vein rm at middle of cell Ist My posterior femora

strongly thickened Ac : se 5.

15 ees with yellow spots

Abdomen immaculate

Subfamily SYRPHINAE.

Cross-vein 7-m distinctly before middle of cell Ist M,
cell R, open.

curved into cell R; but more or less straight ;

Genus Paragus Latreille (1805).

The outstanding character of this genus is the arched face ;

the male are holoptic, those of the female dichoptic.

P. pseudo-ropalus n. sp.

293

Sphaerophoria.

5
Syrphus.
Melanostoma.
Lepidomyia.

7
Melanostoma.

8

Cheilosia.
Platycheirus.

10
14

Eristalis.
11
Merodon.
1
Myiatropa.
13
Helophilus.

Mallota.

Tropidia.

15
Syritta,
Xylota.

vein R,+,; not

the eyes of

(Plate LIT, fig. 1.)

A medium-sized fly with yellow face and scutellum, a pair of vellow
spots on the 2nd and 5th, and a broad yellow band on the 3rd and 4th

abdominal segments (fig. 12). This species is
to its superficial resemblance to Syrphus ropalus Walk. ;

named pesudo-ropalus owing
the two species may

be distinguished by the shape of the face, which is arched in. the former
(fig. 5) and vertical in the latter (compare also figs. 12 and 37).

294 Transactions.

3. Eyes bare, holoptic for a short distance in front of ocellar triangle,
which is black with black hairs; ocelli brick-red. Front ochreous with
scattered black hairs which extend on to face on each side; lunular area
brownish ; orbital margins narrowly blackish-brown. In profile the head
is rather flat above to where the front descends to the antennae, which are
somewhat elongated and sometimes surrounded with orange-yellow at the
base ; 1st and 2nd joints brownish and short; 3rd joint reddish-brown or
yellow and elongate oval; arista brown and pubescent. Face thinly clothed
with erect short black hairs; face pale yellow with a greenish tinge and
a median blackish-brown stripe on lower half to oral margin, which is
margined with blackish-brown ; in profile the face is arched and produced
at the knob (fig. 5); occiput black ; proboscis and palpi brownish-black.

Thorax shiny black, clothed with short pale hairs ; a tawny spot clothed
with tawny hairs on each side of dorsum anterior to wing-articulation ;
scutellum testaceous and clothed with testaceous hairs ; halteres testaceous.
Wings faintly tinged; the veins and stigma blackish - brown. Legs
testaceous but paler at the knees and basal half of tibiae ; tarsi, particularly
the posterior, fuscous.

Abdomen elongate, comparatively broad at the base, and somewhat
narrowing between the 3rd and 4th segments ; black, but to a great extent
occupied by a pair of testaceous spots on the 2nd segment, a smaller pair
on the 5th, and by two broad testaceous bands, one across the 3rd segment
and the other across the 4th (fig. 12); genital segments blackish-brown
except the 9th, which is tawny; 6th, 7th, and 8th clothed with scattered
delicate hairs.

6. Length, 8 mm.

Holotype: g, No. 1231, D. M

Habitat—Dunedin.

Genus Lepripomy1a Loew (1864).

The following species was originally described by Hutton as a Melano-
stoma, but it clearly does not belong to that genus, from which it is
distinguished by the following features: Body robust, immaculate and
hairy ; antennae elongate ; eyes densely haired; face tuberculate at oral
margin; posterior femora thickened and bristly below; posterior tibiae
broadened apically and their protarsi somewhat thickened.

L. decessum. (Plate XLVII, figs. 1, 2.)
Melanostoma decessum Hutton, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 33, p. 43 (1901).

A shiny blue-black robust fly with the abdomen ovate and no colour-
pattern.

Q. Eyes clothed with short whitish hairs ; front angulated at a trans-
verse central depression, shiny blue-black and densely clothed with short
brownish hairs; lower frontal orbits silvery in certain lights. Antennae
(fig. 6) black, with a lighter reflection ; 3rd joint elongate, reaching well
down the face, which is vertical in profile and tuberculate at oral margin
(fig. 7). Face shiny blue-black, covered with a silvery tomentum ; a silvery
pubescence along facial orbits ; cheeks black and clothed with silvery hairs ;
proboscis and palpi brownish-black.

Thorax and scutellum shiny blue-black with a greenish tinge, and clothed
with a scattered white pubescence which becomes longer on the pleurae and
is replaced by long hairs around the coxae; 2 areas of short white hairs
on anterior margin of dorsum just posterior to the head; scutellum with

Mituer.—The Diptera Fauna of New Zealand. 295

a marginal fringe of scattered black hairs ; spiracles silvery ; halteres orange-
yellow or orange-red. Wings clear, stigma brownish, veins blackish-brown ;
R,+,5 running straight between cells R, and R,;; cross-vein 7-m a little
shorter than its distance from base of cell Ist M,. Legs hairy, the femora
somewhat thickened, the posterior particularly so ; femora blue-black with
greyish hairs, the posterior pair with numerous short bristles on lower
side near apex; knees brownish-yellow; tibiae brownish-yellow darkening
apically, the posterior pair darker and broader distally, all clothed with
stiff greyish hairs longer on the posterior pair, which have a stiff golden
pile below toward the apex; tarsi brownish becoming black apically, and
clothed with stiff silvery hairs ; posterior protarsi rather swollen and with
a short golden brush beneath.

Abdomen shiny blue-black, immaculate, ovate, beg broader than the
thorax, and usually carried with the apical half turned downwards; clothed
with short and scattered greyish hairs, but Ist segment with longer ones on
each side.

3. Eyes densely hairy, and holoptic over the greater part of the front ;
thorax and scutellum more densely and longer haired than the female ;
posterior tibiae silvery below toward apex, in some lights ; posterior femora
clothed with long erect bristle-like black hairs distally ; abdomen black,
slightly brown in recently emerged specimens, more hairy than female,
the hairs black. Genitalia black; the genital segments, except the 9th,
clothed with delicate hair-like bristles ; claspers long and bifid (fig. 8).

This species, when on the wing, closely resembles the native bee
(Halictus huttoni Cam.).

Larva.—The larva is of the rat-tailed type, but the siphon is short
(Plate XLVII, fig. 3); the body, which is creamy-white, may attain a
length of 20 mm. including the siphon; the transparent integument is trans-
versely corrugated, and clothed with short bristles very minute on ventral
surface, which otherwise is clothed with delicate hairs ; along each side the
integument is further broken up by longitudinal folds upon which the
bristles are longer and more hair-like; from the lateral margin of each
segment arises a tuft of 2 or 3 divergent bristle-like hairs which are
distinctly longer than the surrounding vestiture and most conspicuous on
the terminal segments, though absent on the ultimate segment, which is
frequently withdrawn. The “ prolegs,” which are armed with strongly
recurved spines, vary in shape according to the contraction or expansion
of the segments, being prominent knob-like swellings or merely transverse
ridges of the integument. A characteristic feature is the form of the
anterior segment, which is longitudmally fluted on the dorsal surface
(fig. 9) when the anterior margin is contracted by being drawn around
the oral cavity, much in the same way as the mouth of a pouch is drawn
together by strings; if fully expanded this segment is truncated and the
flutings indistmet. The anterior respiratory processes are trumpet-shaped
and short; posteriorly the body tapers and the posterior angles of the
penultimate segment are produced and carry the tuft of 3 bristle-like
hairs characteristic of the body segments. The siphon is short, the tracheal
opening being frmged by tufts of long and recurrent setose hairs (fig. 11).

Pupa (Plate XLVII, figs. 4, 5)—The pupa is brown in colour, the hard
cuticle bemg transversely rugose and bearmg the lateral hair-tufts of the
larva; in outline it is club-shaped, being strongly arched dorsally and
tapering posteriorly to the respiratory siphon ; ; the ventral surface is flat.
Length, 10 mm. ; greatest breadth, 4 mm.

996 Transactions.

Habitat —L. decessum is found throughout New Zealand, and occurs
on the wing from September to May; it is most prevalent in the vicinity
of flax-bushes (Phormium tenax) and cabbage-trees (Cordyline australis),
which are the breeding-grounds of the larvae. All larval stages are to be
found at the one time inhabiting the gum-fiuid retained in the leaf-sheaths
of P. tenax; the larval period, particularly during the colder months, is
of considerable duration. Pupation occurs upon the dead flax-leaves, to
which the pupae adhere; they are partially or completely covered by a
white precipitate from the gum-fluid. Mr. G. V. Hudson* has found the
larvae of this fly breeding in decaying matter under the bark of cabbage-
trees.

3S and 9. Length, 7 mm.

Holotypes: 9, Hutton’s collection, Canterbury Museum; ¢, No. 1232,

se

Genus SPHAEROPHORIA St. Far. et Serv. (1828).

Species of slender body; eyes bare; 8rd antennal joint circular ;
abdomen elongate, rather narrow and restricted at base in the male ;
wings somewhat elongate.

S. ventralis n. sp.

A small slender black fly with 4 tawny spots on the abdomen ; legs,
pleurae, and face yellow ; apex of wing clouded.

3. Eyes bare, approximated on vertex, which, together with the ocellar
triangle, is shiny blue-black; ocelli vermilion ; upper part of front shiny
blue-black, the anterior margin of this colour being trifid, the central fork
largest, the lateral ones short and extending to orbits; lower front pale
yellow, somewhat greenish and widening to lunule, which is dark yellow ;
front and veitex clothed with short and erect brownish hairs. Antennae
short and tawny ; 3rd joint circular with a black upper edge ; arista black.
Face vertical below antennae but produced above oral margin (fig. 10) ;
bare and shiny pale yellow with a dark-brown central spot on protuberance ;
cheeks pale yellow and clothed with short pale hairs; occiput black ;
proboscis and palpi dark yellow.

Dorsum of thorax shiny black-brown, tawny on alar calli and on each
side posterior to transverse suture ; humeri, pleurae, and halteres tawny ;
scutellum brown ; legs tawny, the posterior tarsi somewhat darker. - Wings
more or less blunt at apex; a brown cloud at apex between veins R,
and R,;,;; articulation tawny; wings otherwise clear and iridescent ;
squamae tawny. (Plate XLVII, fig. 6.)

Abdomen (fig. 13) shiny blackish-brown, elongate and narrow, somewhat
narrowed basally ; 1st segment with a tawny tuberculate swelling on each
side of scutelluin ; 3rd and 4th segments each with a pair of elongate dark-
yellow spots directed upward from the sides toward the centre ; genitalia
brownish-yellow.

3. Length, 6-5 mm.

Holotype: No. 273, D. M.

Habitat —Purakanui.

* Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 52, p. 34 (1920)

MituerR.—The Diptera Fauna of New Zealand. 297

Genus CHEILosIa Panz. (1809).

Rather robust flies, more or less rectangular in outline ; wings sometimes
not extending beyond abdomen ; eyes bare or hairy, holoptice or dichoptic
in the male, broadly dichoptic in the female ; head more or less rectangular
in profile; face with a prominent central knob; antennae of species
described below lying flat on face, the 3rd jomt orbicular; legs at times
peculiarly haired, the anterior and posterior tibiae and tarsi sometimes
broadened.

Two of the four new species described below—C. howesii and C. lepto-
spermi—are represented one by a female and the other by a male; they
are singularly similar in many respects—so much so that they might readily
be taken for the one species. However, I think there is sufficient reason
to separate them, mainly on the character of the anal angle and alula of
the wing, which are so markedly different in the two. The other two
species are quite distinct.

TABLE OF SPECIES.

Anal angle of wing nearly right-angled; alula long and narrow,

reaching almost to anal angle ; abdomen dull bronzy blue,

the apical segment brilliant cupreous .. ey -- leptospermi n. sp.
Anal angle and ales normal 2
Thorax and abdomen blue-black, the latter. broadest 2 across the

middle ; length, 9 mm. o€ .. cunninghamin. sp.

; |
| Thorax bronzy or cupreous ; abdomen rectangular a

Thorax shiny bronze ; abdomen violet-blue and comparatively

short ; length, 6mm. howesti n. sp.
Thorax brilliant cupreous ; abdomen dull blackish-brown and

rather elongate ; length, 10 mm. Sc sa .. ronana n. sp.

C. leptospermi n. sp.

A rather small, short-bodied, immaculate fly with the anal angle and
alula of the wing well developed.

$. Eyes bare, holoptic, somewhat coppery ; long black erect hairs on
vertex ; front and ocellar triangle bronzy, the former clothed with silvery
or greyish hairs; lunular area shiny dark-blue, unusually large and semi-
circular. Antennae short, broadly separated at insertion, and lying flat on
face (fig. 14); Ist and 2nd joints bare, bronzy, together a little longer than
the 3rd, which is short, orbicular, and reddish-brown ; arista reddish-brown,
short and thick but abruptly tapermg apically. Face bronzy-black with
a dense greyish pubescence and scattered silvery hairs, the protuberances
bare; face (fig. 15) descending slightly forward beneath antennae and
thence abruptly outward to the prominent knob, below which at the oral
aperture is a truncated protuberance which, in front view, is cup-shaped
and divided by a perpendicular median ridge ; below this, on each side,
the lower angles of the face are rounded, swollen, and somewhat descending ;
oral margin shiny blue-black ; a shiny blue- black stripe running diagonally
forward from the cheeks at oral margin on to the face between the orbits
and anterior oral margin ; cheeks blue-black clothed with a greyish. tomen-
tum and scattered silvery hairs; occiput shiny deep blue; proboscis and
palpi blackish-brown.

Thorax and scutellum shiny cupreous, the sternopleurae rather blackish
blue ; dorsum clothed with short white hairs, becoming longer on the meso-
and ptero-pleurae ; pleurae with a greyish reflection. Legs purplish-black
and coppery, somewhat shiny ; the tibiae, which are rather swollen apically,
are brown at extremities ; knees brown; on the underside of the anterior

298 Transactions.

tibiae apically, and the pro- and meso-tarsi is a brush of long brown hairs,
the protarsi being elongated (fig. 16); on the middle legs this brush is
represented by short stiff hairs ; posterior tibiae yellowish-brown on basal
part, strongly bent and swollen apically (fig. 17); posterior tarsi with a
short golden brush beneath, the protarsus not quite half the length of the
whole joint and somewhat swollen; anterior and middle femora with
scattered greyish hairs ; all the tibiae and tarsi clothed with short hair-like
bristles ; the onychotarsi bristly, a few of the bristles beimg long and delicate ;
claws large ; pulvilli with numerous papillae ; posterior coxae with. silvery
hairs. Wings (fig. 2) slightly tinged with brown; veins and stigma brown ;
cross-veins slightly clouded; alula long and narrow, reaching almost to

Fic. 2.—Cheilosia leptospermi n. sp. : wing.

anal angle which is strongly developed and in line with posterior margin of
the wing, squamae and anti-squamae opal-white, the former fringed with
long rigid white hairs and the latter with short ones; halteres brown.

Abdomen rectangular in outline, clothed with scattered short white
hairs lengthening along the sides of Ist and 2nd segments ; each segment
transversely rugose ; apical segment brilliant cupreous, the remainder dull
bronzy-blue ; genitalia brownish.

$. Length, 6-5 mm.

Holotype: No. 524, D. M.

Habitat—Wallacetown (A. Philpott).

C. howesii n. sp.*

A rather small robust shiny bronze fly with no colour-pattern.

Q. Kyes bare, comparatively small, broadly dichoptic ; ocellar triangle
black clothed with a few hairs; front broad, shiny bronze, clothed with
conspicuous dark-brown hairs which are longer and more erect across vertex;
lunular area large and deep blue. Antennae short, lying flat on face, well
separated basally ; Ist and 2nd joints black, somewhat longer than the
3rd, and destitute of hairs or bristles; 3rd joint orbicular though rather
quadrangular, dark reddish-brown with a lighter reflection caused by a
minute pubescence ; arista short, stout, dark reddish-brown, and minutely
pubescent. Face shiny, deep blue, clothed with a silvery pubescence and
scattered short silvery hairs except on protuberances ; in profile (fig. 18)
straight but running forward to tubercle, below which the oral margin
projects as a poimted protuberance ; lower facial angles rounded at oral
cavity ; cheeks shiny bronzy-black but greyish in some lights and clothed
with silvery hairs ; occiput black with erect greyish hairs above ; proboscis
blackish-brown, palpi brown.

* Named after Mr. W. G. Howes, of Dunedin.

Miuuter.—The Diptera Fauna of New Zealand. 299 |

Thorax and scutellum clothed with short greyish hairs; shiny bronze,
the pleurae with a greyish reflection and the scutellum at times somewhat
bluish. Legs robust; blue-black, the knees brownish ; the tibiae rather
thickened apically and clothed with short and scattered silvery hairs ;
anterior tibiae with minute, erect, bristle-lke hairs along lower side ;
anterior and middle protarsi with a brush of short bristles beneath, the
former joint rather short; posterior protarsi somewhat elongate and with
a short golden brush beneath ; all the femora sparsely haired and the tarsi
minutely bristly, a bristle at the angle of each joint being rather conspicuous ;
anterior and middle tarsi flattened. Wings comparatively short, very
slightly tinged, the veins and stigma brown ; anal angle and alula normal ;
squamae and anti-squamae brown, the former fringed with long brown hairs
and the latter with short ones ; halteres pale brown.

Abdomen elongate-quadrangular, not transversely rugose, dull violet-
blue, and clothed with mimute and scattered silvery hairs which form a
longer fringe on each side of the basal segment.

2. Length, 6 mm.

Holotype: No. 879, D. M.

Habitat —Kevis (W. G. Howes).

C. cunninghami n. sp *

A moderate-sized blue-black fly with no colour-pattern and superficially
resembling Xylota montana and Lepidomyia decessum.

2. Eyes bare, widely dichoptic, comparatively small; front clothed
with strong black hairs, broad, widening anteriorly, shiny blue-black, a
transverse furrow across the middle; ocellar triangle black clothed with
a few delicate hairs; lunular area black, produced slightly between the
base of the well-separated antennae, which le on the face; Ist and 2nd
antennal joints black, the former fringed with greyish hairs, the latter
clothed with very short and scattered ones; 3rd joint orbicular though
rather elongate, brownish but black in some lights; arista black, minutely
pubescent, short and stout but tapering apically. Face broad, shiny blue-
black with a greyish reflection, and clothed with strong black hairs; face,
in profile, somewhat convex below antennae but running forward to the
abrupt knob just beneath the 3rd antennal joint (fig. 19); anterior oral
margin produced below facial knob and surrounded by a three-sided right-
angled furrow ; a small swelling on each side of oral process ; lower angles
of face swollen and produced downward, the oral margin thus descending
anteriorly (fig. 19); cheeks clothed with strong brown and black hairs ;
occiput swollen along orbits, blue-black but brownish in some lights, and
clothed with greyish hairs, which become long and erect at vertex ; pro-
boscis shiny blue-black to brown ; palpi long and styliform, black at base
but brownish apically.

Thorax and scutellum shiny blue-black, clothed with grey or silvery
hairs, which become longer on the pleurae. Wings tinged with brown,
veins brown, stigma pale brown ; the arculus arising from medius ; squamae
and anti-squamae blackish-brown, pale beneath; the former with a long
and the latter with a short fringe of pale-brown hairs; halteres brown.
Legs blue-black, the apex of femora and base of apex of tibiae brownish ;

* Named after Mr. G. H Cunningham, of the Government Biological Laboratories.

300 Transactions.

femora clothed with long brownish to black hairs; tibiae with a short and
stiff greyish vestiture, the anterior and posterior—particularly the former—
swollen apically ; tarsi golden-brown beneath, caused by a brush of short
rigid hairs; anterior tarsi (fig. 21) very much broadened and shortened,
the protarsus being very little longer than the following joint ; posterior
protarsi elongate and slightly thickened ; claws apically black, otherwise
reddish-brown.

Abdomen blue-black, rather shiny; elongate but broader across the
middle ; clothed with delicate grey hairs, longer on the sides, and with
indistinct rigid black ones towards the sides of each segment; surface
indistinctly transversely rugose.

Q. Length, 9 mm.

Holotype : No. 1233, D. M.

Halitat—Day’s Bay.

C. ronana n. sp.

A medium-sized somewhat hairy elongate fly with a brilliant coppery
thorax and brownish-black abdomen.

3. Eyes bare, dichoptic; ocellar triangle black, clothed with short
brownish-yellow hairs ; front somewhat swollen, dull blue-black but with a
greyish reflection, densely clothed with blackish hairs; lunular area semi-
circular and black; Ist antennal joint blue-black ; 2nd joint brownish ;
3rd ovate, brick-red, darker in some lights, and with pale-grey reflections ;
arista black. Face more or less vertical (fig. 20); shiny greenish-black ;
clothed with a dense greenish-grey tomentum except on the protuberances—
one below end of antennae and the other above oral margin; cheeks
greenish-black, clothed with short silvery hairs, which extend over the
blue-black occiput particularly along the orbits.

Thorax and scutellum brilliant cupreous, with blacker reflections ;
clothed with short yellowish hairs, longer on the scutellum and pleurae and
forming a distinct fringe on the dorsum across the scutellar suture. Wings
slightly tinged with brown, stigma pale brown, veins brown; vein M,
angulated and with a stump ‘from this point into cell R, (fig. 22)*; squamae
and anti-squamae tinged with pale brown; halteres eolden-yellow. Legs
brownish-yellow with an indistinct fuscous spot in the centre of femora and
tibiae ; posterior tibiae and protarsi somewhat swollen ; tarsi, except the
anterior and middle protarsi, blackish-brown ; posterior tarsi with a golden
reflection beneath caused by the vestitute.

Abdomen elongate, the sides parallel ; clothed with short silvery hairs,
longer at the sides ; dull blackish-brown (though somewhat reddish), except
the shiny greenish-black basal segment ; the sides of each segment narrowly
cupreous ; a pair of indistinct greyish spots, caused by the vestiture, and
seen best with the unaided eye, across the anterior margin of 3rd and
4th segments.

$. Length, 10 mm.

Holotype : No. 1239, D. M.

Habitat—Rona Bay (HK. H. Atkinson).

* Frequently too much importance has been placed upon the presence or absence of
stump veins; I have frequently found that a stump, though present on the wings
of some specimens of the same species, may be absent in others; the wings of the
one specimen may even vary in this respect.

301

Miniger.—The Diptera Fauna of New Zealand.

Genus SyreHus Fabr. (1775).

In this genus the face, which is vertical, though slightly concave, and
gently produced to the knob, is yellow, with or without a darker median
stripe, or altogether melanoid ; the antennae are short, the 3rd joint being
circular or somewhat oval; the dorsum of the thorax may be immaculate
or margined with yellow; the scutellum is completely or partially vellow,
altogether blackish or at times diaphanous ; the pleurae may have yellow
markings; the legs are rather slender, the femora not being thickened ;
in the wings the 7-m cross-vein is considerably before the middle of cell
Ist M,, and the vein R,+, is straight, or practically so, above cell R, ;
the abdomen is elongate, somewhat ovate, narrow with parallel sides or
restricted along the middle segments ; it is usually spotted or banded with
yellow or, as in two of the new species, immaculate.

Of the seven species recorded below, three are new. The resemblance
of S. ropalus Walk. to Paragus pseudo-ropalus n. sp. has already been noted,
while in a former work* the writer has pointed out that S. obesus Hutton

= 8. viridiceps Wied., an Australian species.

TABLE OF SPECIES.

Abdomen immaculate, either blue-black or orange-brown

Abdomen spotted or banded with yellow

Face blue - black, golden -pruinose ; abdomen orange - brown ;
length of ¢, 11 mm.

24 Face tawny, with a median blue- black stripe extending broadly
along oral margin (fig. 24); abdomen deep ouiny, blue ;
length of ?, 6mm.

Abdomen spotted and with 2 transverse bands, one on the 3rd
and the other on the 4th segment

Abdomen not banded but with pairs of spots on segments

Zz
|
(Oe species ; abdomen broad, bands occupying most of 3rd

3

and 4th segments; antennae ochreous; pleurae with a
tawny transverse band ,

Slender species ; abdomen narrow, “bands confined to anterior
half of 3rd and 4th segments ; antennae brownish-biack ;
no band on pleurae

+

Front without yellow markings :
Anterior half of front partly or completely ochreous
Robust species ; abdominal spots large, occupying greater part
of segments ; pleurae with a tawny band
6 | Slender species, particularly the males ; abdominal ‘spots not
| large ; no band on pleurae, at most mesopleurae partially
yellow ;

Foes with a blackish central stripe ; ‘abdomen of Es with 4 pairs
of oblique spots but not especially narrowed along middle ;
length, 6-9 mm. : ie a 5'6

74 Face without a blackish central stripe ; at most with a darker

yellow marking; abdomen of ¢ very narrow, with 3 pairs

| of oblique spots, and restricted along the middle; length,
10-10-°5 mm . :

5

S. harrisi n. sp.t (Plate LI, fig. 2.)

2
3

harrisi n. sp.
flavofaciens n. sp.
4
- 5

viridiceps, &

ropalus.
novae-zealandiae.
6

viridiceps, 2.

ortas.

hudsoni n. sp.

Q. A rather large fly, with a brilliant cupreous thorax, orange-brown

abdomen, and wings tinged with tawny.
Kyes bare ; ocelli pale yellow ;

front blue-black, clothed with scattered
yellow hairs which are confined more toward the upper orbits ;

lower frontal

* Diptera of the Kermadec Islands, Trans. N.Z. Inst.,
~ Named after Mr. J. R. Harris, of Ohakune.

vol. 46, p. 126 (1914).

302 Transactions.

orbits broadly yellow, due to a pubescence which extends over the facial
orbits ; antennae orange-red, 3rd joint oval with a black upper edge ;
arista reddish-black ; a tawny spot above the root of each antenna. Face
slightly concave between antennae and knob; blue-black, but golden-
pruinose on each side of knob and upwards beneath antennae; clothed
also with short and scattered golden hairs; mouth-parts brownish-yellow ;
occiput depressed, black but yellow-pruinose and shortly haired along
orbits.

Thorax brilliant cupreous ; humeri tawny but whitish in some lights ;
alar angles to wings tawny; a narrow pale-yellow stripe from humeri to
wings; halteres tawny. Wings large, with a tawny tinge except basally ;
stigma orange-red, veins brown; nodule of vena spuria connected by a
cross-vein with vein R,,, (fig. 23). Legs tawny, the anterior tibiae and
posterior protarsi very slightly thickened.

Abdomen elongate-quadrangular, the sides almost parallel ; brownish-
yellow with indistinct and irregular blackish markings.

2. Length, 11 mm.

Holotype: No. 1201, D. M.

Habitat —Okakune (J. R. Harris) ; Karori (G. V. Hudson).

S. flavofaciens n. sp.

g. A medium-sized dark-blue elongate fly with no abdominal markings
but with a yellow spot on each side of thorax.

Eyes bare, somewhat approximated on vertex; front shiny dark-blue,
clothed with short brownish hairs; two crescentic incisions on lunular
area behind roots of antennae, which are brown in colour but darker basally ;
3rd joint ovate; arista black. Face (fig. 24) tawny with a greyish-vellow
tomentum and a median shiny blue-black stripe which is continued broadly
along oral margin over the cheeks and produced upward at a point to facial
orbits anterior to cheeks ; posterior angle of oral cavity tawny on vach side
and beneath ; occiput blue-black, posterior orbits with short silvery hairs ;
proboscis and palpi blue-black, the labella tawny.

Thorax shiny blue-black, clothed with short black hairs; a tawny area
on the meso- and ptero-pleurae ; scutellum blue-black with a bronzy tinge
and tawny apex. Legs brownish-black, the femora testaceous basally ;
anterior legs somewhat lighter in colour. Wings clear or slightly tinged
with brown; stigma brown, veins brownish-yellow ; squamae and anti-
squamae white ; halteres brownish-yellow.

Abdomen elongate, shiny deep-blue, slightly narrowing at base, and
clothed along sides with short and delicate whitish hairs; genital segments
brownish.

3. Length, 7 mm.

Holotype: No. 525, D. M.

Habitat—Wallacetown (A. Philpott) ; Dunedin (W. G. Howes).

S. hudsoni n. sp.*

A medium-sized fly with yellow spots on the abdomen.

3. Eyes bare, narrowly dichoptic, angulated half-way down the front,
where there is a transverse groove, posterior to which the front is narrow
and bronzy but anteriorly widens and is tawny on each side of a narrow

* Named after Mr. G. V. Hudson, of Karori.

Miuter.—The Diptera Fauna of New Zealand. 303

median greenish-blue stripe restricted in the middle (fig. 25); front
clothed with brownish hairs; ccellar triangle elongate and situated for-
ward from vertex. Antennae orange-yellow, with a broad dark-brown
upper edge ; 3rd joint oval; arista blackish-brown. Face minutely hairy,
abruptly receding to oral margin below knob (fig. 26); general colour pale
yellowish-green, with a darker, somewhat yellowish median stripe and a
blackish reflection along orbits to lower eye-angle ; cheeks yellow ; mouth-
parts brown ; occiput black, posterior orbits silvery.

Dorsum of thorax shiny greenish-black, clothed with short pale hairs ;
a short yellow stripe on each side between humerus and wing ; pleurae
greenish-black, the metaplurae somewhat pale yellowish; scutellum
ochreous but darker basally and clothed with tawny hairs. Wings clear
though faintly tinged distally ; stigma and veins brown; vena spuria,
which arises at origin of R,4,, has a stump from lower side of the nodule ;
just behind cell Ist M,, vein M is slightly sinuated, and arising from
proximal end of this sinuation is an indistinct vein-like structure which,
arising vertically, turns abruptly forward parallel to vein M and crosses
into cell Ist M, (fig. 27); halteres tawny. Anterior and middle legs
ochreous, the posterior pair brown except for the ochreous basal half of
the femora.

Abdomen black, clothed with delicate brownish marginal hairs; elon-
gate and narrow, slightly restricted along each side; 2nd, 3rd, and 4th
segments each with a pair of oblique ochreous spots (figs. 28); genital
segments brownish.

The female differs from the male in the elongate ovate abdomen,
which has a pair of more transverse and pointed spots on the 2nd, 8rd, 4th,
and 5th segments.

3. Length, 10mm. Q. Length, 10-5 mm.

Holotype : No. 1234, D. M.

Habitat —Karori (G. V. Hudson).

S. novae-zealandiae Macq. (Plate XLVII, fig. 7.)

S. novae-zealandiae Macquart, Dipt. Exot., Suppl. 5, p. 115 (1885) ;
Hutton, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 33, p. 40 (1901); Cat. Dipt. N.Z.,
p. 44 (1881) ; Miller, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 42, p. 230 (1910);
l.c., vol. 46, p. 126 (1914). S. ortas, Fardeen! Man N.Z. Ento.,
p. 56 (1892).

A medium-sized fly with bronzy-black thorax and black abdomen
spotted with orange-red, ochreous, cream, or white.

3 yes holoptic and bare; front bronzy-green, vertex black, both
clothed with erect black hairs, those on the front appearing as a tuft in
profile ; lunular area shiny black, the anterior margin brownish ; frontal
orbits narrowly silvery in some lights. Antennae with the first 2 joints
black, the 3rd brownish and oval; arista black with a very minute and
scattered pubescence (fig. 29). Face shiny, rather bronzy, but covered
with a dense greyish-brown pubescence and scattered black hairs; knob
shiny blue-black, below which the oral margin is shiny brownish-black,
this colour extending across the face to the orbits as an oblique band
(fig. 30) ; remainder of oral margin greyish-brown, except posteriorly, where
it is tawny or orange-red, which in some specimens may extend on to the
occiput as_a broad area; cheeks pale greyish-brown, silvery along the
orbits, and clothed with white hairs ; proboscis black with a brown labella ;

304 Transactions.

palpi tawny, the apical joint with a long yellow bristle below and one
apically ; occiput black with a greyish reflection.

Dorsum of thorax shiny blackish-green to bronzy, with a vestitute of
pale hairs; scutellum shiny bronzy but yellowish apically and clothed
with long pale hairs; pleurae dull cupreous with darker and greyish
reflections, and clothed with greyish to brown hairs. Anterior coxae elon-
gate and black; anterior and middle legs brownish, the base of the femora
brownish-black, the apex of the tarsi fuscous; posterior legs brownish-
black, particularly the tarsi, the knees lighter; all the femora with pale
hairs beneath on basal half. Wings clear, veins and stigma brown; a
supernumerary humeral cross-vein sometimes present ; the supernumerary
vein arising from vein M and already noticed in S. hudsoni (fig. 27) is quite
distinct and vein-like in some specimens of S. novae-zealandiae ; halteres
pale brown.

Abdomen (fig. 34) somewhat rectangular, the sides more or less parallel ;
dull velvet-black, with a pair of ochreous, cream, orange-red, or white
elongate and transverse spots on the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th segments. The
variation in the colour of these spots is dependent to a great extent upon
the age of the fly ; it is frequently found that some of the spots on the one
individual may be of one tint and others lighter or darker ; newly-hatched
specimens are semitransparent, the darker colours developing with age.
The abdomen is clothed with short and stiff black hairs, with a fringe of
silvery ones on each side of basal segment. The genital segments and
genitalia are black, and their form is shown in fig. 32.

9. Eyes dichoptic; front and vertex shiny blue-black; antennae
black, 3rd jot with a reddish area on lower side at base; a yellowish-
brown area at articulation of antennae. Face with a central shiny blue-
black stripe ; an oblique band running from anterior oral margin to orbits
as in male ; otherwise face, cheeks and oral margin are brick-red, ochreous,
or grey (fig. 31).

Thorax clothed with pale hairs; dorsum brilliant cupreous-green ;
pleurae and scutellum as dorsum, but the former with dull-black and
greyish reflections and the latter diaphanous greenish-yellow apically ;
the colour of the scutellum may be lighter or almost totally black.

Abdomen (fig. 35) rather ovate, with a pair of spots, which vary in
colour as in the male, on 2nd, 3rd, 4th, and 5th segments.

3 and 2. Length, 9-11 mm.

Plesiotype : No. 1235, D. M.

Habitat.— Abundant throughout New Zealand, the Kermadec and
Chatham Islands ; Hutton states that it has been recorded from Polynesia.
The adults are on the wing from spring to autumn in the southern parts
of the South Island, but in Nelson, Marlborough, and the warmer parts
of the North Island they are to be found in varymg numbers throughout
the year. The eggs are usually laid singly upon plants, and the larvae
(Plate XLVIII, fig. 1) feed upon caterpillars and aphids.

S. ortas Walker.

S. ortas Walker, Cat. Dipt. Brit. Mus., p. 585 (1849) ; Hutton, Cat.
Dipt. N.Z., p. 43 (1881); Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 33, p. 41 (1901).
S. rectus Nowicki, Mem. Krakauer Akad. Wissen., 2, p. 24 (1875) ;
Hutton, Cat. Dipt. N.Z., p. 44 (1881).

A medium-sized fly with a brilliant bronze-green or blue-green thorax,
yellow scutellum, and yellow-spotted brown abdomen.

(RANSG NieZ. Ins. Won. lil Prate XLVII.

Fie. 1.—Lepidomyia decessum : adult female, showing abdomen in natural
position. x 24.

Fie. 2.—L, decessum : adult male, showing abdomen straightened. 3.

Fic. 3.—L. decessum: larva. X 4.

Fic. 4.—L. decessum : pupa, side view. X 4.

Fie. 5.—L. decessum : pupa, dorsal view. X 4.

Fia. 6.—Sphaerophoria ventralis n. sp.: wing. X 8.

Fic. 7.—Syrphus novae-zealandiae: adult male. 23

Face p. 304.)

TRANS. N.Z. Lyst., Vou. LILI. Pratt XLVIII.

lig.
Fic.
Fria.
iia.
Pra.
Fire.

1.—Syrphus novae-zealandiae : larva on leaf. 6.
2.—S, ropalus : Jarva. side view. X 4.

3.—S. ropalus : empty pupa, from above. X 5.
4.—S. wiridiceps : adult male. X 3.
5.—Platycheirus lignudus n. sp.: adult female. ™ 4.
6.—Melanostoma fasciatum eggs on a grass-head. Magnified.

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vou. LIII. Prate XTX:

Fie. 1.— Melanostoma fasciatum larva ona leat. x 8.
Fic. 2.—Xylota montana n. sp.: adult female. x 4.
Fic. 3.—Tropidia bilineata : adult female. x 3.

Pate L.

Litt

Trans. N.Z. Inst., VOL.

‘ayBure} g[npe + snpodiyun snprydojay7J—"F “Os

ees

‘opRULOy yJNpV + ynburd Doyo ]Y—"T% “OUT

4

Y
“A

‘Gow “O]BULOF 4yu pe

/ Wdaqjajsyooy *FJ—'§ “oi

‘opel qynpe : snpodyupn snprydojayy— | “oy

Miuter.—TVhe Diptera Fauna of New Zealand. 305

Q. Eyes bare; front brilliant cupreous, with a brillant pink transverse
reflection in front of ocellar triangle, and clothed with a sparse brown pile
causing a pale-brown reflection. Face greenish-yellow, this colour extending
upward on each side to a point along frontal orbits ; face clothed on each
side with a short yellow pile; a median blue-black stripe extending from
lunular area to mouth (fig. 33); cheeks and oral margin ochreous, the
former clothed with a short yellow pile which extends over the occiput.
Antennae short, brownish-yellow with darker markings particularly along
the upper and front edges of the short rather truncated 3rd joint; arista
dark brown; mouth-parts brown; occiput greyish-black, but in some
cases tawny below, this colour extending from oral margin.

Thorax briliant bronzy-green with a vestiture of short delicate hairs ;
a pale-yellow area on each side between the wing and humerus, and
extending in certain lights as pale brownish-yellow over the meso-
pleurae ; scutellum amber-yellow, clothed with delicate pale hairs. Wings
clear and iridescent, the stigma brownish-yellow, veins tawny ; halteres
amber-yellow. Femora ochreous, but brownish distally, the posterior
pair distinctly so; tibiae pale-brownish, the posterior darker centrally ;
tarsi brown.

Abdomen linear but somewhat broader anterior to centre (fig. 36) ;
shiny dark-brown; delicate pale hairs on sides of Ist and 2nd segments ;
a pair of distinct transverse linear ochreous spots on 2nd, 3rd, and 4th
segments, and a pair of indistinct brownish spots on 5th segment.

3. Smaller and more slender than 9; thorax shiny bronzy-black and
scutellum clothed with short and scattered black hairs; the abdomen is
more hairy, elongate and narrow, and the spots are broader and somewhat
oblique ; genitalia tawny.

6. Length,6mm. 92. Length, 9mm.

Plesiotype: No. 1236, D. M.

Habitat.—Throughout New Zealand from August to May. The colour-
markings of this species may be darker or lighter.

S. ropalus Walker.

S. ropalus Walker, Cat. Dipt. Brit. Mus., p. 593 (1849); Hutton,
Cat. Dipt. N.Z., p. 44 (1881); Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 33, p. 41
(1901)'; “Miller; NZ. “Sour. Agric., vol. 21, p. 335 (1920);
Miller and Watt, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 47, p. 278 (1915).

A medium-sized fiy with the face and sides of thorax yellow, 2 pairs
of abdominal spots and 2 transverse bands, one on the 3rd and the other
on the 4th segment. This species bears a superficial resemblance to Paragus
pseudo-ropalus n. sp.

9. Eyes bare; vertex and upper part of front bronzy-black to purple,
lower half greenish- yellow, with a narrow median tawny stripe seen in
some lights; the whole thinly clothed with short black hairs; Ist and
2nd joints of antennae tawny and with black bristles, the 2nd joint some-
what darker apically ; 3rd joint ovate but rather blunt at apex, brownish-
yellow but blackish-brown over upper edge, and clothed with minute
greyish pubescence, which also covers the blackish-brown arista ; lunular
area tawny. lace greenish-yellow, gently produced to brown knob, above
which is an indistinct median blackish-brown stripe ; anterior oral margin
brownish, the lower angles of face rather tawny ; oral margin and cheeks

306 Transactions.

yellowish-green, the latter and the face clothed with short pale hairs ;
occiput tawny in ground-colour but with blackish and greyish reflec-
tions and clothed with delicate pale hairs; proboscis and palpi brownish-
vellow.

d Dorsum of thorax clothed with short brownish hairs; shiny bronzy
and broadly margined with yellowish-green on each side anterior to wings ;
humeri yellowish-green ; alar regions rather brownish ; scutellum yellowish-
green to tawny, thinly clothed with short black hairs ; ; pleurae clothed with
pale hairs, greenish-yellow except for anterior margin of mesopleurae and
upper and lower parts of sternopleurae (that is, sternopleurae with a
longitudinal band of greenish-yellow). Femora tawny, brownish to black
apically, particularly the posterior pair; clothed with short black bristle-
like hairs apically, but with delicate pale hairs below basally ; anterior
and middle tibiae tawny with minute black apical bristles and clothed with
short tawny hairs ; posterior tibiae brownish-yellow and apically brownish
to black; clothed with short, bristle-like black hairs; tarsi with a short
golden brush and minute black bristles beneath, otherwise clothed as
posterior tibiae ; anterior and middle tarsi tawny, with darker reflections,
the posterior brownish to black. Wings clear, the stigma slightly clouded,
veins pale-brown ; squamae tawny ; halteres tawny to greenish-yellow.

Abdomen (fig. 37) shiny brownish-black, clothed with short blackish
hairs, longer and tawny along sides of Ist and 2nd segments ; 1st segment
tawny ; 2nd and 5th with a pair of broad tawny or orange spots; 3rd
and 4th each with a tawny or orange transverse band, the posterior margin
of each band being deeply notched and the anterior somewhat sinuated ;
posterior angles of 5th segment indistinctly tawny; 6th segment rather
brownish on each side.

The male is smaller and more slender than the female, the markings
are darker, and the abdominal spots more oblique; the genitalia are
tawny.

Pye-adult Stages ——The full-grown larva (Plate XLVIII, fig. 2) measures
12-5 mm. in length ; it is greenish-yellow in colour, and the soft corrugated
skin is semitransparent, showing the organs within the body ; on the
sides of each segment is a short ‘leg- -like projection, while on the terminal
segment a pair of approximated, testaceous respiratory organs project
upward. The larvae are to be found in considerable numbers living in
company with the larvae of L. decessum in the gum-fluid which collects
in the leaf-bases of the Maori flax (Phormiwm tenax), where they feed upon
the larvae of a Chironomid, and to a less extent upon those of L. decessum.
After nightfall they frequently leave the gum-fluid and crawl about the
leaves of the Phormiwm in search of flax-grubs (larvae of Xanthorhoe
praefectata). They are also to be found upon the leaves of the cabbage-
tree (Cordyline australis), where they attack the larvae of Venusia verr-
culata. Pupation takes place on the dead flax and cabbage-tree leaves ;
the pupa (Plate XLVIII, fig. 3), which measures 8-5 mm. in length, is club-
shaped and elongated, being strongly arched anteriorly but more or less
flattened and tapering posteriorly ; it is of a light-brown ‘colowz, with a series
of longitudinal dark-brown stripes running the full length of the body ;
a pair of respiratory organs project from the posterior end.

6. Length,6mm. §. Length, 8mm.

Plesiotype: No. 1237, D. M.

Habitat—Throughout New Zealand. The adults are very abundant
from August to April in the vicinity of flax-bushes and cabbage-trees.

Miuter.—Vhe Diptera Fauna of New Zealand. 307

S. viridiceps Wied.* (Plate XLVIII, fig. 4.)

S. viridiceps Wied., Miller, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 46, p. 126 (1914).
S. obesus Hutton, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 33, p. 41 (1901).

This species is very abundant in Australia, and is fairly common in the
North Auckland Peninsula as far north as Parengarenga ; it is also common
on the Kermadec Islands.

Both sexes are robust ; eyes bare, holoptic in male; face orange or
greyish-yellow with a darker median stripe ; upper part of front in female
shiny black, this colour forming a median stripe along the orange-yellow
lower front. Antennae orange-brown. Dorsum of thorax shiny purplish-
black, margined with tawny on each side; pleurae with a tawny trans-
verse band; thorax of male thickly haired, but sparsely so in the
female ; scutellum tawny, orange- or brownish-yellow ; legs tawny ; femora
blackish-brown proximally ; tarsi fuscous. Wings clear; halteres tawny.

Abdomen ovate and broad ; shiny black between the tawny markings ;
basal segment somewhat bluish; 2nd, 3rd, 4th, and 5th segments mostly
occupied by tawny or orange-red markings, forming a pair of large spots
on the 2nd and 5th segments and a broad band on the 3rd and 4th segments
in the male; in the female the markings consist of a pair of large spots
narrowly interrupted in the middle of the 2nd to 5th segments.

$. Length,8mm. 9. Length, 8-5 mm.

Genus MELANOSTOMA Schiner.

Eyes bare, holoptic in male; antennae short, 3rd joint oval; arista
pubescent or bare. Face slightly produced to knob, black or metallic in
ground-colour and frequently pruinose. Thorax black or metallic, usually
brilliant ; legs normal, yellow or fuscous. Abdomen with or without
yellow markings, ovate in female but more or less rectangular in male.

TABLE OF SPECIES.

Abdomen with yellow markings ze 3% .. fasciatum.
Abdomen immaculate 56 ke =e -. apertum.

M. fasciatum Macq.

Plesia fasciata Macquart, Dipt. Exot., Suppl. 4, p. 461, pl. 14, fig. 15
(1880). Melanostoma fasciatum Hutton, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 38,
p. 42 (1901) ; Cat. Dipt. N.Z., p. 45 (1881).

A very common, rather small fly, readily recognized by the bright-
yellow markings of the abdomen.

3. Eyes bare, holoptic ; vertex black, clothed with very short black
hairs; ocelli orange; front shiny brownish-black clothed with short
black hairs. Antennae (fig. 41) somewhat elongate; Ist joint black;
2nd black basally, reddish-yellow apically ; 3rd tawny, sometimes rather
reddish, oval, pubescent, and with a black area at apex extending over upper
edge to base of arista, which is reddish-brown and pubescent ; lunular area
with a reddish-yellow spot on each side at base of antennae. Face shiny
bronzy-black, greyish-pruinose, sparsely clothed with silvery hairs; its

*T am indebted to Mr. W. W. Froggatt, Government Entomologist, New South
Wales, for checking the identification of this species,

308 Transactions.

outline shown in fig. 38; cheeks black with a greyish reflection ; proboscis
and palpi black, the latter sometimes brownish ; occiput black with greyish
reflections.

Thorax brilhant bronze, with a tawny pubescence on dorsum ; scutellum
brilliant blue-black. Legs tawny, sometimes fuscous, with tawny knees.
Wings clear, iridescent ; veins and stigma brown ; halteres pale yellow.

Abdomen elongate, rectangular, the sides almost parallel ; shiny blackish-
brown, but mostly occupied by the tawny or orange-red spots on the 2nd,
3rd, and 4th segments (fig. 39); the spots on the 2nd segment are the
smallest, those on the 3rd and 4th occupy the whole of each segment
except for a narrow median stripe and a band across the posterior margin
which widens at the sides. The genitalia are tawny, the structure of the
genital segments being shown in fig. 43.

Q. Kyes dichoptic ; front and vertex shiny black and clothed with
shert black hairs ; a narrow silvery reflection along frontal orbits ; a narrow
transverse brownish band constricted in the middle and followed by a suture
to be seen in some lights across the middle of front. Antennae altogether
tawny except for a blackish apical area.

Thorax shiny bronzy-black ; scutellum shiny black; the whole clothed
with a tawny pubescence. Legs ochreous, the posterior tibiae distally
and the tarsi fuscous.

Abdomen (fig. 40) ovate, shiny blue-black with a pair of ochreous spots
on the 2nd, 3rd, 4th, and 5th segments, the last pair transverse, the
remainder rather dome-shaped, those of the 2nd and 3rd segments narrowing
to the sides ; apex of retracted segments tawny.

The intensity of the abdominal spots varies according to location and
age: in the milder parts of the country they are more tawny, but in
warmer localities they are of a rich orange-red.

The female deposits her yellowish eggs (Plate XLVIII, fig. 6) in pairs or
sometimes singly upon plants infested with aphides and lepidopterous larvae.
The larvae of M. fasciatum are yellowish and semitransparent with a
darker medio-longitudinal stripe ; at the anterior end is a smooth shiny afea.
Plate XLIX, fig. 1, shows one of the larvae at rest on the underside of
a rape-leaf. Large numbers of aphides and the larvae of the diamond-back
moth (Plutella maculipenis) are destroyed by this syrphid. The pupae are
short, club-shaped, and brownish, and may be found attached to the
underside of leaves frequented by larvae.

3 and 9. Length, 6 mm.

Plesiotype : No. 1238, D. M.

Habitat—Thronghout New Zealand, from spring to autumn.

M. apertum Hutton.
M. apertum Hutton, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 33, p. 42 (1901).

Hutton’s type, the only specimen as yet known, has lost the 2nd and
3rd joints of one antenna and the 3rd of the other. Owing to the length
of the existing 2nd joint, it is doubtful if this species belongs to Melano-
stoma ; however, it is retained here for the present until complete specimens
are procured.

A small shiny blue-and-black fly with tawny legs and no colour-
pattern.

Q. Eyes bare, dichoptic; front and face shiny bronzy-black with a
greyish tomentum ; ocelli yellowish, the ocellar triangle with delicate erect

Mituter.—The Diptera Fauna of New Zealand. 309

hairs; Ist and 2nd antennal joints black with a brownish or greyish
tomentum ; the 2nd joint elongate, reaching toward the facial prominence ;
outline of face as in fasciatum ; mouth-parts withdrawn, black but tawny
apically.

Thorax and scutellum shiny bronzy-black, sparsely clothed with delicate
silvery and brown hairs; the ptero- and sterno-pleurae rather brownish.
Wings faintly tinged with brown, iridescent, the stigma somewhat brownish ;
articulation ochreous. As Hutton has pointed out, the venation agrees
with that of fasciatum ; halteres ochreous. Legs ochreous, but the posterior
pair much darker though brownish at the joints ; coxae black.

Abdomen dark blue, rather shiny, immaculate ; elongate, broad in the
middle and narrowing basally and apically.

2. Length, 6 mm.

Holotype : Hutton’s collection, Canterbury Museum.

Habitat —Christchurch (Hutton).

Genus PLatycHErRus St. Far. et Serv. (1828).

The species of this genus are elongate and narrow; in colour black,
blue, or metallic, with no yellow markings but sometimes hoary spots on
the abdomen ; antennae situated well above middle height of head; face
more or less vertical and produced to prominence about middle of head,
thence receding to oral margin below ; orbito-facial groove present ; eyes
bare, holoptic in the male ; anterior tarsi broadened in the female, the legs
of the male peculiarly haired.

TABLE OF SPECIES.

(a.) Thorax shiny blue-black ; face deep blue ; 3rd antennal joint black

with a greyish reflection ; abdomen blue-black with indistinct

greyish areas on 2nd, 3rd, and 4th segments . lignudus n. sp.
(b.) Thorax bronzy-black ; face black ;, 3rd antennal joint orange- red;

abdomen blue- black without greyish areas except in some

lights at anterior angles of 2nd, 3rd, and 4th segments of ¢ .. clarkei n. sp.
(c.) Thorax black: face pale yellow with a black stripe; abdomen
black with oblique white spots ; halteres emerald-green .. atkinsoni n. sp.

Es lignudus n. sp. (Plate XLVIII, fig. 5.)

A shiny blue-black narrow-bodied fly with indistinct greyish areas on
the abdomen.

Q. Eyes bare, dichoptic; vertex and front shiny deep blue with a
dense vestiture of black hairs; lIunular area black. Antennae (fig. 44)
situated high up on head ; black and rather elongate, with a greyish reflec-
tion due to pubescence, which is minute on Ist and 2nd joints; 3rd joint
elongate oval; arista black and pubescent. Face shiny blue-black clothed
with scattered grey hairs and a greyish tomentum above orbito-facial groove ;
outline shown in fig. 42; oral margin shiny blue-black and sparsely clothed
with erect greyish hairs; cheeks blue-black, silvery in some lights, and
clothed with grey hairs ; occiput blue-black with a silvery reflection and a
dense vestiture of grey hairs along orbits and behind vertex ; mouth-parts
blue-black to brownish.

Thorax and scutellum shiny blue-black, clothed with a dense vestiture
of greyish-brown hairs. Legs brownish-black but tawny at apex of femora
and base of tibiae, the former clothed with delicate hairs, the latter and
the tarsi covered with very short, golden to brownish, stiff hairs ; anterior

310 Transactions.

tibiae rather thickened distally, their tarsi distinctly broadened (fig. 45) ;
anterior protarsi produced on each side as a process ; mesotarsi broadest,
the following joints shortenmg and narrowing; on lower side of anterior
tarsi are golden bristle-like hairs; middle tibiae with a row of short
blackish apical bristles beneath. Wings clear, stigma brownish, veins
brown but paler basally ; halteres pale brown.

Abdomen elongate and rather ovate (fig. 46), shiny blue-black with
indistinct areas of pale-greyish tomentum and hairs on 2nd, 3rd, 4th, and
5th segments, arranged as in figure; sides of abdomen with short white
hairs.

2. Length, 7-5-8-5 mm.

Holotype: No. 557, D. M.

Habitat—Central Otago and Moutere Inlet (D. M.); Waitati (C. E.
Clarke).

P. clarkein.(sp.*

This species resembles lagnudus in general form and colour.

g. Front shiny black with a tinge of green and clothed with black
hairs; eyes holoptic; antennae minutely pubescent, causing a greyish
reflection; Ist and 2nd joints black; 3rd ovate, orange-red with a black
upper edge and tip. Outline of face as in lignudus but the prominence
not so pronounced ; face shiny black, greyish-pruinose above orbito-facial
groove, with golden reflections, and clothed with black hairs ; cheeks black
with black to brownish hairs; proboscis black, the labella orange-brown ;
occiput black with a greyish reflection, the orbits clothed with greyish hairs.

Thorax and scutellum shiny bronzy-black, thinly clothed with blackish
hairs. Wings slightly dusky but clearer basally ; stigma smoky ; halteres
brownish. Coxae blackish-brown and rather hairy; femora blackish-
brown, golden-pruinose and brownish beneath basally, tawny apically ;
clothed with long, delicate, scattered, golden hairs, and a row of small black
bristles along lower side, longer on posterior femora; tibiae tawny but
brownish along the middle, the anterior pair with a distinct fringe of golden
and black bristle-like hairs along lower side; posterior pair thickened
distally ; tarsi black with a golden or brownish reflection and clothed with
short bristle-like hairs; the posterior and anterior tarsi with a distinct
golden brush of short rigid hairs beneath ; anterior tarsi slightly broadened,
the posterior, particularly the protarsi, more so.

Abdomen elongate, the sides parallel ; deep blue, dull ; clothed with short
silvery hairs, long and delicate along the margins of Ist and 2nd segments ;
a cupreous area sometimes silvery owing to arrangement of hairs, and seen
only in some lights, at anterior angles of 2nd, 3rd, and 4th segments ;
surface of abdomen transversely rugose ; genitalia brownish-yellow.

9. Differs from ¢g in the following characters: 3rd antennal joint
mostly black, the orange-red being restricted to lower half of joint. Dorsum
of thorax shiny brownish-black; scutellum shiny blue-black. Anterior
tibiae and tarsi thickened ; the epi-, meso-, and meta-tarsi of anterior legs
short and broad, the onychotarsi small (fig. 49).

Abdomen slightly ovate, with an olive-green tinge in some lights, and
without the cupreous areas at anterior angles of segments.

3 and 9. Length, 8 mm.

Syntype: No. 1230, D. M.

Habitat Rotorua and Te Wairoa (D. M.).

* Named after Mr. C. E. Clarke, of Dunedin.

Miuuer.—Vhe Diptera Fauna of New Zealand. dll

P. atkinsoni n. sp.*

g. A slender black fly with 4 pairs of white spots on the abdomen, and
emerald-green halteres.

Head in profile decidedly flat above, the front curved down to antennae
(fig. 47); eyes bare, holoptic, the posterior margin concave ; ocellar tri-
angle black and clothed with blackish hairs; ocelli vermilion; front pale
tawny, clothed with black hairs, a short median brownish stripe extending
on to front from confluence of eyes ; lunular area testaceous with a blackish
spot on the middle, bi-crescentic. Antennae broadly separated, inserted
in pits well up on head; Ist and 2nd joints blackish-brown with a greyish
reflection; 3rd joint ovate, brick-red with a blackish upper margin and
covered by a silvery tomentum ; arista black. Face as shown in fig. 47 ;
a broad black median stripe, narrowing at oral margin, which it narrowly
borders; on each side this stripe merges into testaceous, which in turn merges
into the pale yellowish-green of face ; insertion of each antennae surrounded
by a pale-yellow area; a brownish-black spot extends from oral margin
in front of cheeks to a point on lower eye-margin; face greyish-pruinose
on each side and between and immediately below the antennae, and clothed
with short tawny hairs except on blackish areas; orbito-facial groove pro-
nounced ; cheeks rather swollen, black with a greyish reflection, and clothed
with short whitish hairs ; occiput black, the orbits clothed with short white
hairs; mouth-parts black, but the labella orange-brown.

Thorax shiny black, clothed with silvery hairs more scattered on the
dorsum, on each side of which is a greyish area extending from a point at
humerus, widening into incison of transverse suture and thence narrowing
to the wing; scutellum dull brownish-yellow, margined with black and
clothed with blackish hairs; the meso-, ptero-, and upper part of sterno-
pleurae greyish-pruinose and clothed with long silvery hairs; remainder
of pleurae black; halteres with brown shafts and large emerald-green
heads. Wings clear, the stigma orange-brown, veins black ; squamae opal-
white and fringed with silvery hairs. Legs slender, the posterior tibiae
and protarsi slightly thickened ; anterior and middle tibiae sparsely clothed
with stiff brownish hairs, orange-brown but lighter at the apex; posterior
coxae black, greyish-pruinose, and clothed with silvery hairs; posterior
femora blackish-brown, greyish in some lights, rather tawny at apex, and
sparsely clothed with silvery hairs which are denser below distally ; anterior
and middle tibiae orange-brown, darker in some lights, the latter with
minute black apical bristles below; posterior tibiae blackish-brown, paler
basally and with a greyish reflection ; anterior and middle tarsi blackish-
brown, clothed with short silvery hairs, the former rather broadened, the
protarsi of the latter with minute bristles beneath ; posterior tarsi black
with short golden hairs beneath, the protarsi somewhat thickened ; all
the tarsal joints bristly at angles; claws orange-brown with black tips ;
pulvill orange-brown.

Abdomen (fig. 58) elongate, narrow, parallel-sided, shiny black, sparsely
clothed with short silvery hairs which become longer at sides particularly
on basal segments, but shortening and not extending to apex of 4th seg-
ment, their place being taken by small black bristles; 2nd, 3rd, 4th, and
5th segments each with a pair of oblique white spots, those of 2nd segment
truncated above, and of the 5th somewhat yellow ; genitalia greyish-yellow.

3g. Length, 9 mm.

Holotype: No. 1250, D. M.

Habitat—Devil’s Punch Bowl, Arthur’s Pass (E. H. Atkinson).

* Named after Mr. E. H. Atkinson, of Wellington.

312 Transactions.

Subfamily MILESIINAE.

Vein R,4, moderately or slightly curved into cell R, ; cross-vein rm
at or beyond the middleof cell Ist M,.

Genus Xytota Meigen (1822).

The chief characters by which the following species is placed in this
genus are: vein R,;,, moderately curved into cell R;; cross-vein rm
near middle of cell Ist M,; face deeply dished beneath antennae; eyes
bare; posterior femora broad and spinose beneath; body immaculate.

X. montana n. sp. (Plate XLIX, fig. 2.)

A robust medium-sized fly, blackish in colour and with no colour-
pattern. It has some resemblance to Lepidomyia decessum.

Eyes bare, dichoptic in both sexes, but those of the male more approxi-
mated ; ocelli orange-red ; front and vertex shiny black with a silvery
reflection due to pubescence and clothed with strong and mgid black hairs ;
frontal lunule brownish. Antennae black with a greyish tomentum ; 5rd
joint somewhat lighter in colour and more or less circular; arista black.
Face deeply dished beneath antennae (fig. 48), bemg abruptly produced
before descending almost vertically to the rather descending anterior oral
margin, above which there is a slight prominence; face diagonally furrowed
on each side, blue-black in colour but brownish to greyish pruiose above
furrows ; sparsely clothed above and on each side of produced portion
with silvery hairs; lower facial orbits with erect greyish hairs; cheeks
black with a silvery reflection particularly along the orbits, and clothed
with whitish to brown hairs; occiput shiny blue-black with white hairs
and greyish reflections ; mouth-parts blue-black.

Fig. 3.—Xylota montana n. sp.: wing.

Thorax blue-black with indistinct stripes and a coppery reflection on
the dorsum; sparsely clothed with delicate brownish and whitish hairs ;
humeri, margins of dorsum and alar regions greyish-pruinose in some
lights ; pleurae deep-blue and dull-greyish prumose, the meso- and ptero-
pleurae with a tuft of white hairs at their upper posterior angles ; sterno-
pleurae clothed with short black hairs ; scutellum with long delicate greyish
hairs. Wings (fig. 3) clear, stigma. almost colourless, veins brownish-
black; vein R,+; moderately bent into cell R,;; cross-vein r-m at the
middle of cell Ist M, ; squamae and anti-squamae translucent, the former
frmged with greyish branched hairs, the latter with short simple ones ;
halteres brownish with darker heads. Legs shiny blue-black ; femora
clothed with scattered greyish hairs, the posterior pair broadened and
spinose beneath on distal half (fig. 55), there being a double row of short
stout spines, weakening proximally, along the middle, and larger bristles

Mruter.—The Diptera Fauna of New Zealand. — - 313

along the side to apex; anterior tibiae with short and stiff bristle-like
golden hairs along lower side ; similar hairs on lower side of all the tarsi ;
short black bristles at anterior angles of posterior tarsal joints.

Abdomen blue-black, sparsely clothed with short white hairs above
and longer ones laterally; a slight tubercle at anterior angles of 1st
segment ; genitalia of g shown in fig. 53.

3. Length,9mm. 9. Length, 10 mm.

Syntype: No. 1241, D. M.

Habitat —Arthur’s Pass (J. W. Campbell and G. V. Hudson)

Genus Syritta St. Farg. et Serv. (1828).

This genus is more or less allied to Xylota, but the posterior femora
are very strongly thickened. No species, however, have been recorded from
New Zealand beyond S. oceanica Macq., which Bigot is stated to have
found also in Tahiti ; since then it has not been recorded in the Dominion.
Hutton* considered that it did not occur in New Zealand, but nevertheless
I give the following description (apparently quoted from Macquart) from
his Cat. N.Z. Dipt. (p. 42).

S. oceanica Macq.

S. oceanica Macquart, Dipt. Exot., Supp. 5, p. 112 (1854) ; Hutton,
Cat. N.Z. Dipt., p. 42 (1881).
“©. Palpi small, black. Face rather concave, with silvery down and
a black band in the middle. Anterior portion of front with white down,
the rest shinmg black, prolonged into a pomt in front. The two first
joints of the antennae brownish-testaceous ; the third black, brown below.
Thorax shining black the sides with white down. Abdomen dull black, the
second segment with two yellow spots, shining, and reaching the anterior
border; the third with two shining spots, the fourth entirely shining.
Anterior and intermediate femora black, the extremity fulvous; the
posterior pair entirely black; anterior and intermediate tibiae blackish,
the base fulvous; the posterior pair black, with the knees and a ring in
the middle fulvous ; tarsi, black the first jomt fulvous. Poisers fulvous.
Wings clear; veins normal.
** Length, 3 lines.
“ Tahiti and New Zealand (Bigot).”

Genus Tropipia Meig. (1822).

It is doubtful to what genus the following species belongs; it was
originally placed in Milesia by Whitef and later on retained therein by
Walker ; but since the cell R, of the wing is open it certainly does not
belong to Milesia. Although there may be many excellent grounds for the
establishment of a new genus upon this species, it is considered advisable,
in the meantime at least, to retain it in the genus Tropidia, with which
it coincides to a certam extent. The genus is characterized by the follow-
ing: Hyes bare, holoptic at a point in the male, moderately dichoptic in
the female; antennae short, 3rd joint rather rectangular; vem R,4;
gently curved into cell R, ; cross-vein 7-m beyond middle of cell Ist M,
and oblique. Face without central knob, practically vertical to oral

* Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 33, p. 95 (1901).
+ Walker gives White as the author of this species, but there is no record to be
found in the Voy. ‘* Erebus” and “ Terror,’ to which Walker refers.

314 Transactions.

margin (which projects as a short snout in bilineata); posterior femora
thickened and with an inferior triangular tooth near apex (in bilineata there
is no triangular tooth, but a pronounced bristly swelling).

T. bilineata White. (Plate XLIX, fig. 3.)

Milesia bilineata White, Voy. “* Erebus” and “ Terror” (?) ; Walker,
Cat. Dipt. Brit. Mus., p. 566 (1849); Hutton, Cat. Dipt. N.Z.
p. 43 (1881) ; Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 33, p. 40 (1901).

A large elongate blackish fly with a pair of stripes on the dorsum of
the thorax.

Q. Eyes bare, moderately dichoptic ; ocellar triangle elongate, blackish-
brown with blackish-brown hairs; ocelli situated well forward; vertex
and upper part of front dullish black; lunular area and lower part of
front shiny black, the latter region brownish centrally ; across the front
and separating the black into two areas is a tawny band as shown in
fig. 51. The front anteriorly is cone-shaped and prominent ; in profile it
descends steeply to the prominence, which is more or less horizontal, thus
forming an angle with the more oblique upper part (fig. 52). Vertex and
upper black area of front clothed with black hairs; the tawny band with
yellow hairs. Antennae inserted close together at about middle line of head ;
black and comparatively large ; 1st jomt short and bristly, 2nd triangular,
bristly and with a long inferior bristle, the anterior margin forming three
blunt processes for the reception of the 3rd jomt, which is orbicular, and
greyish-pruinose ; arista black and long, bare distally but minutely pubes-
cent proximally. Face vertical though somewhat receding and projecting
abruptly to form a short snout at oral margin (fig. 52); lower margin of

Fie. 4.—Tropidia bilineata : wing.

head almost horizontal but descending slightly at anterior oral margin ;
face with a shiny black median stripe and black areas along oral margin,
otherwise tawny with brownish reflections and clothed with short delicate
pale hairs; arrangement of colour-pattern shown in fig. 52; cheeks tawny
and bearded with white hairs; an indistinct crescentic blackish reflection
at lower corner of eye; a tawny spot on oral margin below cheeks ;
proboscis and palpi blackish-brown, the labella large and deeply bi-lobed ;
occiput greyish or whitish yellow with blackish reflections ; somewhat
swollen and hairy below, but slightly concave and bare above.

Thorax rectangular ; dorsum with 3 black longitudinal stripes, the median
one forked; except for black areas the dorsum is tawny, with greyish
reflections ; colour-pattern shown in fig. 54; alar regions clothed with
long golden hairs, dorsum clothed with short brownish hairs; scutellum
shiny blackish-brown and clothed with long brown hairs. In front of
the mesopleurae the sides of the thorax are hollowed apparently for the
reception of the anterior femora ; pleurae for the most part black, golden-
pruinose, the sternopleurae with a golden pubescent area above; the

Mruter.—-The Diptera Fauna of New Zealand. 315

meso-, petro-, and sterno-pleurae clothed with long golden hairs. Legs
robust, black, and bristly, the bristles short and black on the coxae and
femora, longer, and golden, in some lights, on the tibiae and tarsi; coxae
greyish-pruinose with long grey hairs, the anterior coxae large and flattened ;
femora with long pale bristle-like hairs along posterior side, those of the
posterior femora shorter; the latter are broadened and have a densely
spinose protuberance on lower side near apex (fig. 59); tibiae densely
clothed with golden bristle-like hairs most conspicuous distally ; posterior
tibiae broadened and curved; tarsi broadened, a conspicuous bristle at
anterior angle of each joint and a stiff golden brush beneath; metatarsi
short and crescentic, each anterior angle being produced along each side
of the onychotarsi; pulvilli pale yellow; empodium styliform (fig. 56) ;
claws large and tawny with black tips. Wings tinged with brown, the
stigma darker; veins blackish-brown; cell R, open; vein R,., slightly
curved into cell R, ; cross-vein r-m beyond middle of cell Ist M, (fig. 4) ;
anal angle fringed with short delicate hairs ; squamae opaque and densely
fringed with long greyish branched hairs ; anti-squamae fringed with short
hairs ; halteres tawny.

Abdomen (fig. 67) elongate and conical, about as wide as the thorax,
margined with delicate yellow hairs and the surface clothed with short
ones; black bristle-like hairs on 5th segment and fringing the posterior
margin of 4th; general colour dullish black; on the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th
segments are yellowish-white triangular spots, indistinct in some lights,
and arranged as in fig. 67; 5th segment shiny black and transversely
rugose ; retracted segments yellowish-brown.

$. Hyes contiguous at a pomt on front (fig. 50), which is whitish-
vellow to golden ; face as in 9 but the lighter areas whitish ; black median
stripe apparent only in certain lights, but a permanent black area beneath
antennae ; a shiny black band on each side from antennae to eye-margin ;
occiput cinereous. Wings comparatively clear and shorter than the
abdomen, which is narrow, the sides more or less parallel though broader
basally ; spots on 3rd segment elongated ; genital segments (fig. 61) densely
covered with bristle-like black hairs; claspers very long and narrow.

$. Length, 13mm. @. Length, 12-17 mm.

Plesiotype : No. 1070, D. M.

Habitat—Wellington (HK. H. Atkinson) ; Central Otago (W. G. Howes) ;
Nelson (D. M.).

Subfamily ERISTALINAE,

HKyes of male holoptic or dichoptic, bare or hairy ; face with a central
protuberance ; cell R, open or closed; cross-vein r-m beyond middle of
cell Ist M,; vein R,,, strongly curved into cell R;; posterior femora
frequently broadened.

Genus Matiota Meigen (1822).

On account of the pilosity of the body, the bristly legs, the bristly
swelling on lower side of the posterior femora, the tuberculate scutellum,
the shape of the face, and the wing-venation, the following species, origin-
ally described by Fabricius, belongs neither to Hristalis nor Helophilus, in
which genera it was placed by Hutton. In 1881 Hutton, though he retained
it in Hristalis, remarked that ‘“‘ the shape of the legs puts this species into
the next genus ” (Mallota) ; but when reconsidering the matter in 1900 he
decided in favour of the genus Helophilus.

316 Transactions.

M. cingulata Fabricius. (Plate L, fig. 2.)

Syrphus cingulatus Fabr., Syst. Ent., p. 767 (1775). Eristalis
cingulatus Hutton, Cat. Dipti. N.Z., p. 40 (1881). Helophilus
cingulatus Hutton, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 33, p. 37 (1901).

A large robust blackish pilose fly, with dense white hairs across base of
abdomen.

Q. Hyes bare ; vertex occupied by the large circular ocellar triangle, which
is shiny ferruginous (sometimes brownish or greyish), except for a velvet-
black area anterior to the posterior ocelli, and clothed with brownish-black
hairs (fig. 57); front ferruginous, sometimes reddish-grey, a broad velvet-
black band across the middle (its form shown in fig. 57); across the anterior
margin of this band is a furrow, posterior to which the blackish pile,
clothing the front, is erect but proclinate anterior to furrow; lunular
area inclined to orange-yellow ; Ist and 2nd antennal joints shiny black,
the 3rd transversely oval, brownish-black but with a lighter reflection ;
arista orange-red but darker apically ; a broad velvet-black band extend-
ing from eye to eye across roots of antennae and upper part of face beneath
antennae (fig. 60). Face fulvous, darker in some lights; oral margin and
lower part of face shiny black, as shown in fig. 60; a silvery area at lower
eye-angle ; a groove across face from eye to eye just beneath the pro-
tuberance ; above this groove face clothed with delicate black hairs, but
bare below ; face deeply dished on upper half, thence produced to protuber-
ance, below which it recedes to oral margin, which is descending ; cheeks
dull black, clothed with delicate black hairs; proboscis stout and black,
the labella slightly reddish-black; occiput black with grey reflections,
ferruginous from ocellar triangle to foramen and with a greyish area on
each side of this.

Thorax robust, the dorsum, which is a rich velvet-black, clothed with
short dense ferruginous pile; a pair of narrow greyish to white stripes
narrowing posteriorly and ending abruptly before reaching the scutellum ;
humeri reddish-black with a tuft of black hairs ; around the humeral suture
and margining the lateral incisions of the transverse suture is an indistinct
greyish stripe ; in some lights there appears a broad chestnut stripe extend-
ing from the humeri to the scutellum ; scutellum chestnut-brown to ferru-
ginous, truncated apically, presenting a vertical posterior face, the upper

Fie. 5.—Paragus pseudo-ropalus n. sp.: outline of head of male in profile.
Fie. 6.—Lepidomyia decessum ; antenna.

Fic. 7.—L. decessum : outline of head in profile.

Fie. 8.—L. decessum : genitalia of male.

Fic. 9.—JL. decessum : anterior end of larva, contracted.

Fic. 10.—Sphaerophoria ventralis n. sp. : outline of head in profile.

Fie. 11.—Lepidomyia decessum ; siphon of larva.

Fie. 12.—Paragus pseudo-ropalus n. sp.: diagram of abdomen of male.
Fie. 13.—Sphaerophoria ventralis n. sp. : diagram of abdomen of male.

Fie. 14.—Cheilosia leptospermi n. sp.: antenna.

Fie. 15.—C. leptospermi n. sp. : outline of head in profile.

Fie. 16.—C. leptospermi n. sp.: anterior tibia and tarsus of male.

Fic. 17.—C. leptospermi n. sp.: posterior leg of male.

Fic. 18.—C. howesii n. sp.: outline of head in profile.

Fic. 19.—C. cunninghami n. sp.: outline of head in profile.

Fig. 20.—C. ronana n. sp.: outline of head in profile.

Fie. 21.—C. cunninghami n. sp.: anterior tibia and tarsus of female.

Fie. 22.—C. ronana n. sp.: apex of wing.

Fic. 23.—Syrphus harrisin. sp.: diagram of vena spuria, showing cross-vein.
Fie. 24.—S. flavofaciens n. sp. : outline of head in prefile.

Transactions.

“J

R

Ror3 Rats

Miuiter.—The Diptera Fauna of New Zealand. 319

margin produced on each side as a tubercle, the dorsal surface densely
clothed with a short ferruginous pile and the vertical surface with long and
delicate brownish hairs. Pleurae black, clothed with black hairs but bare
above the coxae ; a reddish spot in some lights beneath the wings ; anterior
and posterior stigmata tawny to orange-red, and protected by a palisade of
erect closely-set hairs. Wings clear but blackish-brown at the base ; veins
and stigma brown, the cubitus and medius paler basally; cell R, open;
vein R,+, deeply curved into cell R,; cross-vein r-m just beyond the
middle of cell lst M,; vena spuria indistinct basally, connected with
R,+,; by a distinct cross-vein (absent in some wings) from the nodule ;
supernumerary vein of cell Cug very distinct and vein-lke; squamae and
anti-squamae blackish and translucent, the former fringed with long branched
pale hairs, the latter with shorter hairs; halteres dark brown but reddish
along lower edge. Legs blue-black and bristly ; coxae clothed with black
hairs ; knees orange-yellow ; underside, apex, and base of tibiae ferruginous
or altogether. golden; an orange-vellow area on lower side of posterior
tibiae in the middle; anterior and middle femora with dense black hairs
below ; posterior femora (fig. 64) thickened and with a distinct swelling
below, along which are distinct bristle-like hairs; anterior and middle
tibiae less bristly than the posterior; the lighter area on lower side of
posterior tibiae bare to the apex; tarsi orange-yellow to golden with darker
reflections, each joint with short rigid bristles at anterior angles; pulvilli
and claws pale tawny, the latter black at the tips ; empodium styliform.

Abdomen (fig. 65) black, a shiny blue-black area at anterior margin on
each side of 3rd and 4th segments, the apical segment shining and greyish
in some lights; broadly ovate, broader than the thorax, clothed with
delicate short black bristles, which become dense and stronger along the
sides of the 2nd and 3rd segments ; Ist segment and an elongate anterior
area on each side of the 2nd segment densely clothed with long silvery
hairs; when vestiture is removed these bearded areas are testaceous or
tawny in ground-colour; a pair of triangular white discal spots and a
pair of lateral circular ones on the 3rd and 4th segments and a pair of
triangular white spots on the anterior angles of 5th segment as shown in
fig. 65; from the sides of the 4th segment are long hairs, black except those
from the lateral spots which are white ; ventrally the abdomen is sparsely
clothed with grey hairs ; the basal sternite greyish and transversely rugose,
the remainder blue-black; a pair of short orange-red styles project from
apical segment.

Fie. 25.—Syrphus hudsoni n, sp.: dorsal view of head of male.
Fic. 26.—S. hudsoni n. sp.: outline of head in profile.

Fie. 27.—S. hudsoni n. sp.: part of venation, showing origin of vena spuria, &c.
Fic. 28.—S. hudsoni n. sp.: diagram of abdomen of male.

Fie. 29.—S. novae-zealandiae : antenna.

Fic. 30.—S. novae-zealandiae : outline of head in profile of male.
Fic. 31.—S. novae-zealandiae : outline of head i» profile of female.
Fic. 32.—S. novae-zealandiae : genitalia of male.

Fie. 33.—S. ortas : outline of head in profile.

Fie. 34.—S. novae-zealandiae : diagram of abdomen of male.

Fig. 35.—S. novae-zealandiae : diagram of abdomen of female.
Fie, 36.—S. ortas : diagram of abdomen of female.

Fic. 37.—S. ropalus ; diagram of abdomen of female.

Fic. 38.—Melanostoma fasciatum : outline of head in protile.

Fie. 39.—M. fasciatum ; diagram of abdomen of male.

Fie. 40.—WM. fasciatum : diagram of abdomen of female.

Fia. 41.—WM. fasciatum : antenna.

Fie. 42.—Platycheirus lignudus n. sp.: outline of head in profile.

320 Transactions.

$. yes approximated at a point anterior to ocellar triangle, the orbits
being strongly angulated ; a naked area between the orbital angles and
ocellar triangle, so that, in profile, there appears to be an upper and a
lower tuft of hairs, the one on the ocellar triangle and the other on the
lower front; 3rd antennal joint ferruginous; face darker than in 2 and
with darker reflections. Pleurae black with a greyish reflection, the hairs
ferruginous just beneath the orange-red spot under wings. Bristles of hind-legs
very distinct. Genital segments bristly, shown with the gentialia in fig. 62.

3. Length,13mm. 9. Length, 17 mm.

Plesiotype: g, No. 1240; 9, No. 983, D. M.

Habitat—Throughout New Zealand; uncommon in some parts, but very
common in others—e.g., Day’s Bay, Wellington.

Genus HeLopuitus Meigen (1822).

The genus Helophilus may be characterized as follows: Eyes bare and
dichoptic in both sexes, though approximated in the male; face concave
below antennae, but nct dished, thence evenly convex; oral margin from
the cheeks strongly descending (fig. 77); body not densely but rather
inconspicuously haired ; posterior femora thickened but not unusually so,
and sometimes with a tooth below near the base; cell R, of wing open;
vein R,,, distinctly curved into cell R,; ; cross-vein r-m beyond middle
of cell Ist M,. Species usually large and robust, including the largest of
New Zealand Diptera; metallic in colour or blue and black “with yellow
stripes and spots.

Of the ten species already recorded from New Zealand, one has been
herein placed in the genus Mallota; another, described by the writer in 1910
as new, is now found to be a synonym of one of Walker’s species. Further,
after a careful examination of Hutton’s syntypes of vincinus, all of which
are females, it is apparent that this species is a variety intermediate between
the male and female of Schiner’s antipodus. H. antipodus and H. trilineatus
resemble each other closely in both sexes, and since only the male of anti-
podus and the femaie of trilineatus have until now been described—the
former by Schiner and the latter by Fabricius—the males and females of
both species have been grouped by Hutton and others under antipodus and
trilineatus respectively. From the original descriptions by Schiner and
Fabricius the sexes and species can, however, readily be separated, the
main character being the presence in trilineatus ($ and 2) of an inferior
tooth near the base of the posterior fémora— (femoribus) posticis
unidentatis”’? (Fabr.)—the presence or absence of which was not noted
by later authors.

Fic. 43.—Melanostoma fasciatum : genitalia of male.

Fie. 44.—Platycheirus lignudus n. sp.: antenna.

Fie. 45.—P. lignudus n. sp.: anterior tibia and tarsus.

Fie. 46.—P. lignudus n. sp.: diagram of abdomen of female.

Fie. 47.—P. atkinsoni n. sp.: outline of head in profile.

Fie. 48.—Xylota montana n. sp.: outline of head in profile.

Fie. 49.—Platycheirus clarkei n. sp.: anterior tibia and tarsus.

Fie. 50.—Tropidia bilineata : dorsal view of head of male.

Fic. 51.—T’. bilineata : dorsal view of head of female, showing colour-pattern.
Fic. 52.—7’. bilineata : outline of head in profile.

Fie. 53.—Xylota montana n. sp.: genitalia of male.

Hie. 54.—Tropidia bilineata : diagram of thoracic dorsum, showing colour-pattern.
Fic. 55.—Xylota montana n. sp.: posterior femur.

Fic. 56.—Tropidia bilineata : onychotarsus and appendages.

Fie. 57.—Mallota cingulata : dorsal view of head of female, showing colour-pattern.

321

Miuter.—The Diptera Fauna of New Zealand.

11—Trans.

Transactions.

Mituer.—The Diptera Fauna of New Zealand. 323

TABLE OF SPECIES.

1 Abdomen with yellow markings 2
Waionen without yellow markings ols Se ae 5
Abdomen distinctly clothed with golden hairs; the yellow
markings indistinct ; indistinct yellow markings on posterior
2 legs oc 3c AG 5 Sc .. tneptus.
Abdomen not distinctly clothed with yellow hairs; the yellow
markings distinct ; posterior legs distinctly marked with
yellow 56 Sc oe ae 5c ae 3
A pair of large spots on 2nd abdominal segment of ? and on 2nd
3 and 3rd segments of ¢ (figs. 66 and 71) i an 4
All the abdominal segments with dark-yellow markings and pale-
yellow circular spots (fig. 82) .. aC oe .. cargilli.
Median thoracic black stripe divided centrally by a long narrow
yellow stripe (fig. 70); apex of posterior tibiae black; no
tooth at base of posterior femora SC ae .. antipodus.
4) (4) A pair of small tawny spots at anterior angles of 3rd
abdominal segment be ee = .. antipodus var. vin-
cinus, &
| Median thoracic stripe not divided; apex of posterior tibiae
yellow ; a distinct tooth at base of posterior femora (fig. 74) trilineatus.
5 Abdomen deep blue or violet-black 5 x0 .. hochstetterr.
| Abdomen bronzy, bronzy-green, or cupreous be bes 6
Abdomen bronzy or bluish-green, without dead-black areas ;
| scutellum golden-brown basally, yellow apically .. .. campbellicus.
Abdomen cupreous, with indistinct dead-black areas; scutellum
tawny re 55 5c ye at .. chathamensis.

H. antipodus Schiner. (Plate L, figs. 1, 4.)

H. antipodus Schiner, Reise der Freg. ““ Novara,” Dipt., p. 3859 (1868).
(3) H. antipodus Hutton, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 33, p. 38 (1901).
(2) H. trilineatus Hutton, lc. Mallota antipoda Hutton, Cat.
Dipt. N.Z., p. 40 (1881). (2) A. interruptus Lamb, Subant. Islds.
N.Z., vol. 1, p. 183 (1909).

A large black fly with yellow stripes on the thorax and a pair of yellow
abdominal spots in the female and two in the male.

Q. Eyes bare; vertex and upper part of front velvet-black (the anterior
margin of this colour being sinuated) and densely clothed with erect black
hairs; lower part of front yellowish-brown but with a darker reflection
owing to vestiture of black hairs; a black or brownish-black transverse
band from eye to eye, across antennae and extending very slightly on to
front just behind the shiny dark-brown lunular area. Antennae velvet-
black with a greyish reflection on the circular 3rd jomt; arista black,
though somewhat reddish apically ; minutely pubescent basally. Face pale
yellow, with a dense greyish-yellow tomentum and scattered yellow hairs
except on a broad triangular median area over prominence ; face moderately

Fic. 58.—Platycheirus atkinsoni n. sp.: diagram of abdomen of male.
Fie. 59.—Tropidia bilineata: posterior coxa, femur, and tibia.
Fic. 60.—Mallota cingulata: outline of head in profile.

Fic. 61.—Tropidia bilineata : genitalia of male.

Fic. 62.—Mallota cingulata : genitalia of male.

Fic. 63.—Helophilus antipodus : outline of head in profile.

Fic. 64.—WMallota cingulata : posterior femur.

Fig. 65.—WM. cingulata : diagram of abdomen of female.

Fic. 66.—Helophilus antipodus : diagram of abdomen of female.
Fic. 67.—Tropidia bilineata : diagram of abdomen of female.
Fria. 68.—Helophilus campbellicus : dorsal view of head of male.
Fic. 69.—H. campbellicus : outline of head in profile.

11%

324 Transactions.

concave beneath antennae, thence evenly convex; anterior oral margin
notched and descending ; a broad shiny blue-black band along oral margin
extending from cheek and orbit to the anterior oral angle, where it narrows
and is reflected upwards to follow the contour of the mouth (fig. 63) ;
cheeks black, with a greyish reflection and greyish hairs; proboscis and
palpi brownish-black ; occiput greyish-yellow, with a slate-grey reflection
and clothed with greyish hairs; the posterior orbits narrowly silvered
for the most part, though narrowly black above.

Dorsum of thorax (fig. 70) clothed with a short yellowish-brown pile ;
4 brownish-yellow stripes and 3 blackish-brown ones, the median being
split anteriorly by a narrow yellow stripe; lateral black stripes with
narrow projections around the posterior margin of the transverse suture ;
a narrow blackish-brown stripe on each side from humeri toward wings,
but this stripe is indistinct in some lights ; pleurae black in ground-colour,
with a brownish or greyish tomentum and brownish-yellow hairs ; anterior
and posterior stigmata tawny or orange-yellow. Wings faintly tinged
with brown, the veins and stigma brown; squamae and anti-squamae
fringed with yellow hairs; halteres pale yellow ; scutellum brownish-black
or ranging to a lighter colour and clothed with black hairs and also a
yellow pile basally.

Femora clothed with pale-yellow hairs, anterior and middle pair black
but tawny at apex; posterior pair thickened, altogether black, clothed
with short black hairs and rigid ones below; anterior and middle tibiae
tawny with a fuscous band apically ; posterior tibae black on basal and
apical third, tawny in the middle, and with an indistinct tooth below
distally ; all the tarsi tawny.

Abdomen (fig. 66) broad, ovate and pointed apically, clothed with short
black hairs and a short yellow pile on the lighter areas; general colour
shiny black; a pair of large more or less rectangular tawny or testaceous
areas on 2nd segment, extending upward on each side over the posterior
angles of the Ist segment; the 3rd and 4th segments have each a pair of
indistinct greyish-black areas as shown in fig. 66; the retracted segments
have a pair of tawny styles at the apex.

Variations—The fuscous apical band of middle tibiae is sometimes
indistinct ; the abdominal tawny areas may be narrower or broader, and
in some cases are reduced to a pair of somewhat circular spots on the 2nd
segment.

H. antipodus var. vincinus 2 Hutton.
Helophilus vincinus Hutton, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 33, p. 38 (1901).

This variety agrees with antipodus in all respects except that the tawny
abdominal areas of the 2nd segment are larger and brighter and do not

Fie. 70.—Helophilus antipodus : diagram of thoracic dorsum, showing colour-pattern.
Fic. 71.—H. antipodus : diagram of abdomen of male.

Fic. 72.—H. antipodus : genitalia of male, ventral view.

Fic. 73.—H. antipodus : genitalia of male, side view.

Fic. 74.—H. trilineatus : posterior femur and tibia.

Fie. 75.—H., cargilli : genitalia of male, partial side view.

Fic. 76.—H. trilineatus : genitalia of male, ventral view.

Fic. 77.—H. trilineatus : outline of head in profile.

Fie. 78.—H. ineptus : diagram of abdomen.

Fie. 79.—H. trilineatus : genitalia of male, side view.

Fic. 80.—Myiatropa campbelli n. sp. : diagram of thoracic dorsum, showing colour-pattern.
Fie. 81.—Helophilus campbellicus : diagram of thoracic dorsum, showing colour-pattern.

Minuer.—The Diptera Fauna of New Zealand. 323

326 Transactions.

reach quite to the posterior margin except where they are continued round
the posterior angles and extend for a short distance as a spot on each side
along the anterior margin of the 3rd segment; the tawny vestiture, also,
is more distinct and forms orange-yellow hair most conspicuous along the
sides of 38rd and 4th segments ; in some cases the tawny areas of the 2nd
segment may be confluent with those of the 3rd over the posterior margin
of the former segment ; there may also be a small tawny spot at anterior
angles of 4th segment. All the known specimens of this variety are from
the Chatham Islands. The development of the abdominal spots and the
conspicuous orange-yellow vestiture tend to show that this variety is
intermediate between the 2 and ¢ antipodus.

The male of antipodus differs from the female in the following:
Vestiture of face longer ; posterior femora rather broader ; apical markings
of anterior and middle tibiae less distinct ; abdomen with a more conspicuous
vestiture and the 3rd segment with a distinct pair of tawny spots (fig. 71) ;
tawny areas of 2nd segment much broader than 9, thus resembling those
of var. vincinus 9; the indistinct greyish-black spots of 4th segment pre-
sent as in@. Genital segments (figs. 72 and 73) blue-black, the genitalia
tawny.

g. Length, 11-12mm. 9 Length, 13-15mm.. 2. Length, 14mm.
(var. vincinus),

Plesiotype: No. 977, D. M. Syntypes: Var. vincinus, Hutton’s col-
lection, Canterbury Museum.

Habitat —Throughout New Zealand ; Campbell Islands; var. vincinus,
Chatham Islands.

H. trilineatus Fabricius.

Syrphus trilineatus Fabr., Syst. Ent., p. 766 (1775). Eristalis tri-
lineatus Fabr., Syst. Antl., p. 238; Wied., Auss. Zweif., 1, p. 168
(1830). Helophilus trilineatus White, Voy. “Erebus” and “Terror,”
Ins., pl. 7, fig. 19 (1874); Walker, Cat. Dipt. Brit. Mus., p. 607
(1848) ; Hutton, Cat. Dipt. N.Z., p. 41 (1881); Trans. N.Z.
Inst., vol. 33, p. 38 (1901).

A fly closely resembling antipodus, but more robust and much larger.

9. Differs from antipodus in the following characters: Eyes more
approximated, the black of upper front, vertex, and ocellar triangle per-
manent in all lights only on the triangle, the yellowish-brown of lower
front being reflected over upper front and vertex, thus forming brownish
mottlings in some lights; transverse band across antennae broader at
frontal lunule; vestiture of front and vertex short; oral margin broadly
margined with blackish brown, which is not upturned to any extent along
anterior margin; oral margin not distinctly notched in front (fig. 77) ;
cheeks cinereous to pale yellow and clothed with whitish hairs; occiput
cinereous.

Median black stripe of thoracic dorsum not narrowly spilt anteriorly ;
upper two-thirds of pleurae cinereous-yellow ; scutellum black in some
lights but otherwise as in antipodus. Anterior and middle femora blue-
black on basal half, otherwise orange-red ; posterior femora altogether
blue-black, very much broadened to a bristly prominence distally below,
and with a stout spinose tooth below near base (fig. 74); around this
tooth and distal prominence of posterior femora orange-red, and the lower
side distinctly spinose; anterior and middle tibiae and all the tarsi
orange-red ; posterior tibiae orange-red but for a broad blue-black area
at base, and with a distinct apical tooth below.

MittErR.—The Diptera Fauna of New Zealand. 327

Tawny areas of 2nd abdominal segment encroaching more over the
posterior angles of Ist segment; no indistinct greyish areas on 3rd and
4th segments, but the 3rd segment transversely rugose and brownish-yellow
in the middle in some lights.

3.° As antipodus, but the yellow of front is more brownish and of the
face more greyish ; cheeks with a denser beard ; scutellum blue-black to
brownish ; legs differ from antipodus as do those of 2; colour-pattern
of abdomen paler. The points of difference in the genitalia of the two
species is seen by comparing figs. 72 and 73 with 76 and 79.

3. Length, 13mm. 9. Length, 17-19 mm.

Plesiotype : No. 1243, D. M.

Habitat —Throughout New Zealand.

Fie. 82.—Helophilus cargilli : diagram of abdomen of female.

Fic. 83.—H. campbellicus : diagram of abdomen of male.

Fic. 84.—Myiatropa campbelli n. sp.: diagram of abdomen of female.

Fie. 85.—Helophilus chathamensis : outline of head in profile.

Fie. 86.—Myiatropa campbelli n. sp. : apex of wing, showing shape of R2+3.

H. cargilli Miller.
H. cargilla Miller, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 43, p. 126 (1911).

A large robust fly with striped thorax and orange-red abdomen inter-
sected by black transverse bands and a median stripe, with pale-yellow
circular spots on segments (fig. 82). Resembles closely Myiatropa camp-
belli n. sp. (compare fig. 82 with fig. 84).

?. Hyes bare; ocellar triangle dark brown occupying whole of vertex
and clothed with dark-brown hairs; front orange-brown in some lights
with pruinose reflections and clothed as ocellar triangle; at times the front
is yellowish-brown or the upper half distinctly brown, this colour being

328 Transactions.

produced forward as a point over the lower part; frontal lunule orange-
brown and shiny; antennae and arista black. Face pale tawny with a
golden tinge and clothed with tawny hairs; a shiny naked median area
over prominence ; oral margin broadly banded with shiny blackish-brown
becoming lighter as it merges into the tawny of face above ; face, in profile,
gently concave beneath antennae; cheeks and occiput greyish-yellow,
clothed with greyish hairs longer on the cheeks; proboscis and palpi
blackish-brown.

Dorsum of thorax clothed with a short brownish pile ; 3 blackish-brown
and 4 greyish-yellow stripes arranged as in antipodus; pleurae greyish-
black with yellowish areas in some lights and clothed with tawny hairs ;
scutellum orange-brown and clothed with brownish hairs; halteres tawny.
Wings clear, the stigma hardly coloured ; squamae yellowish and fringed
with long branched hairs; anti-squamae fringed with shorter hairs.
Legs hairy; tawny except for coxae, which are greyish, and for the
trochanters, base of femora, the Ist four tarsal joints (except the posterior),
and the posterior knees, which are blackish-brown; the onychotarsi
inclined to tawny ; posterior femora rather swollen and with delicate spines
beneath on distal half; posterior tibiae inclined to fuscous apically ; indis-
tinct inferior, apical spines on anterior and middle tibiae ; tarsi with minute
black bristles beneath and a golden reflection in some lights, particularly
on the posterior pair.

Abdomen (fig. 82) clothed with a short golden pile, longer at the sides ;
lst segment orange-yellow laterally, otherwise greyish (except where covered
by scutellum), a black spot on each side of greyish area; 2nd and 3rd
segments orange-yellow but with an H-shaped black area, the sides of the H
lying along the anterior and posterior margins and the cross forming a short
median stripe ; this black along the anterior margin does not reach to each
angle of the segment; the anterior margin of the 3rd segment may be so
covered by the overlapping posterior margin of the 2nd that the marking
appears rather as an inverted T; 4th segment brownish-black but with an
indistinct orange-yellow area on each side along anterior margin; 5th
segment greyish-brown with a darker indistinct median stripe; on the
2nd, 3rd, and 4th segments is a pair of greyish spots, one on each side of
median black stripe; these spots sometimes indistinct on 2nd segment ;
posterior margin of each segment rather brownish.

S$. Differs from 2 only in the more pronounced character of the
colour-pattern and in the broader posterior femora, their tibiae bemg
blackish-brown distally. Genitalia shown in partial side view in fig. 75.

3S. Length, 12mm. Q. Length, 13 mm.

Holotype: No. 377, D. M.

Habitat Dunedin, Purakanu, and Wellington.

H. ineptus Walker

H. ineptus Walker, Cat. Dipt. Brit. Mus., p. 608 (1849); Hutton,
Cat. Dipt. N.Z., p. 41 (1881); Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 33, p. 39
(1901). H. purehuensis Miller, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 43, p. 125
(1911).

A large sombre-coloured fly, the abdomen clothed with yellow hairs
and spotted toward the base.

3. Eyes bare, dichoptic ; ocellar triangle blackish-brown ; upper part
of front black, the lower greyish-yellow, the whole clothed with dark-brown

Mituter.—The Diptera Fauna of New Zealand. 329

hairs separated into two areas by a bare transverse area across middle of
front; lunular area dark brown and shiny. Antennae black, 3rd joint
with a silvery reflection at base ; arista bare and with a silvery reflection.
Face tawny with greyish reflections and tawny hairs ; a bare median tawny
area ; moderately concave beneath antennae ; oral margin broadly margined
with blackish-brown ; cheeks and occiput greyish-black and clothed with
greyish hairs longer on the cheeks ; an indistinct tawny spot at lower eye-
margin.

heer of thorax inclined to bronzy posteriorly with 3 broad black
stripes, otherwise greyish-brown though rather silvery along anterior margin
behind the head; clothed with a short golden to greyish-golden pile ;
scutellum bronzy to brownish, lighter in colour apically, and clothed with
long brown hairs; pleurae blackish-grey m ground-colour but with a
greyish-yellow reflection and rather golden hairs ; halteres yellowish-brown.
Wings clear, the stigma barely coloured ; squamae yellowish-grey and
fringed as in preceding species. Legs thinly clothed with yellow hairs,
the tarsi with closely-set short golden ones beneath; general colour
bronzy-black, the anterior and middle knees and basal half of the tibiae
brownish-yellow.

Abdomen (fig. 78) shiny, clothed dorsally with an orange-yellow pile ;
Ist segment bronzy; 2nd bronzy-black except for two triangular orange
spots, one on each side, their bases being along the sides of the segment
and extending over the posterior angles of Ist segment; 3rd and 4th
segments bronzy with a dome-shaped black spot from the centre of the
anterior margin; posterior margin of each segment with a narrow trans-
verse black band broader at the sides and in the middle ; genital segments
greyish-pruinose in some lights.

9. Vestiture of front not divided by a bare area; lower part of front
with darker reflections ; abdomen more conspicuously haired, the hairs
inclined to form golden areas at the anterior angles of the segments.

$ and 9. Length, 11 mm.

Plesiotype: g, No. 322, D. M.; 9, No. 317, D. M.

Habitat —Dunedin, Wellington, and Auckland.

H. hochstetteri Nowicki. (Plate L, fig. 3.)

H. hochstetteri Nowicki, Mem. Krakauer Akad. Wissen., 11, p. 23
(1875) ; Hutton, Cat. Dipt. N.Z., p. 42 (1881). H. latifrons
Schiner, Reise der Freg. ‘‘ Novara,” Dipt., p. 359 (1868) ; Hutton,
Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 33, p. 39 (1901). Mallota latefrons Hutton,
Cat. Dipt. N.Z., p. 40 (1881). Latifrons preoccupied Loew, Ber.
Ento. Zeit., vii (1863).

A moderately large robust fly, recognized by the brilliant violet-blue
to greenish abdomen and yellow-tipped scutellum.

@. Eyes bare; front black with greyish reflections and clothed with
dense black hairs; frontal orbits silvery in some lights; lunular area
brilliant orange-yellow but margined with black posteriorly ; Ist and 2nd
antennal joints black; 3rd joint orange-yellow but margined with brownish-
black along the upper and front edges; arista black. Face distinctly
concave below antennae, the protuberance shiny brown, this colour descend-
ing as a broad bare area to anterior oral margin ; oral margin bordered by
shiny black; remainder of face dullish black and clothed with blackish
hairs, silvery in some lights; facial orbits silvery; cheeks and occiput

330 Transactions.

blackish-grey with lighter reflections, the former clothed with greyish
hairs; a silvery spot at lower eye-angle; proboscis blackish-brown, the
palpi paler.

Dorsum of thorax rather densely clothed with short black hairs ; dull
black with 4 indistinct blue-grey stripes and a very narrow medio-
longitudinal one. The dorsum shows a shiny bluish and faintly metallic
tinge towards the scutellum ; pleurae blue-black with a greyish reflection,
and clothed, anterior to the wings, as the dorsum; thoracic spiracles
tawny ; a brilliant orange-yellow spot beneath the root of wings ; scutellum
shiny, dark brown except for orange-yellow apex, and clothed with black
hairs ; in some cases the yellow almost covers the whole scutellum. Wings
clear, the stigma faintly tinged, veins blackish-brown; squamae and
anti-squamae tinged and margined with black, the former fringed with
long black branched hairs and the latter with short hairs; halteres
brownish-yellow. Femora blue-black with a greyish reflection and clothed
with white hairs; posterior femora broad, with a yellowish area beneath
at apex and short spines along lower side distally; tibiae and tarsi
brownish-black ; the anterior and middle tibiae paler brown basally ; the
posterior rather produced to a blunt inferior process apically ; tarsi with
lighter reflections, golden on the posterior pair.

Abdomen indistinctly clothed with short white hairs, longer at sides of
apical segments and merging into brownish hairs along sides of Ist and
2nd segments; Ist segment dull, the remainder brilliant violet-blue, at
times with a greenish tinge more distinct in some specimens ; vestiture on
2nd, 3rd, and 4th segments arranged as a pair of indistinct areas separated
in the middle by a longitudinal dull-black spot which arises from the
anterior margin, narrows, thence widens, and ends before reaching the
posterior margin.

$3. Eyes dichoptic; frontal orbits parallel half-way down the front,
thence divergent ; from the angles thus formed on each side a shining black
triangle projects across front, forming a bare transverse area; in some
specimens 3rd antennal joint not margined with blackish-brown but merely
with a brownish area at insertion of arista ; genitalia orange-yellow.

3. Length. 9mm. 9. Length, 11 mm.

Plesiotype : No. 1244, D. M.

Habitat—Throughout New Zealand.

H. campbellicus Hutton.
H. campbellicus Hutton, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 34, p. 170 (1902).

A moderately large sombre-coloured fly with an indistinctly-striped
thorax, bronzy to bluish-green abdomen, and tawny scutellum.

9. yes bare ; front blackish-brown with a dense vestiture of blackish
hairs and greyish reflections on lower half, becoming silvery along orbits ;
lunular area large and tawny, narrowly margined behind with black, the
posterior margin cleft by a median groove ; Ist and 2nd antennal joints
black, 3rd joint orange-red broadly margined with black; arista black.
Face (fig. 69) moderately concave beneath antennae, the protuberance and
a broad area on each side bare and tawny; in some of the New Zealand
specimens there is a black or brownish central stripe ; remainder of face
brownish-yellow with black and silvery reflections and clothed with silvery
hairs; oral margin broadly margined with black; facial orbits silvery

Mrtuter.—Vhe Diptera Fauna of New Zealand. 331

beneath ; cheeks and occiput blackish-grey, the former bearded with grey
hairs ; proboscis and palpi black.

Dorsum of thorax clothed with a brownish pile which is silvery in some
lights ; blackish-brown with four broad greyish stripes and a narrow medio-
longitudinal one anteriorly (fig. 81); a brownish area with golden hairs
extending from wing-articulation over alar regions ; pleurae greenish-black
and clothed as dorsum; spiracles tawny; an orange spot beneath root of
wings ; scutellum tawny, darker basally, and clothed with brownish hairs.
Wings faintly tinged, veins blackish-brown, the stigma pale brown ; squamae
translucent, greyish, margined with brown, and fringed with brownish hairs
arranged as in preceding species; halteres reddish-brown. Legs clothed
with greyish hairs ; femora blackish-brown but fulvous distally ; posterior
femora broadened and with short spines below distally ; tibiae fulvous,
the anterior and posterior darker distally and with short hairs on lower
side giving a golden reflection ; tarsi brownish-black, but with a greyish
reflection above and golden beneath.

Abdomen broad, ovate, and clothed with short silvery hairs which
lengthen along the sides to form a distinct fringe ; vestiture arranged in
areas on 2nd, 3rd, and 4th segments giving an indistinctly spotted appear-
ance as shown in fig. 83 (the areas in the 2 are larger). All the segments
briliant bronzy-green with duller and indistinct blackish markings between
the areas of hair. :

$. Front brownish with a narrow transverse blackish band from
angles of orbits (fig. 68). Antennae varying in intensity of colour, the
marginal black of 3rd joint sometimes absent. Abdomen duller bronzy-
green, the areas of vestiture more distinctly white though narrower than
those of 9. ‘

$. Length, 11mm. 9. Length, 12 mm.

Holotype: 9, Hutton’s collection, Canterbury Museum; g, No. 1079,
D. M.

Habitat—Campbell Islands (Hutton) and throughout New Zealand.

H. chathamensis Hutton.
H. chathamensis Hutton, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 33, p. 39 (1901).

This species has not so far been found in New Zealand ; Hutton’s four
specimens were captured on the Chatham Islands and preserved in spirit ;
there are two females, one of which is the holotype, and two males.
There is a rather close resemblance between chathamensis and campbellicus,
though they differ distinctly in the colour of the abdomen; but whether
the action of the preservative has had any effect on the colour of the
former species it is difficult to say.

The distinguishing features of chathamensis are the following :—

2. Front blackish-brown, the lower half with a distinct yellowish-
grey reflection ; face (fig. 85) clothed on each side with yellowish hairs
and greyish-yellow tomentum; the protuberance and oral margin shiny
black ; proboscis and palpi brownish. Thorax, scutellum, wings, and
legs as campbellicus, but the tarsi black and the posterior femora not as
broad ; halteres pale-brown. Abdomen bronzy, clothed more or less with
tawny hairs; the “dead-black patches in the middle of each segment ”’
mentioned by Hutton are, when present, very indistinct. The abdomen
is narrower than that of campellicus.

332 Transactions.

g. The markings of the tibiae are more or less distinctly defined; a
distinct transverse groove across front at orbital angulations ; genitalia
tawny.

3S. Length,9mm. 9. Length, 11 mm.

Holotype : Hutton’s collection, Canterbury Museum.

Habitat.—Chatham Islands.

Genus Myratropa Rond.

The species of this genus closely resemble those of Helophilus, from
which they may be distinguished by the hairy eyes, those of the male being
almost holoptic. Myiatropa differs from Hristalis by the open cell R,.

M. campbelli n. sp.* (Plate LI, fig. 1.)

This fly is very nearly identical in form and colour with Helophilus
cargula.

2. Hyes approximated on vertex, clothed with golden hairs indistinct
above but conspicuous in front and below; front widening anteriorly,
orange-brown with darker reflections, and clothed with a brownish pile ; a
medio-longitudinal fissure ending half-way down the front at a transverse,
central, brownish area, below which the front has a transversely wrinkled
appearance ; lunular area orange-yellow but black posteriorly ; a blackish
area on front just behind lunule. Antennae shaped as in Helophilus ; 1st
and 2nd joints brownish-yellow to brownish-black; 3rd joint orange-
yellow with a silvery reflection and faintly tinged around the border with
brown ; arista blackish-brown. Outline of face as in Helophilus ; face a
rich tawny colour, transversely wrinkled, and clothed on each side with
tawny hairs; prominence bare, tawny on each side but centrally with a
brownish-yellow stripe; oral margin bordered with blackish-brown, this
colour narrowing to the anterior angles; cheeks and occiput tawny, the
former bearded with tawny hairs; proboscis dark brown, palpi paler.

Dorsum of thorax clothed with short brownish to tawny hairs; 3
longitudinal broad black stripes, the median stripe furcate and the lateral
ones interrupted (fig. 80) ; angles of transverse suture bordered with black ;
a short narrow and oblique black stripe at wing-articulation ; dorsum
otherwise tawny ; suture from humerus to wing indistinctly black ; pleurae
black in ground-colour, the meso-, ptero-, and upper part of sterno-pleurae
tawny-pruinose and clothed with tawny hairs; the stigmata pale tawny.
Legs orange-red with a tawny reflection, except the shiny brownish-black
basal part of the femora, all of which are clothed with tawny hairs; the
posterior femora not broadened, tapering distally, and with spies below
toward apex. Wings faintly tinged basally with yellow; the stigma pale
yellow ; veins brownish-yellow ; vein R,+, strongly upturned and curved
slightly backward apically (fig. 86).

Abdomen broad and oval (fig. 84), clothed with short tawny hairs except
on black parts; 2nd and 3rd segments with large orange-red areas
separated from each other and from the posterior margin of each segment
by black; on each of these areas centrally is a distinct greyish-yellow
circular spot ; the orange-red of 2nd segment encroaches over the posterior

* Named after Mr. J. W. Campbell, of Christchurch.

EP RANSSENE Ze NST ViOne sleliil: PLATE

Fie. 1.— Myiatropa campbelli n.sp.: adult female. >

Fic. 2.— Merodon equestris : adult male. ~ 4.
Fic. 3.—Eristalis tenax: adult male. x 4.

Face p. 332.)

TRANS) No. [NST . Vion lll Prate LIP

Fic. 1.—Paragus pseudo-ropalus n. sp.: adult male. X 4.
Fic. 2.—Syrphus harrisin. sp.: adult female. 4
Fic. 3.--Hristalis tenax larva submerged in water. Magnified.

Miiuer.—The Diptera Fauna of New Zealand. 333

angles of Ist segment; 3rd segment with a dome-shaped greyish-yellow
spot on the black part in the middle at posterior margin ; 4th segment with
a much larger spot in middle at posterior margin, the orange-red of this
segment confined to the anterior margin at each side, the remainder of
the segment greyish-yellow except for the black, arranged as in fig. 84;
5th segment yellowish-grey, except for a median rectangular spot from
anterior margin and for the brownish-yellow apex; 4th and 5th segments
clothed with long tawny hairs; the sides of Ist and 2nd segments with
golden hairs.

2. Length, 14 mm.

Holotype: No. 1245, D. M.

Habitat—Day’s Bay (HK. H. Atkinson) ; Otira (J. R. Harris).

Genus Meropon Meigen (1803).*

This genus is readily recognized by the hairy and bee-like nature of the
species ; the open cell R,, together with the recurrent vein M,, the elongated
cell M, and the shortened cell Ist M, ; the extraordinarily large triangular
process near the apex of the posterior femora on the underside; the
swelling on the underside of the posterior tibiae just beyond the middle ;
and the apical inferior process.

There is only one species found in New Zealand, and that is the
Kuropean narcissus-fly (MZ. equestris Fabr.) (Plate LI, fig. 2). The general
colour is black and the wings clear; the thorax and abdomen are clothed
with a dense pile, orange on anterior half of thorax and posterior half of
abdomen but otherwise black. The head is clothed with golden pile, and
in the male the eyes meet at a point on the middle of the front.

The larvae are fleshy maggots, and are well known for their attacks
upon imported narcissi and other bulbs. This species is not universally
established in New Zealand, but the adults have been found at Christ-
church, Wellington, and Auckland.

Length, 11-14 mm.

Genus Eristauis Latr. (1804).

This genus may be recognized by the hairy eyes, holoptic in the male ;
the pilose thorax and hairy legs, and the closed cell R,.

The only species found in New Zealand is the European drone-fly
(EZ. tenax Linn.) (Plate LI, fig. 3), which has become thoroughly established
throughout the country and is one of our most common insects. The
abdomen has a pair of transverse yellow triangular spots on the 2nd seg-
ment, the posterior margin of which is also yellow; there is also a pair of
similar, but much smaller, spots on the 3rd segment. A considerable
amount of variation occurs both in size and colour, the abdomen, for
example, being at times completely blackish-brown. The larvae of the
drone-fly are of the well-known “ rat-tailed ” type, frequenting weedy ponds
and decaying filth (Plate LI, fig. 3).

Length, 11-16 mm.

* Coquillett (Type Species of N. Amer. Dipt., 1910) states that Merodon Meig. is a
synonym of Lampetia Meig. (1800).

{ Coquillett (/.c.) considers that Hristalis Latr. (1804) is a synonym of J'ubifera
Meig. (1800).

334 Transactions

Art. XXXII.—WNotes and Descriptions of New Zealand Lepidoptera.
By E. Meyrick, B.A., F.R.S.

Communicated by G. V. Hudson, F.E.S., F.N.Z.Inst.

[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 22nd September, 1920; received by
Editor, 29th September, 1920 ; issued separately, 8th August, 1921.]

PYRAUSTIDAE,
Scoparia crypsinoa Meyr.

Having by degrees received from Mr. Hudson a considerable series of
this rather variable species, I am now of opinion that agana Meyr. can
only be regarded as a synonym of it, as I find no constant distinction.

TORTRICIDAE.
Harmologa brevicula n. sp.

2. 23mm. Head, palpi, and thorax yellow-whitish. Abdomen whitish.
Forewings oblong, rather short, costa anteriorly gently arched, posteriorly
nearly straight, apex obtuse, termen hardly oblique, rounded beneath ;
pale greyish suffusedly mixed with yellow-whitish, more yellowish-tinged °
towards dorsum; cilia white. Hindwings whitish, very faintly greyish-
tinged on dorsal half; cilia white.

Arthur’s Pass, 4,000 ft., in February (Hudson); one specimen. Much
shorter-winged than szraea 9, and with termen much less oblique than in
tritochlora 9, which are the two species nearest to it.

GLYPHIPTERYGIDAE.
Heliostibes chlorobela n. sp.

3. 22mm. Head dark grey. Palpi grey-whitish, anteriorly suffused
with dark fuscous, terminal joint hardly half as long as second. Antennae
fasciculate-ciliated (3). Thorax dark fuscous suffused with ferruginous.
Abdomen dark fuscous, segmental margins light grey, anal tuft grey. Fore-
wings elongate, gradually dilated, costa slightly arched, apex obtuse, termen
straight, hardly oblique; dark fuscous, suffusedly overlaid with deep fer-
ruginous ; extreme costal edge white anteriorly except at base, and whitish
marks on costal edge at $ and 3; some scattered whitish hair-scales towards
middle of disc, and between # of costa and tornus; cilia grey, basal
half dark fuscous. Hindwings blackish; a suffused gradually expanded
ochreous-whitish median streak from near base to beyond cell; cilia
ochreous-whitish, towards tornus and apex greyish, with dark -fuscous
basal shade.

Mount Arthur, 3,600 ft., in January (Hudson); one specimen. Closely
allied to illita, of which it might be supposed to be a mountain form with
loss of orange colour of hindwings, but the difference in structure of palpi
(terminal joint in dlita about 2 of second) indicates that it is probably
distinct.

Meyrricxk.—Wotes and Descriptions of N.Z. Lepidoptera. 335

Charixena n. gen.

I propose this name in place of Philpottia Meyrick (Trans. N.Z. Inst.,
vol. 48, p. 416), which, as Mr. Hudson has kindly pointed out to me, was
unfortunately preoccupied by Philpottia Broun in Coleoptera the year before.
I could not know this at the time.

HELIODINIDAE.
Stathmopoda phlegyra Meyr.

With increased material I find that fusilis Meyr. cannot be kept
specifically separate from this.

ELACHISTIDAE.
Elachista exaula Meyr.

An abnormal variety (2) from the Mataura River (Hudson) has pos-
terior 2 of forewing suffused with rather dark grey ; the normal type occurs
in the same locality, and I am confident that it is only a variety, though
of much interest, as it seems to connect the species with the dark-winged
group.

PLUTELLIDAE.
Orthenches cuprea Meyr.

A fine specimen now sent by Mr. Hudson shows that this species was
wrongly placed in Hyponomeuta, the maxillary palpi being well developed,
curved, ascending, as usual in Orthenches ; they must have been damaged
in the original type.

TINEIDAE.

Astrogenes n. gen.

Head with dense loosely-appressed hairs; ocelli posterior; tongue
absent. Antennae 2, in ¢ pubescent, basal joint short, without pecten.
Labial palpi rather long, slightly curved, subascending, with appressed
scales, second joint rough beneath, with lateral series of rather short
bristles, terminal joint as long as second, transversely flattened, obtuse.
Maxillary palpi rather long, several-jointed, folded, scaled. Posterior tibiae
clothed with hairs above. Forewings with 2 from towards angle, 7
to costa, 11 from before middle. Hindwings 1, ovate-lanceolate, cilia
nearly 1; 2 widely remote, 3-7 nearly parallel.

Allied to Tinea.

Astrogenes chrysograpta n. sp.

3. 13mm. Head, thorax, and abdomen dark fuscous. Palpi whitish,
anterior surface forming a strong black streak with whitish edges. Fore-
wings elongate, rather narrow, costa gently arched, apex obtuse, termen
extremely obliquely rounded; dark bronzy-fuscous, with some bronzy
suffusion in disc posteriorly ; markings pale golden-metallic; a slender
streak along basal half of fold; a slightly excurved transverse line before
middle ; five transverse dots on posterior half of costa, second confluent
with a transverse mark in disc; a transverse mark from dorsum before
tornus ; a small transverse apical spot: cilia light greyish, with dark-fuscous
subbasal shade, and within this some golden-metallic basal marks. Hind-
wings dark purple-grey ; cilia grey.

Mount Arthur, 4,200 ft., in January (Miss Stella Hudson) ; one specimen.
An interesting and beautiful insect.

336 Transactions.

Tinea fagicola n. sp.

3. 10mm. Head grey, face whitish. Palpi rather short, whitish
banded with dark fuscous. Antennae whitish-grey ringed with black.
Thorax blackish, somewhat pale-sprinkled. Abdomen dark grey. Fore-
wings elongate, rather narrow, costa gently arched, apex obtuse-pointed,
termen very obliquely rounded; dark fuscous irregularly speckled with
whitish ; variable short white costal strigulae, normally five or six on basal
third, three about middle, two at 3, one or two beyond this, and two
before apex; oblique narrow blackish fasciae from costa before and beyond
median group not reaching dorsum; two or three suffused white strigulae
on middle of dorsum: cilia grey with black subbasal line and dark-fuscous
subapical shade, marked with white on praeapical strigulae. Hindwings
dark grey; cilia grey, with dark-fuscous subbasal line.

Day’s Bay, Wellington, from December to February, on Fagus trunks
(Hudson); seven specimens. Although very dissimilar to the normal
form of 7. margaritis, I have a mottled variety of that species which made
me at first doubtful whether this might not be a dark local form of it; it
may be useful, therefore, to point out that (as I find on closer study) the
palpi in margaritis are much longer and more slender relatively, and the
antennae in margaritis are relatively longer, with closer and much more
numerous joints (nearly 50), whilst in this species they do not much exceed
30 and are more distinct.

NEPTICULIDAE.
Nepticula progonopis n. sp.

3S. 6mm. Head deep orange. Antennae dark grey, eye-caps whitish.
Thorax dark purple-grey, Abdomen dark grey. Forewings lanceolate ;
dark purple-grey: cilia grey, toward base mixed with dark purple-grey.
Hindwings with frenulum long, simple; dark grey; cilia grey.

Mount Arthur, 4,000 ft., in January (Hudson); one specimen.

HEPIALIDAE.
Porina ascendens n. sp.

2. 42-52mm. Head, thorax, and abdomen pale ochreous. Fore-
wings with costa almost straight, arched near apex, termen slightly rounded,
oblique; pale bronzy-ochreous; an irregular-edged inverted-triangular
patch of grey-whitish irroration extending beneath middle from base to ?,
more or less partially edged above by a dark-fuscous line and also anteriorly
beneath ; post-median and subterminal series of small whitish spots or
marks finely edged with dark-fuscous irroration parallel to termen, placed
in more or less developed bands of grey-whitish irroration: cilia pale
ochreous sometimes mixed with dark fuscous, obscurely barred with whitish.
Hindwings very pale rosy-grey, tinged with pale ochreous towards termen ;
cilia pale ochreous barred with whitish.

Mount Arthur, in January (Hudson); two examples. Although I have
not seen a male, I venture to describe this, which is quite distinct from any
other.

Puitpotr.—Notes and Descriptions of N.Z. Lepidoptera. 337

Art. XXXIII.—Notes and Descriptions of New Zealand Lepidoptera.

By AurreD Puivport, F.E.S., Assistant Entomologist, Cawthron Institute,
Nelson.

[Read before the Nelson Institute, 27th November, 1920 ; received by Editor, 31st
December, 1920; issued separately, 8th August, 1921.]

CARADRINIDAE
Aletia gourlayi n. sp.

3. 35mm. Head and thorax grey. Palpi ochreous-grey with black
hairs laterally. Antennae serrate, ciliate, 1. Abdomen ochreous-grey.
Legs ochreous- grey, tarsi obscurely banded with darker. Forewings,
costa straight, apex rectangular, termen bowed, waved, oblique ; bluish-
grey mixed with fuscous-brown ; lines whitish, obscure, indicated by
fuscous margins ; basal line very obscure, indicated chiefly by two blackish
dots on costa; first line irregular, narrowly margined with fuscous which
becomes prominent on costa as two blackish dots; orbicular circular,
narrowly ringed with darker; a rather prominent dentate curved brownaish-
fuscous median line; reniform obscurely ringed with whitish followed by
dark fuscous ; a pair of black dots on costa above reniform ; second line
faint, evenly serrate, irregularly curved ; subterminal irregularly serrate,
anteriorly dark-margined, suffusedly on costa and, in a lesser degree, on
dorsum ; a terminal series of crescentic black dots: cilia ochreous mixed
with fuscous and white; an obscure waved median line. Hindwings
fuscous : cilia whitish-ochreous.

A neat and handsome species, distinguished from its allies by the
delicate silvery-grey ground-colour.

Arthur’s Pass. Several taken at flowers of Dracophyllum sp. in February
by Mr. E. 8. Gourlay, of Christchurch. Type in the discoverer’s collection.

Melanchra fenwicki n. sp.

3. 37mm. Head, palpi, and thorax reddish-brown. Antennae reddish-
brown, bipectinated, apex simple, pectinations 33. Abdomen greyisk-
brown, lateral and anal tufts reddish-ochreous. Legs reddish-brown, tarsi
obscurely annulated with paler. Forewings moderate, costa slightly sinuate,
termen evenly rounded, oblique ; dark reddish-brown ; an obscure basal
fascia mixed with blackish; stegmata ringed with ochreous-white, faintly
margined with black; orbicular circular, well defined; claviform sub-
circular, obscure ; reniform upright, regular ; subterminal line parallel with
termen, thin, slightly and irregularly serrate, ochreous-white, suffusedly
margined anteriorly with brownish-black: cilia uniform reddish-brown.
Hindwings and cilia pale reddish-fuscous, tips of cilia whitish.

Nearest to M. insignis (Walk.), but differing entirely in the form of the
subterminal line and the longer antennal pectinations.

Dunedin, in September. One specimen, taken by Mr. C. C. Fenwick,
after whom I have named the species, and in whose collection the type
remains.

338 Transactions.

HYDRIOMENIDAE.
Xanthorhoe clandestina n. sp.

$. 35mm. Head and palpi grey-whitish. Eyes olive-brown. Antennae
dark grey, pectinations 5 but appearing shorter owing to being basally
appressed to the shaft. Thorax grey. Abdomen whitish-grey. Fore-
wings elongate-triangular, costa sinuate, apex bluntly pointed, termen
straight, oblique ; bluish-grey ; lines faintly indicated in darker ; an irregular
basal line at +; first line at 4, double, slightly waved ; discal spot rather
elongate, transverse, dark; a fairly straight, slightly waved, median line ;
second line from 2 costa to 3 dorsum, excurved on upper half, faintly
margined with white on veins: cilia white, basally mixed with grey.
Hindwings grey, slightly darker round termen : cilia white.

The bluish-grey colour of this species recalls the much larger X. sub-
obscurata (Walk.), but the latter differs in the presence of ochreous and
whitish shades.

Arthur’s Pass, in February. I am indebted to Mr. HE. 8. Gourlay for
the opportunity of describing this species, he having captured a single
specimen which, so far, remains unique. Type in the collection of its
discoverer.

Xanthorhoe helias obscura n. subsp.

39. 26-30mm. Head and palpi ochreous, the latter usually darker.
Antennae, shaft whitish-ochreous, pectinations darker. Thorax ochreous,
tinged with reddish on shoulders. Abdomen ochreous mixed with fuscous,
anal tuft bright ochreous. Legs whitish-ochreous, anterior pair suffused
with fuscous. Forewings dull fuscous shading to ochreous along costa ; first
and second lines distinct, narrow, white ; subterminal thin, whitish, some-
times partially obsolete: cilia pink. Hindwings ochreous, apical half
fuscous; second line prominent, irregular, whitish, anteriorly fuscous-
margined ; one or two parallel ochreous lines sometimes follow second line,
and there are indications occasionally of preceding lines also: cilia pink.

The Hump (Waiau), late in February. The males are fairly common
in a damp scrub-filled gully, but only one female was taken. The latter
sex is remarkable in having both fore and hind wings much narrowed.

I should not hesitate to accord this form specific rank but for the fact
that some of the specimens, by loss of the fuscous colouring, approach the
typical helias. It cannot be said from the material at hand, however, that
the two forms really link up.

Notoreas arcuata n. sp.

2, 27mm. Head, palpi, and thorax golden-yellow with some whitish
scales. Antennae black, annulated with whitish. Abdomen black, seg-
mental divisions whitish. Legs ochreous-whitish, strongly infuscated, tarsi
annulated with ochreous. Forewings triangular, apex obtuse, termen
bowed, oblique ; dark fuscous, densely irrorated with yellow ; lines narrow,
white, sometimes yellow-tinged ; a basal line anteriorly broadly margined
with black, curved, distinct, slightly irregular; first line strongly curved,
irregular, posteriorly margined with black ; a black discal dot ; an obscure
irregular yellow median line; second line anteriorly broadly margined

Puitpotr.—Notes and Descriptions of N.Z. Lepidoptera. 339

with black and followed by narrow yellow margin indented above and
below middle; subterminal irregular, dilated on costa and at middle,
yellowish above dorsum: cilia white, prominently barred with blackish.
Hindwings and cilia as forewings but basal line absent and subterminal
wholly yellow. Undersides reproducing markings of upper surfaces but
with the lines much broader and the basal area of costa suffused with clear
ellow.

: Mr. G. V. Hudson has two examples, both taken at Arthur’s Pass, the
first in December, 1908. Mr. R. Grimmett has a single specimen, captured
on the St. Arnaud Range, Nelson.

Differs from Notoreas mechanitis (Meyr.) in the less triangular forewing,
the costa being more arched; the form of the second line is also quite
different. It is possible that when the male is discovered the species will
have to be placed in Dasyuris. Type in Mr. Grimmett’s collection, to
whose kindness I am indebted for the opportunity of describing the species.

MONOCTENIADAE.
Adeixis griseata (Huds.), Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 35, p. 244, pl. 30, fig. 5.

Haying received, through the kindness of Mr. George Lyell, of Gisborne,
and Dr. Jefferis Turner, of Adelaide, a number of examples of Adeizxis
inostentata (Waik.), I have come to the conclusion that the New Zealand
insect hitherto regarded as being indentical with the Australian species is
distinct, and therefore should be known as A. griseata (Huds.). Walker’s
material came from various parts of Australia, as did also Warren’s, who
redescribed the species under the name of Adewxis insignata (Nov. Zool., 4,
p. 27). A. griseata (Huds.) differs from A. inostentata (Walk.) chiefly in
the well-marked white lines beneath costa and from apex to dorsum at 4.
In my “ List of the Lepidoptera of Otago” (Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 49,
p. 210) I refer to griseata (under the name of inostentata) as being probably
of recent Australian origin, having been found only in the vicinity of the
Port of Bluff. Since the publication of the list, however, the species has
been taken by Mr. G. V. Hudson and Mr. C. KE. Clarke at remote localities
in the North Island, and I have also met with it at Lake Manapouri.
I am much indebted to Mr. H. Hamilton, of the Dominion Museum staff,
for assistance in the matter of literature relating to the Australian insect.

SELIDOSEMIDAE,
Selidosema modica n. sp.

$. 30-3lmm. Head and palpi brownish-grey mixed with white,
pectinations 12. Thorax brownish-fuscous mixed with white, collar
ochreous. Abdomen grey. Forewings triangular, costa gently arched,
subsinuate, apex rectangular, termen rounded, more oblique on lower half ;
fuscous-brown ; first Jine obscure, sharply angled outwards beneath costa,
whitish ; an obscure blackish discal dot; second line from 2 costa to 2
dorsum, upper half straight, lower half incurved, white; a broad clear
brown band following second line; subterminal indicated by a series of
white dots, preceded and followed by black ones, on veins; a series
of black dots round termen: cilia brown mixed with whitish and grey.
Hindwings whitish-qrey, densely sprinkled with darker ; a dark discal dot ;
an irregular series of blackish dots round termen : cilia grey-whitish.

340 Transactions.

Resembling S. productata (Walk.), but at once distinguished by the
grey hindwings, those of the former species being always more or less
ochreous. The antennal pectinations are also shorter in modica.

Port Hills, Christchurch, in February. Two males captured by Mr.
EK. 8. Gourlay, who kindly presented one to me. The type is in the
collection of Mr. Gourlay.

GELECHIADAE,
Gelechia dividua n. sp.

32. 9-12mm. Head whitish-grey. Palpi grey, infuscated beneath.
Antennae blackish. Thorax brown. Abdomen grey, ochreous - tinged
basally. Legs fuscous-grey. Forewings narrow, costa slightly arched,
faintly sinuate on apical half, apex round-pointed, termen extremely
oblique ; brownish-grey ; a black central streak from base to before 4, attenu-
ated apically, sometimes margined beneath with ochreous ; @ similar streak
commencing slightly above and beyond basal streak and continuing to apex,
evenly widening from acute base: cilia brownish-grey. Hindwings shining
grey-whitish : cilia as in forewings.

Near G. monophragma Meyr., but the ground-colour is much darker
and the median black streak is not continuous as in that species.

Six specimens forwarded by Mr. C. C. Fenwick. Four of these are
from Paradise, Lake Wakatipu, taken on the lst January, and two from
Alexandra, Central Otago, captured a fortnight later. Type in Mr. Fenwick’s
collection.

OECOPHORIDAE.
Borkhausenia seclusa n. sp.

3S. 16-17mm. Head and palpi grey, palpi infuscated beneath.
Antennae grey, obscurely annulated with blackish. Thorax fuscous-grey,
shoulders brown. Abdomen greyish-brown. Legs ochreous-grey, tarsi
infuscated. Forewings rather elongate, costa moderately arched, apex
rounded, termen strongly oblique ; brownish-grey mixed with white and
fuscous ; stigmata fuscous, first and second discal in a line, obscurely white-
margined ; plical before first discal, submerged in oblique fuscous fascia
from dorsum to beneath first discal; a subterminal curved fuscous line,
indented beneath costa, submerged in brownish-fuscous patch above tornus
and reappearing on dorsum before tornus as a triangular spot, broadly
margined with white on upper portion ; space above apical half of dorsum
broadly suffused with white: cilia grey mixed with fuscous, round apex
wholly fuscous. Hindwings and cilia grey.

Nearest B. crotala Meyr., but greyer than that species and without any
ochreous admixture. The hindwings are also darker.

Known from the Wakatipu district only so far. A single male captured
on Ben Lomond in December, and another secured at Lake Luna a few
days afterwards. Both specimens were taken at elevations of from 1,500 ft.
to 2,000 ft.

Izatha acmonias n. sp.

32. 25-28mm. Head white. Palpi white. Antennae brownish-black.
Thorax white, anterior margin, a triangular central anterior mark, and a
posterior spot black. Legs black, posterior. tibiae grey, tars! narrowly

Puiteotr.—Notes and Descriptions of N.Z. Lepidoptera. 341

annulated with white. Forewings moderate, costa rather strongly arched
basally, apex rounded, termen gently rounded, slightly oblique; white,
markings black ; a broad basal band including a minute spot of white next
thorax, outer edge nearly straight to fold, thence produced along fold to an
acute point, from whence it returns inwardly oblique to dorsum; an irregular
fascia from costa at } to fold before 34, its apex turned inward along fold
and almost connecting with basal band, a strong inward tooth beneath
costa and a similar outward one at middle ; a strong fascia from costa at $
to before tornus, having two prominent inward projections, the first beneath
costa and the second, which points obliquely downwards, at middle; an
irregular spot on tornus at 3; a series of three spots, the central one twice
the size of the others, between central fascia and apex ; a small spot beneath
first costal spot, and a larger one, touching central fascia, beneath this ; a
broad inwardly-oblique fascia from apex, somewhat constricted and then
expanding as a triangular patch ; a series of terminal dots, becoming pro-
gressively larger towards tornus: cilia white. Hindwings grey clouded
with fuscous ; an indistinct discal spot: cilia light fuscous-grey, a broad
white bar beneath apex and an obscure dark basal line.

Practically the only difference between I. acmonias and I. picarella
(Walk.) is the greater breadth of the transverse fasciae and other black
markings in the former. It is usually a larger insect, but the smallest
individuals are no greater in wing-expanse than the largest of picarella.

November and December. Rather rare, but distributed throughout
the lowland forest country of the South Island. Several years ago this
species was sent by Mr. G. V. Hudson to Mr. E. Meyrick, who gave it the
MS. name of acmonias. He did not, however, publish a description, having
subsequently arrived at the conclusion that the form was not specifically
distinct from picarella (Walk.). I therefore adopt Mr. Meynick’s suggested
name, my experience of the insects having convinced me of their distinctness.

TINEIDAE.
Taleporia cawthronella n. sp.

3. 9mm. Head and thorax ochreous-grey. Palpi whitish. Antennae
grey annulated with black, ciliations 3. Abdomen grey-fuscous. Legs grey-
whitish. Forewings, costa slightly arched, faintly sinuate, apex rounded,
termen strongly oblique ; whitish-grey, slightly ochreous and irrorated with
fuscous especially on basal ? ; base of costa irregularly brownish-black to };
a rather large brownish-black spot on costa at 4; three smaller brownish-
black spots on costa on apical 4; an irregular transverse brownish-black
discal spot; a series of small blackish-brown spots round termen: cilia
grey-whitish. Hindwings and cilia fuscous-grey.

Maitai Vallev, Nelson. A large number bred from larvae found on the
face of a gravelly cutting by the side of the Maitai River. Many hundreds
of the larvae were to be found at this one spot, but search in similar
situations in this and other valleys failed to result in the discovery of other
colonies. The larva inhabits a case constructed of the fragments of a species
of white lichen. The case is irregularly pyriform in shape, rough on the
surface, and, when containing a full-grown larva, about 6mm. long by
3°5 mm. broad. It is a rather fragile shelter, being easily pulled to pieces.
In travelling, the head and thorax are projected from the case, and when
a foothold is secured the case is lifted clear of the surface and drawn forward.

342 Transactions.

Should the case catch on a projection an extra high lift is given to clear
the obstacle. The larvae began to pupate about the end of June, the first
moth appeared on the 3rd August, and emerging continued till the middle
of October. When preparing for pupation the larvae attaches the apex of
its case to the surface of a stone or the stem or leaf of some plant. The
attachment is not rigid, but permits the case to swing in all directions.
The head of the pupa is well separated from the thorax, and the legs reach
quite to the extremity of the abdomen. On the dorsal surface of the last
abdominal segment there is a transverse row of stout recurved spines ;
these probably serve to keep the pupa from slipping from the case when the
emergence of the imago is taking place.

As this is the first new species to be reared in the insectarium of the
Cawthron Institute, | have thought it fitting to give it a name serving in
some degree to mark the circumstance. The type and paratypes are in the
collection of the Institute.

MIcROPTERIGADAE.
Sabatinca ianthina n. sp.

392. 910-5 mm. Head clothed with long bright ochreous hair.
Antennae blackish, annulated with ochreous on basal half. Thorax ochreous
mixed with black. Abdomen black, sparsely clothed with whitish-ochreous
hair. Legs fuscous, tarsi annulated with ochreous. Forewings broadly
lanceolate, apex less acute in 9; dark metallic violet ; a band of pale lemon-
yellow at base ; a lemon-yellow band before 4, faintly excurved, and dilated
slightly on dorsal half; a variable series of lemon-yellow dots on costa
between median band and apex, and a similar series on dorsum, usually
two in each case but sometimes four or five: cilia greyish-fuscous. Hind-
wings dark metallic violet, fuscous basally: cilia as in forewings.

A very handsome and distinct species.

Dun Mountain, Nelson, at about 2,000 ft. A fair number were taken on
a rocky slope covered with various species of mosses and liverworts. Many
plants of a species of Gahnia grew on the spot, and the moths were nearly all
taken by sweeping from this plant. Search on Gahnia, however, in other
situations where no moss or liverwort was present failed to produce any
moths, so that it is probable that the food plant of the species will be found
to be a moss or a liverwort.

Tintyarp.—Deseription of a New Dragon-fly. 343

Art. XXXIV.—Description of a New Dragon-fly belonging to the Genus
Uropetala Selys.

By R. J. Tittyarp, M.A., Sc.D. (Cantab.), D.Sc. (Sydney), F.L.S., F.E.S.,
Entomologist and Chief of the Biological Department, Cawthron Institute
of Scientific Research, Nelson, N.Z.

[Read before the Nelson Institute, 23rd December, 1920; received by Editor, 31st December,
1920 ; issued separately, 8th August, 1921.|

Plate LILI.

THRouGH the much-appreciated kindness of Dr. C. Chilton, Professor of
Biology at Canterbury College, Christchurch, I was enabled, during the
summer of 1919-20, to spend a few days at the Cass Biological Laboratory.
In company with Dr. Chilton and Mr. Charles Lindsay, of the Canterbury
Museum, I collected a number of dragon-flies from the streams around
Cass; later on I obtained a number of the same species from Arthur’s
Pass. In both localities a large Uropetala was seen flying about, and a
number of specimens of both sexes were obtained. At first I took this fine
dragon-fly to be Uropetala carover White, recorded from many localities
in New Zealand, and also being the only known member of the genus.
Later on, however, I obtained specimens of Uropetala from Lake Wakatipu,
and also from the North Island, which in many characters did not agree
with those taken at Cass and Arthur’s Pass. It became evident that there
were two species of Uropetala present in my collections, one of which
agreed closely with the descriptions given by White and de Selys for
U. carover, while the other was undescribed. It is this latter species which
occurs at Cass and Arthur’s Pass.

While at Cass we located an area in a small mountain-swamp where
the holes made by the larvae of this dragon-fly were abundant. By merely
inserting one’s fingers into these holes, which are made in peaty soil, and
are about din. in diameter, and by working one’s hand downwards,
enlarging the hole at the same time, until a depth of from 10 in. to more
than 1 fe. is attained, the larvae can be felt as hard inert objects at the
bottom, and can be hauled out with ease. Unlike the larvae of U. carovet,
which, as far as my experience goes, are very fierce and liable to snap at
one’s fingers when handled, these larvae were very inert, and could be
handled with safety. As the last three instars were obtained, this habit
is not likely to be due to the approach of ecdysis. for more than fifty
larvae were taken out and handled. I hope later on to make a careful
comparative study of these two larval forms, with a view to the discovery
and recording of any morphological differences that may be present. In
the meantime, Mr. W. C. Davies, Curator of the Cawthron Institute, has
very kindly offered me an excellent photograph of the larva of U. carovei,
taken from a specimen found in the Wairarapa district, for publication in
this paper. From this photograph, which is reproduced in Plate LIII, a very
good idea can be obtained of the general appearance of these larvae. As
far as I know, no accurate figure has yet been published of the larva of
U. carovei, and I wish to thank Mr. Davies for this excellent photograph.

I wish to dedicate this new species, whose description follows, to
Dr. Chilton as a memorial of the excellent work which he has done, and
is doing, in connection with the Cass Biological Station.

344. Transactions.

Uropetala chiltoni n. sp.

3. Total length, 83mm. ; abdomen, 60mm. ; forewing, 49mm. ; hind-
wing, 47mm. ; expanse, 102mm.

General shape exactly as in U. carovei.

Head.—Kyes dark brown, the inner portion of the orbits blackish,
the outer marked with a yellowish line. Occiput broadly yellow, as in
U. carovei. Vertex black, the three ocelli brown. Frons yellow above, but
with the black colour of the vertex encroaching basally for a short distance,
as shown in text-fig. 2B; anterior portion of frons broadly yellow, this
colour encroaching very slightly upon the upper portion of the postclypeus.
Postclypeus and anteclypeus both black; genae yellow. Labrum with
black margins surrounding a pair of partially fused subrectangular blocks
of yellow, separated above only by a downward-projecting, short, median
bar of black. Labium brown. The colouring of the facial portion of the
head is shown in text-fig. 24.

2B.

Colour-pattern of head in Uropetala.
Uropetala carovei White: Fig. 14, face; fig. 1B, upper portion of frons.
Uropetala chiltoni n. sp.: Fig 24, face; fig. 2B, upper portion of frons.

ac, anteclypeus ; ant, antenna; fr, upper portion of frons; fr’, anterior
portion of frons; g, gena; Ir, labrum; pc, postclypeus.

Thorax. — Prothorax small, dark brown, hairy. Synthorax blackish
brown, with paired dorsal and lateral stripes of yellow, very similar to
those seen in U. carovei. The dorsal stripes are, however, broader than
those in U. carovei, and stand closer to one another towards the middle
line, leaving a narrower band of blackish brown along the mid-dorsal
carina. The metanotum and lower part of the mesonotum are densely
clothed with grey hairs, and similar hairs extend down on to the dorsal
part of the first abdominal segment, and less abundantly on to the second
also. Breast covered with long grey hairs. Legs entirely black. Wings
as in U. carovei

Abdomen.—Shape narrow-cylindrical, segments 1-2 broader than the
rest. Sides of 1-2 less hairy than in U. carovei, the edges of the lateral
sheaths bordering the genital fossa almost hairless; in U. carovei the hairs
on these parts are very distinct. Colour dark brown shading to black, with

Trans. N.Z. Inst:, Vor. LID. Prate LIII.

Full-grown larva of Uropetala carovei White. X 2. From a photograph taken by
Mr. W. C. Davies, Curator of the Cawthron Institute.

Face p. 344.)

gene A Teens
:

7 7

a)

TrLLyarD.—Description of a New Dragon-fly. 345

a pair of large basal yellow spots on each segment from 2 to 8; these
spots are larger, squarer, and stand more closely together than do the
corresponding spots in U. carovei. Segments 9-10 black, a brown mark
low down on each side of 9, and a yellowish transverse line bordering the
suture between it and 8; 10 with a pair of brown spots high up on the
sides. Appendages: Supeviors broadly black, foliate, as in U. carovet ;
inferior shorter, subtriangular, upcurved, downy beneath, blackish brown,
tip very distinctly truncate, more so than in U. carovei.

2. Slightly larger and stouter than $; general shape and coloration
closely similar to that of g, but the upper part of the frons has the black
colour encroaching upon it medially as a broadly triangular blotch, and
the spots of the abdomen are considerably larger than in the 3. Append-
ages short, 1mm., black, separated by a brownish, downy tubercle.

Types.—é (holotype) and 2 (allotype) taken together at Arthur’s Pass,
19th January, 1920, and placed in the Cawthron Institute collection, which
also contains a series of paratypes from the same locality.

Habitat—Arthur’s Pass and Cass, N.Z.

The specimens taken at Cass had only recently emerged, and were not
in as good a condition for descriptive purposes as those taken a week later
at Arthur’s Pass; hence I have chosen the types from the latter series.
It should be noted that all parts described here as yellow were in life pale
creamy-yellow, not the rich lemon-yellow associated with mature examples
of U. carovei. Possibly the new species assumes the deeper yellow colouring
with advancing age, but we cannot be certain of this at present; it may
equally well be that the creamy colour of the markings is a specific
character.

Before deciding to describe this new species the specimens were taken
to Europe and carefully compared with the specimens of U. carovei in the
British Museum and in the de Selys collection at the Brussels Museum.
This comparison established the fact that the specimens from Arthur’s Pass
and Cass were very distinct from any of the specimens of U. carovet in
these coilections. Whether the differences are of true specific value, or
only indicate a subspecies or geographical race, it is not easy to decide ;
but they are so well marked, and so constant over the whole series of forms
examined, that I have decided to consider them as of specific value.

The main differences between U. carovei White and U. chiltona n. sp
may be summed up as follows :—

The two species can at once be separated by the very distinct colour-
patterns of the head, as may be seen from text-figs. | and 2. In
U. carovei the labrum is entirely black, and the frons has much less yellow
on it than in U. chiltoni; the manner in which the black encroaches on
the frons both from above and below, in the case of U. carovet, is well
shown in text-fig. 1. It should, however, be noted that, in the case of
the females only, the pattern of the upper part of the frons is somewhat
similar in both species.

On the thorax the dorsal bands are wider in U. chiltoni; also, the
femora of this species are black, those of U. carovei being either brown or
yellowish.

On the abdomen the arrangement and colour of the hairs at the base
is very characteristic of each species, as already shown in the description,
while the yellow spots in U. chiltoni are distinctly larger, squarer, and
closer together than those in U. carovei. The appendages are closely
similar in general appearance, but in the male of U. chiltond the inferior
appendage is distinctly more truncate at the tip than in U. carovet.

346 Transactions.

As the large and conspicuous dragon-flies belonging to the genus Uro-
petala appear to be common in many parts of New Zealand, it should not be
a difficult matter to work out the distribution of the two species if collectors
will send along specimens from new localities for determination. As long
as there was supposed to be only one species present there was no induce-
ment to do this. So far as known at present, U. carovei occurs over the
whole of the North Island, and also in the Lake Wakatipu district of the
South Island, while U. chiltona occupies a middle position at Arthur’s Pass
and Cass. This suggests that U. chiltoni may possibly be the species that
inhabits the west coast of the South Island, and that it may be encroaching
upon the domain of the eastern species through the gap at Arthur’s Pass.
It would otherwise be difficult to explain the presence of the species typical
of the North Island in a locality such as Lake Wakatipu. It is, in any
case, clear that, as regards the genus Uropetala, each Island does not
possess its own peculiar species, but that some other barrier than Cook
Strait has operated to bring about the differences existing at present.

Art. XXXV.—Studies of New Zealand Trichoptera, or Caddis-flies :
No. 1, Description of a New Genus and Species belonging to the
Family Sericostomatidae.

By R. J. Tittyarp, M.A., Sc.D. (Cantab.), D.Sc. (Sydney), F.L.S., F.E.S.,
Entomologist and Chief of the Biological Department, Cawthron Institute
of Scientific Research, Nelson, N.Z.

[Read before the Nelson Institute, 23rd December, 1920; received by Editor, 31st December,
1920 ; issued separately, Sth August, 1921.]

INTRODUCTION.

At the present twenty-six species of caddis-flies are known from New Zea-
land, distributed between fifteen genera, belonging to six families—viz.,
Rhyacophlidae, Hydroptilidae, Polycentropidae, Hydropsychida, Lepto-
ceridae, and Sericostomatidae. The first five of these families belong to
the more primitive suborder Aequipalpia, in which the maxillary palps
of both sexes are five-jointed ; the Sericostomatidae, on the other hand,
belong to the suborder Inaequipalpia, in which the maxillary palps of the
male are reduced to four or three joints.

The suborder Inaequipalpia contains only three families out of the
dozen now recognized as valid by students of this Order. Of these, the
Phryganeidae can be recognized readily enough by the presence of ocelli,
and by the males having the maxillary palps four-jomted. No representa-
tives of this family have so far been discovered in Australia or New Zealand ;
they are also absent from Africa. The Limnephilidae, which are the
dominant family of caddis-flies in most parts of the world, are distinguished

TrtuyArD.—Studies of New Zealand Trichoptera. 347

from the Phryganeidae by the males having the maxillary palpi only three-
jointed, with the jomts of normal cylindrical form, and never carrying
specialized hairs or scales upon them. These also have not yet been found
either in Australia, New Zealand, or Africa.

The family Sericostomatidae contains all those caddis-flies in which the
maxillary palps of the male are reduced to three, or sometimes even to two
jomts, and are specialized by being of abnormal form and position, and
carrying either long, thick hairs or sometimes even scales. They differ,
too, from the Limnephilidae in having the ocelli nearly always absent.

The Sericostomatidae are the dominant family of caddis-flies in the
fast-running rivers and mountain-streams of New Zealand. Our known
species are placed in no less than seven genera, of which five are peculiar
to New Zealand, one being found also in Australia, and one (Helicopsyche)
found everywhere except in Africa.

In their life-histories the Phryganeidae and Limnephilidae differ from
the Sericostomatidae both in the general habitat of the larva and in the
form of its case. In the two first-named families the larva usually inhabits
still or slowly moving water, and the case is formed of vegetable matter.
A number of Limnephilidae, however, make use of other materials, such
as shells of small mollusca, sand, &e. These cases are always portable.
In the Sericostomatidae it is the exception for vegetable matter to be
used in forming the case, and the larvae mostly habit running water.
Most of the cases are formed of sand, or of a stiff, semitransparent chitinous
material secreted by the larva. Occasionally small stones or pebbles are
used, and much more rarely small pieces of twigs. The larvae are usually
gregarious, and can be found in large numbers attached to rocks, stones,
or sunken logs.

The classification of the family Sericostomatidae is a most difficult
matter, and remains in a very unsatisfactory state, in spite of the excellent
work of Ulmer. A large number of genera, including those found in New
Zealand, are not placed in any definite subfamily or tribe, but are treated
as a kind of appendix to the family proper. Amongst these one may easily
single out the two New Zealand genera Oeconesus and Pseudoeconesus by
their general superficial likeness to Limnephilidae. They have the broad,
well-rounded wings usually found in this latter family ; whereas most of the
Sericostomatidae have the wings more narrowed or pomted. In life, too,
they resemble Limnephilidae fairly closely. The larvae form cylindrical
cases of small stones or pebbles, and these are usually found either singly,
or two or three together, attached to rocks in swiftly running streams.
They are very difficult to rear, as the larvae die very quickly when removed
from the water.

In Mr. G. V. Hudson’s collection at Karori, Wellington, there is a pair
of very large caddis-flies evidently closely allied to the Oeconesus group.
In size these are much larger than any other caddis-flies known in New
Zealand, the male being 14 in. in expanse, the female nearly 2in. They
were taken in the Routeburn Valley, above Lake Wakatipu. Mr. Hudson
very kindly allowed me to study these insects in December, 1919, when I
happened to be in Wellington, and I desire to thank him for giving me the
opportunity. The present paper is the outcome of that work, written in
the light of considerable further study of this difficult family.

While on a visit to Cass, in January, 1920, I found a number of
very large cylindrical cases made of small pieces of beech-twigs arranged

348 Transactions.

transversely. Later on I jomed Mr. George Howes at Arthur’s Pass, and we
found the same cases in the streams around that locality. Those at Cass
were all empty; but Mr. Howes was most fortunate in finding one at
Arthur’s Pass containing a pupa, which emerged soon afterwards. The
insect proved to be the same species as that which I had been studying in
Mr. Hudson’s collection. These facts are given as a guide to any collector
who might desire to obtain this insect by rearing it.

The full description of the imago is as follows :—

Family SERICOSTOMATIDAE.

Genus ZELANDOPSYCHE nov. gen.

Allied to Oeconesus Mch., and to Pseudoeconesus McL., but more especi-
ally to the latter, the forewings having neither a costal fold nor a well-
defined groove. Spurs 2, 4, 4; the two sets on the middle and hind tibiae
close together. In the male the maxillary palps (fig. 2) are three-jointed
and raised upwards, so as to lie close against the face ; the first two joints
are very short, cylindrical, the third very long, its basal two-thirds being
fusiform, its apical third much narrower and cylindrical ; the swollen basal
portion carries some long soft hairs, the apical portion more numerous but
much shorter ones. Antennae slightly longer than’ forewing in male, the
basal joint thickened, as long as the next three taken together.

Fic. 1.—Zelandopsyche ingens n. g. et sp., ¢. Venation of forewing: Af,, Afo, Afs,
the first three apical forks respectively ; Cuy,, first cubitus; M,, Mo, M3+a,
the three branches of the media respectively; M-+ Cu, fused stems of
media and cubitus; R, to Rg, the five branches of the radius: rc, radial
or discoidal cell; Se, subcosta; sp,{wing-spot; #¢, thyridium.

Wing-venation differing considerably in¥the two sexes. In the female
the venation is fairly normal; but R; ends up on R, instead of on the
wing-margin, and the fork of Cu, is abnormal, in so far as Cuy, is in the
form of a cross-vein, and fuses with Cu, not far from its apex. The
discoidal or radial cell is closed, the median cell open. From the thyridium
(fig. 1, ¢), Ms44 runs obliquely downwards in a straight line to connect
with Cu, by a very short cross-vein at the point of origin of Cuy,, which
continues this lime downwards with a backward bend. Near the base, M, Cu,
and 1A are all fused together; 2A and 3A junction with 1A after it has
left M and Cu, which continue fused for a farther short distance. In

TrttyArD.—Studies of New Zealand Trichoptera. 349

the forewing of the male the venation is similar to that of the female from
the costa down to M,, except that the discoidal cell is much larger, Rs
bifurcating very close to the base. Below this there is an area of high
specialization, in which the thyridium and that portion of the main stem
of M lying basad to it appear to have become completely fused with Cu,,
and also with Cu,. Mgi4 is unbranched, and leaves the cubitus distally
in such a manner as to suggest a normal cubital fork. The anal venation
is also abnormal, and cannot be interpreted with certainty. The hind-
wings of both sexes are closely similar, with fairly normal venation ; the
discoidal cell is closed, the median cell open, and apical forks 1, 2, 3, and 5
all present.

Genotype : Zelandopsyche ingens n. sp.

This genus differs from Pseudoeconesus and Oeconesus in the much larger
size and the form:of the maxillary palpi of the male; in the two genera
mentioned the third joint is much swollen and of an oval shape. It also
differs from both genera in the peculiar specialization mentioned in the
male venation in the region of the thyridium of the forewing. It differs
further from Pseudoeconesus in having Re+3, forming the anterior border
of the discoidal cell, straight, and from Oeconesus in lacking the costal fold
and definite groove in the forewing.

The three genera Oeconesus, Pseudoeconesus, and Zelandopsyche appear
to me to be so distinct from the rest of the family that they might
legitimately be placed together in a single tribe Oeconesini, distinguished
by their broadly rounded forewings and general superficially Limnephilid
appearance. Representatives of this tribe occur very rarely also in Aus-
tralia and Tasmania, but have not yet been described.

Zelandopsyche ingens n. sp. (Figs. 1-3.)

ade Total length, 12‘7mm.; abdomen, 8-2mm.; forewing, 19mm. ;
hindwing, 16 mm.; expanse of wings, 38-5 mm.; antennae, 21-5 mm.

Fic. 2.—Zelandopsyche ingens n. g. et sp., ¢. Head viewed antero-ventrally. to show
bases of antennae (anéf.), maxillary palpi (mxp.), and labial palpi (Up.).

Head rich brown ; eyes black; antennae brown, the articulations of the
oints beyond the scape only faintly indicated. Maxillary palps as described
or the genus, dark brown. Labial palps pale brown, slender, the basal

350 Transactions.

joint shortest, the second and third about equal; viewed from below, the
second joint is ridged along both edges, and carries short hairs. Fig. 2
shows the two pairs of palps and the base of the antennae in situ, as seen
somewhat ventrally from in front.

Thorax dark brown; prothorax very short, mesothorax large and
stoutly built, metathorax rather short. Legs pale brown, very long, the
length of the hindleg when extended being about 21 mm.; the tibial spurs
as in the generic definition. Forewings dull fuscous-brown, costal margin
paler brown ; hairs very short, the venation clearly visible ; apical half of
wing irrorated irregularly with ‘small paler-brown areas, especially along the
anastomosis and for 3mm. to 4mm. inside the apical margin. Hindwings
of a paler brown, costal margin and distal end of Sc yellowish-brown ;
hairs exceedingly short, except at base of anal veins and along anal border,
where very long pale-yellowish hairs are abundant. Venation as given in
the generic definition ; that of forewing of male is shown in fig. 1.

Abdomen dull greyish-brown, the first segment slightly paler. Append-
ages rich brown, shaped as shown in fig. 3

a.

Fig. 3.—Zelandopsyche ingens n. g. et sp., ¢ Anal appendages viewed from three
directions: a, dorsally and slightly from the left; 6, ventrally and slightly
from the left; c, laterally.

Female very similar to male, but larger. Forewings paler, with a large
subquadrangular blotch of pale yellowish-brown between Cu and 1A about
two-fifths from base; the paler irrorations are more definite, and tend to
become arranged in transverse rows across the distal half of the wing.
Maxillary palps with joints 1-2 short, 3-5 long and about equal. Abdomen
stouter and longer than in male, the terminal portion (somewhat shriveled)
apparently carrying downward lateral flaps on segments 8-9.

Types.—Holotype, 3, and allotype, 2 , in Mr. G. V. Hudson’s collection.

Habitat—Taken amongst stones at the water's edge, Routeburn Valley,
near Lake Wakatipu.

GrirFrin.—Four Fishes new to New Zealand. 351

Art. XXXVI.—Descriptions (with Illustrations) of Four Fishes new
to New Zealand.

By L. T. Grirrin, F.Z.8., Assistant in the Auckland Museum.

[Read before the Auckland Institute, 15th December, 1920; received by Editor, 31st
December, 1920 ; issued separately, 8th August, 1921.]

Plates LIV, LV.

DurinG the past two or three years a good deal of systematic work has
been done in the Auckland Museum in investigating the fish fauna of
New Zealand, this work having been made possible by the advent of the
trawling industry in the waters of the Auckland Provincial District. It
is now thought desirable that particulars of exceptional interest should be
placed on record. It is now possible, with the co-operation of the owners
and masters of the boats, to obtain much fresh material ; and good results
are anticipated from this source, which will not only add to our collections,
but also enable us to gain a better knowledge of local marine life generally.

The following are descriptions of four species new to our fish fauna,
and are of particular interest, as three of them belong to genera not
previously known from New Zealand.

Family MYRIDAE.
Genus MurarEnicutuys Bleeker.
Muraenichthys breviceps Giinther. (Plate LIV, fig. 1.)

Muraenichthys breviceps Giinther, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (4), vol. 17,
p. 401, 1876; McCulloch, Biol. Results, “ Endeavour,’ pt. 1,
De2iepiose 7. LOE T,

Body vermiform, scaleless, its greatest depth being rather more than
3 in the head. Head, by including its own length, is 10 times in the total,
or 34 in the trunk, the latter measurement taken from the posterior margin
of gill-opening to vent. Eye small, about 3 in the snout, which is 44 in
the head. Snout short, broad. The muscles on the occiput are swollen,
rendering the upper profile concave. Anterior nostrils placed near the
end of snout and contained in a small tube, the orifice of which is divided
by a thin membrane, forming two single openings. A flap overhanging the
lips covers the posterior nostril, which is situated just before and below the
eye. Cleft of mouth extends far behind the eye. The lower jaw closes
within the upper, and has a row of widely-spaced pores throughout its
length. Pores are also found on upper surface of head and behind the eye.
Tongue immovable. Teeth granular, obtusely pointed, and partly embedded
in the membrane of mouth; they are arranged in a triple series on the
palate, and in a single series in the jaws. Lateral line arched above the
branchial sac, but from this point it continues in a straight line to the tip
of tail. There is a row of numerous minute pores placed below and at
short distances apart throughout its length. Dorsal and anal fins very
low, many-rayed, and placed within a shallow groove ; they extend round
the end of tail. Origin of the dorsal much nearer the head than vent,
whilst the origin of the anal is 52mm. from centre of total length. Gill
opening small, with its upper anterior margin dilated.

352 Transactions.

Colour in Alcohol.—Above lateral line uniform light brown, densely
crowded with minute darker-brown dots, which are scarcely visible to the
naked eye ; below the lateral line it is much paler, and shows the muscular
structure through the skin.

Measurements.—Total length, 620mm. ; vent to tip of snout, 250 mm. ;
origin of dorsal to end of snout, 96mm.; middle of eye to tip of snout,
11 mm.; vertical depth of body, 18 mm.

Described from a fine specimen sent me for identification by Mr. W. F.
Worley, of Nelson, to whom I am greatly indebted for the privilege of
examining it. Mr. Worley informs me that it was captured by Mr. Gossi
in Tasman Bay, near Nelson, and, although he had fished in the neigh-
bourhood daily for a number of years, he had never seen such an eel before.

From the above it would appear to be rare in the south of New Zealand ;
but since receiving Mr. Worley’s specimen the Auckland Museum has
received three others, taken in the Manukau Harbour by Mr. Hugh Wright,
of Epsom, who stated that they were not uncommon during November,
and came up readily to a light when held close to the water at night-time.
Our largest specimen from the Manukau Harbour is not quite so fine as
the Nelson fish, the latter being apparently fully grown, but except in size
I found no variation whatever.

In a letter to me, Mr. A. R. McCulloch says, “ The adult of this species
has never been properly described, and it is apparently very rare in museum
collections. Its discovery in New Zealand waters creates a most interesting
zoological record.”

Toc.—Tasman Bay, near Nelson; Manukau Harbour, Auckland.

Family SERRANIDAE.

Genus CALLANTHIAS.

Callanthias splendens n. sp. (Plate LV, fig. 1.)

D: xi/X1; A. m/X1; Voi/V ; BP. XXDs CC. XVI-S. lis tat. (oso
liens. Eyl elles

Body oblong, compressed, covered with moderate finely ctenoid scales
the bases of which are furnished with small to minute scales of a similar
character arranged in groups of from 3 to 5. Its depth is contained rather
less than 34 times in the total length. Lateral line continuous, commenc-
ing at upper angle of the operculum, then ascending obliquely backwards,

fz reaching its highest point near to the base of the
Lae 4th dorsal spine; it then follows an even course
& Sy, close to the base of the dorsal fin and passes into

ee the caudal. The tube is straight, almost covering
2. BG each scale. Head, excepting the extreme tip of

ip)
R40!

iy

i? snout, covered with small ctenoid scales; it is
22 3 not contained quite 5 times in the total length,

2 and barely 14 in the greatest height, which is
vertical from the Ist anal spine. Operculum
with 7 series of scales, and armed on its upper
posterior margin with two moderately strong
flattened spines placed close together, the lower
being the longest. Preoperculum entire, its
angle rounded and smooth. Hye moderate,
3 in the head. Interorbital space high, convex, covered with very small
ctenoid scales. Maxillary not extending quite as far as the vertical from

why

wy
» yy

3
dn
4 ; a ae
Ye

Y,
GY,

4

Diagram of scales of Callan-
thias splendens. 3.

Prats LIV.

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vou. LIII.

‘uoumouds UMOTS

194

4
‘ahapups

ienh-oo1yy &

ULO,

gs

v40/)

TL

5 OIL

‘sdaniaa

et)

@
e

fi

Ynpouanin J —"] “oy

Face p. 352.)

Trans. N.Z. [vst., Vou. LIL. Pratt LY.

Fic. 1.—Callanthias splendens n. sp.

Kia. 2.--Spheroitdes nitidus n. sp.

Grirrin.—Four Fishes new to New Zealand. 353

centre of eye. Its base is completely hidden beneath the preorbital, and its
distal end is very narrow and furnished with minute ctenoid scales. Mouth
feebly protractile, oblique; the hinder margin of premaxillary fitting close
to the anterior margin of preorbital. A very strong narrow membranous
fringe depending from the upper angle of premaxillary hides the vomer.
Jaws equal when the mouth is closed. A single series of villiform teeth
in both jaws extending well into the angles. Those of the upper jaw are
fewer in number than those of the lower. A few stronger and slightly
hooked canines are found sparsely disposed among the smaller ones, and
the two anterior canines of the lower jaw are produced outwards. Snout
obtuse ; the posterior nostril, situated above the anterior margin of eye, is
a single, simple, oblong opening, whilst the anterior one is very minute,
placed in a short tube, situated midway between its fellow and the tip of
snout; there is a minute pore in front of and behind it. Various pores are
scattered about top and sides of head. A line of pores commencing behind
the eye completely surrounds that organ. Branchiostegals 6; gills 34;
the membrane united in front. Giull-rakers 29, long and hair-like on the
lower half of anterior arch. Pseudobranchii present. Dorsal fin moderate,
and placed in a groove ; it increases slightly in height backwards, the last
four rays being the longest. Anal fin similar to the dorsal, but the soft
rays are somewhat longer; it is placed in a groove, which, like that of the
dorsal, is not deep enough to enclose the fin when laid back. The mem-
brane of both fins is strong, and has a waved appearance. Pectoral
rounded, the upper rays slightly the longest; it goes 6 times in the total
length of fish, and 14 in the height. Ventrals with a moderate spine, the
distal half being much flattened ; they reach to the posterior margin of the
vent. Caudal with its upper and lower outer rays produced ; the upper,
which is the largest, is 27 mm. beyond the margin of middle rays. All
the rays of the caudal are covered with minute ctenoid scales almost to
their outer margins.

Measurements —Total length, 225 mm.; height, 65mm.; thickness of
body, 31 mm.; length of head, 45mm.; eye, 15 mm.

Trawled at the entrance to the Hauraki Gulf, Auckland, September,
1920.

Colour—The colour given for this specimen was determined by com-
parison with Ridgway’s Colour Standards and Nomenclature. Top of head,
excepting the extreme tip of snout, silvery light phlox-purple, joimed on
the shoulders by a broad triangular band of light vinaceous rufous, which
reaches downwards, following the margin of operculum, to the base of the
lst pectoral spine. Behind the eye there is a band, lemon chrome-yellow
in colour, and about half the diameter of the eye in width, which reaches
to the posterior margin of operculum. This is joined below by another
band of similar width, but of a dull lavender-violet colour. Lower half of
head and opercles silvery-white, the margins of all the scales being greyish,
and their centres touched with pale lemon-yellow. Maxillary silvery-white ;
the scales on its distal margin are dull lavender-violet. Tip of snout and
premaxillary pinkish-white. Lower jaw very pale lemon-white Hye
lemon-yellow, streaked with zinc-orange, the lens being blue-black. Body,
from top of back downwards to an uneven line drawn from centre of
pectoral to the caudal peduncle, a light rosolane-purple hue over bright
silver, and below this, reaching to the ventral surface, it is ivory-yellow,
the centres of the scales reflecting olympic blue. Above the base of
ventrals there is a patch, 30mm. in width, which joins the body-colour

12—Trans.

354 Transactions.

behind the pectorals where all the scales are shaded with pale vinaceous
rufous. <A similar patch commences above the 4th anal ray, extending
along the lower side of the fish, between the margins of the body-colour
and the base of the anal fin, and reaches to the hinder margin of the caudal
peduncle. On the latter all the scales are broadly margined with primuline
yellow. In front of the ventrals, and reaching up to the base of the
pectorals, all the scales are bright lemon-yellow in colour. The colour of
the lateral line is somewhat deeper in tone than the body-colour, and a dull
magenta-purple blotch is found on it situated below the 6th-7th soft dorsal
rays. Spines and rays of the dorsal fin dusky white, the membrane being pale
naples-yellow, streaked with greyish-white. The margin of the whole fin is
tipped with a narrow band of rosolane-purple, and in the centre of the soft
portion there is a medium band of thin coral-red throughout its length. - A
few black streaks are found between the 7th and 8th spines. Anal fin similar
to the dorsal, with the exception of the coral-red band; there is a black
streak posteriorly between the 10th and 11th soft rays. Ventrals yellowish-
white, the spines and rays somewhat lighter. Pectorals with their anterior
rays rosolane-purple, getting much lighter backwards, the lower rays being
almost pure white. Caudal with its produced tips and central rays madder-
violet, the procurrent rays of both lobes being light lavender-violet.

This beautiful genus appears to be either very little known or very
rare, and it is most interesting to have discovered it in New Zealand
waters. In the British Museum Catalogue of Fishes (vol. 1, 2nd ed., 1895)
Boulenger gives an account of two species only—1.e., Callanthias peloritanus
from Madeira to the Mediterranean, and of C. allporti from the coast of
Tasmania. A good figure of the latter is given on pl. xv of the same
volume, and a comparison between C. allporti and my specimen shows
several marked specific differences. In C. splendens the dorsal fin has an
equal number of spines and soft rays, and the soft portion does not much
exceed the spinose in height. The greatly produced rays of the caudal are
another prominent feature. In C. allporti the soft dorsal has its hinder
rays much longer in proportion and more elevated backwards, and there
is one soft ray less in both the dorsal and anal fin, whilst the outer caudal
rays are subequal and very little longer than the rest of the fin.

Family LABRIDAE.
Genus Coris Lacepeéde.
Coris sandeyeri (Hector). (Plate LIV, fig. 2.)
Cymolutes sandeyert Hector in Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 16, p. 323, 1884.
Coris rer Ramsay and Ogilby, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., vol. 10,
pt. iv, p. 850, 1886.

Dovix/ Xi; A. 17K; (Vi NV oP, I Cx XV, late 8:

A fine specimen of this handsome fish was caught by one of the assistant
keepers at Cuvier Island lighthouse, near Auckland, in August, 1918. It
was sent to Mr. T. F. Cheeseman, Curator of the Auckland Museum, for
identification, and he handed it to me for examination. I came to the
conclusion that it was similar to a fish very briefly described by the late
Sir James Hector under the name of Cymolutes sandeyert, reference to which
is given above. If this is correct it is evident that Hector erred by placing
it in the genus Cymolutes, for I found that it possessed strong anterior canines
in the angles of the mouth, whereas the genus Cymolutes has none. Not
being quite sure of its identity, owing to the absence of comparative

Grirrin.—Four Fishes new to New Zealand. 355

material, I sent the specimen to Mr. A. R. McCulloch, the expert zoologist
to the Australian Museum, Sydney, who recognized it at once as being the ,
Coris rex of Ramsay and Ogilby. He suggested the possibility of Hector’s
type being the same species. I was fortunately able to obtain the loan of
Hector’s specimen from the Dominion Museum, and on making a comparison
I found the two fishes to be identical, although Hector’s specimen is some-
what the smaller. It is quite evident that the genus Cymolutes has not
yet been found in New Zealand waters, and it is interesting to know that
Coris sandeyeri, which is apparently very rare in museum collections, is
a permanent resident with us. I have since heard that others have been
taken at various times in the same locality. A fine description, with plate,
by Mr. McCulloch is given in Rec. Aust. Mus., vol. 13, No. 2, p. 67, pl. xiv,
fig. 2, 1920, and to him I tender my best thanks for identification of the
specimen and other valuable information. I also wish to express my
thanks to Dr. J. Allan Thomson, Director of the Dominion Museum, for
allowing me to examine Hector’s type, and to Mr. W. J. Phillipps for his
assistance.

For the convenience of students and for purposes of identification I am
giving Mr. McCulloch’s plate of Corts sandeyert, with a brief description of
my own and a colour-note made directly after the fish was captured.

Body oblong, compressed, covered with small cycloid scales. Its height
is contained 33 in the total length. Head naked. Snout sharply conical,
and the operculum produced into a broad flexible lobe. Mouth slightly
oblique, with a double series of strong conical teeth in both jaws. The
two anterior teeth in each project outwards as strong canines. A strong
canine tooth in each angle of mouth. Gills 3}; gill-rakers 11, on lower
half of anterior arch. Lateral line curves upwards towards dorsal fin
anteriorly, reaching its highest point beneath the 4th and 5th spines. It
continues straight for some distance, but commences to bend downwards
towards the centre of the height under the 9th soft dorsal ray. Dorsal fin
with its origin above centre of operculum, its margin somewhat rounded.
Origin of anal fin vertically beneath the 2nd dorsal ray; it is similar to
the dorsal in form. Caudal subtruncate, with its basal third covered with
scales.

Colour.—In giving a description of the colour I am relying entirely on
a chart of the Cuvier Island specimen which was drawn directly after its
capture. Never having seen the fish alive myself, I am unable to say
whether the particulars given below are accurate, but my informant seems
to have taken considerable pains to make them so.

Tip of snout to centre of interocular light green, deepening gradually
on the shoulders as far as the Ist dorsal spine to dark green. Preorbital
anteriorly dark green; nearer the eye it is red. Cheeks below eye red. Lips
flesh-colour. Behind the eye the upper portion of the preoperculum 4s
pink to a level with the bottom of eye, and below that it is light green as
far as its rounded angle. Operculum pale violet, the tip of flexible lobe
being deep violet. There is a light-blue patch in the angle of the mouth.
Lower jaw light blue anteriorly, deepening into violet on the suboperculum.
There is a patch on the throat almost bare of scales which is dark blue. The
first vertical band is black anteriorly, blending into deep violet posteriorly,
but towards the ventral surface it becomes much paler. Second vertical
band deep black throughout. The dorsal surface of the fish in front of,
between, and behind the second vertical band, and extending as far as
the base of the caudal, deep orange-red, lighter in middle of fish, but there

Ls

356 Transactions.

is a dark orange-red lateral streak about }in. in width above the base of
anal fin. Membrane of the spinose dorsal light blue, the spines being deeper.
Membrane of branched portion dark blue. There is a small light patch at
base of 6th-7th spines of the dorsal, and a light band extends all along the
base of the soft dorsal the colours of which have not been noted, but it
appears as though it may have been pale orange-red. Pectorals dull orange
tipped with dark blue. Caudal deep violet, a little lighter on margins.
Ventral spines and rays dark blue, membrane light blue.

Measurements.—Total length, 380 mm. ; total height, 100 mm.; length
of head, 100 mm.; diameter of eye, 10 mm. ; interocular space, 30 mm.

Loc.—Tiritiri Island, Hauraki Gulf; Cuvier Island, near Auckland;
Bondi, near Sydney, N.S.W.

Family TETRAODONTIDAE.
Genus SPHEROIDES Duméril, 1806.
Spheroides nitidus n. sp. (Plate LV, fig. 2.)
Tetrodon sp. Clarke in Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 29, p. 247, 1897.
Dey 5 AAS XD Pec iC. ke

Body moderately elongate, naked above and on sides. Abdomen
covered with about 30 rows of large subequal four-rooted spines, which
commence beneath the vertical of anterior margin of eye, extending nearly
to vent. Length of caudal peduncle equals distance from end of snout to
posterior margin of eye. <A ridge on lower side of tail extends a little
beyond vent. Lateral line very indistinct; it crosses the snout anteriorly,
and, passing under the nostrils, extends backwards over the eye, falling
down behind that organ to about half its diameter, where it ends abruptly.
The second and greater portion commences at top of operculum a little in
advance of gill-opening; it extends along the upper part of back to about
half the length of fish, then bending steeply downwards becomes lost on
caudal peduncle. A fine branch line is present which reaches across the
nape, but it fails to connect with its fellow on the other side. Dorsal and
anal fins faleate, equal in height, and about 23 in head; they are placed
on raised muscular bases. The anterior rays are subequal in length; the
remainder decrease rapidly backwards. Origin of anal is in the vertical
from middle of dorsal. Caudal lunate, the rays of lower lobe being shghtly
the longest, about 14 in the head. Interorbital space slightly convex, 1}
times as wide as eye; there is a slight mesial depression above the hinder
portion of eyes. Nostrils each with two simple openings, situated much
nearer the eye than end of snout. Gill-opening very oblique, broader than
base of pectoral. Eye moderate, about 4 in the head, situated midway
between gill-opening and tip of snout.

Loc.—Auckland and Tauranga Harbours.

Colour—Dorsal uniform dark steel-blue. Sides bright silver; sides
of head bright silver streaked with dusky purple; top of head black.
A curved row of 4 black spots about the size of a pea below the eye ;
similar but smaller black spots are found on sides of opercles and cheeks.
Three or four rows of black spots of various sizes are distributed over sides
below pectoral and on upper portion of abdomen. Caudal and dorsal
fin dark brown, almost black. Anal dirty yellowish-white. Pectoral with
its upper rays dark brown, the lower being somewhat lighter. Hyes
yellowish-silver and blue-black. Throat and belly creamy white.

Grirrin.—Four Fishes new to New Zealand. 357

Described from a small specimen trawled in Auckland Harbour in 1919.
It is easily distinguished from other members of the genus by its com-
pletely smooth back, faleate dorsal and anal fins, and the lunate caudal.
The black spots are also very conspicuous. The large specimen referred to
by Clarke in reference at head was caught in Tauranga Harbour, and has
been in the Auckland Museum for some years. On examination I find it
to be specifically identical with the one described here, the only points of
difference being in the position of the nostrils, and a slight difference in the
branch line across the nape. In the large fish the nostrils are nearer the
centre, between the eye and tip of snout, and the branch line across nape
unites with its fellows on either side. The differences may be due to age
only, and a comparison of the measurements will show that the small fish
must be immature.

Measurements :-— Auckland Harbour ‘Tauranga Harbour
Specimen. Specimen.
Total length = .. 188mm. 402 mm.
Length of head eee OU unTTTs 94 mm.
Height, deflated ee ae ROO mina: 94 mm.
Interorbital width .. = 20smm. 40 mm.
Width of eye ise ae Wali yniaveng 18 mm.

Art. XXXVII.— Observations on certain External Parasites found
upon the New Zealand Huia (Neomorpha acutirostris Gould) and
not previously recorded.

By Gerorce EH. Mason.
Communicated by H. Hamilton.

[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 7th September, 1920; received by
Editor, 23rd November, 1920 ; issued separately, 8th August, 1921.]

In the course of compiling a table of measurements of the skin of a female
specimen of the New Zealand huia (Neomorpha acutirostris Gould) formerly
contained in the collection of Sir Walter L. Buller and now in my possession
I detected upon the inner side of one of the large orange-coloured wattles
which form so characteristic a feature at either side of the base of the bill
of this bird a number of small wart-like excrescences which with the aid of
a hand-lens proved to be a species of parasite belonging to the Ixodidae.
The ticks, five in number, were scattered over the surface of the wattle,
2mm. to 3mm. separating the individuals, and so strongly were the man-
dibles embedded in the skin that considerable force was required to detach
them. Although they were in a very shrunken and unsatisfactory condi-
tion for study, I was enabled by careful preparation to secure the speci-
mens so that the identity of the species could be correctly established
without question; and Mr. Cecil Warburton, of the Quick Laboratory,

358 Transactions.

New Museums, Cambridge, to whom | had entrusted them for identifica-
tion, has with his usual generosity and kindness furnished me with the
following notes as the result of his examination :—

“One of the ticks is Haemaphysalis leachi Audouin, and the others
Hyalomma aegyptium (Linn.). The result is surprising . . . neither of
them is a true Australasian tick, but H. leachi has been in Australia a long
time. H. aegyptium, however, we thought had only recently reached there

from Africa. Both ticks are common in India. . . . Was the bird by
any chance kept alive in some aviary there before dying and being
preserved? . . . If it acquired the ticks in its native habitat we shall

have to revise our views as to the quite recent introduction of these species
into Australasia.”

Fortunately, full and conclusive details bearing upon the origin and
history of this identical huia’s skin are available. The Indian theory we
have to dismiss. for the skin formed one of the originals in a series of
specimens collected jointly by Sir Walter L. Buller and Captain Mair on
the Patitapu Range (some twenty miles from Masterton) on the 9th October,
1883, as recorded by Buller in his Supplement to the Birds of New Zealand.
Sixteen specimens were then secured, and any doubt as to its being a New-
Zealand-killed example may safely be set aside as invalid.

Another theory, however, strongly favouring the Indian origin of these
parasites, may be traced directly to a period contemporary with the intro-
duction of the mina (Acridotheres tristis) into New Zealand in the year 1875,
and if the facts I have collected may be accepted as correct the mtroduc-
tion of the ticks Haemaphysalis leachi and Hyalomma aegyptivm would
likewise date approximately from that period. The strongest evidence we
possess for supposing that the Indian mina acts as a host for both of these
ticks is based upon the occurrence of examples of Hyalomma aegyptium in
the larval phase upon a female of this bird from Burma, and eggs and an
adult of Haemaphysalis leachi found upon a male shot in the Calcutta
Botanical Gardens. Unfortunately, the remote probability of ever again
meeting with the huia in a living state does not tend to assist in the success-
ful prosecution of these inquiries; I am, however, awaiting the result of
an examination of specimens of the mina living in New Zealand, which
friends in Wellington and Hawke’s Bay are kindly instituting on my behalf.
Evidence as to the most probable means by which these ticks were trans-
mitted to the huia may be gathered from the related experiences of early
observers of the invasion by the mina of the particular areas of country
comprising the huia’s only known habitat in New Zealand. The aggressive-
ness of the imported foreigner led to many rival conflicts, during which a
ready means of infection must have occurred. More retiring in its nature,
the huia must have suffered severe and possibly fatal punishment from
these attacks. Of this the late Mr. Taylor White was a frequent observer
on his estate at Wimbledon, Patangata, Hawke’s Bay, where the huia some
twenty years ago was not uncommon,

Instances are known in which the pugnacious mina has been a leading
factor in expatriating certain of the endemic bird fauna of many of the
oceanic islands into which it has been introduced. For instance, Henry
Palmer, when collecting in the Sandwich Islands, records in his diary how
this species is “very numerous and very harmful to the native birds ” ;
and, again, MM. Alphonse Milne-Edwards and EK. Oustalet attributed the
extinction of the native starling (Fregilupus varius) in Bourbon to the mina
introduced by Poivre in 1755.

Mason.—Faternal Parasites found wpon Hua. 309

The food of the huia largely consists of insects occurring among ground-
herbage, more particularly a species of Coleoptera, the larva of which burrows
in dead timber; and in searching for this food the bird is again liable to
become infested by at least one of the species of ticks under discussion, for
Mr. C. W. Howard records (Ann. Transvaal Museum, vol. 1, 1908, p. 104) how
unfed adults of Hyalomma aegyptium “may be frequently found moving
about the ground or hidden under bark of trees,” and there is no reason
to doubt that a similar habit may also have been acquired by this species
in New Zealand. Although we are without direct evidence, it is probable
that Haemaphysalis leachi may be found in similar surroundings. From a
date beginning about 1880 the huia, at all times an uncommon bird, seemed
rapidly to decrease in numbers. This decrease and ultimate disappearance
have given rise to much speculation, and it is possible that the persecution
to which it has been subject by Maori hunters, the mercenary collector,
and introduced animals cannot alone be called upon to account for its
regrettable extinction. The question is raised as to whether we have not
to recognize yet another of those disastrous factors by which the balance
of nature has in this particular instance been disturbed through the intro-
duction of these parasites into New Zealand, where they were previously
unknown.

The specimen from which I collected the ticks under discussion had the
wattles appreciably smaller and more shrunken than in any other example
of the species I have at various times examined. Owing, however, to a
distinct reduction in the length of the bill, and sundry white edgings to
the under tail-coverts, | had looked upon this particular specimen as an
immature bird Professor E. Ehlers has, however, gone to some length
(Abh. Ges. Gotting., Bd. xxxix, pp. 35-45, 1894) in an endeavour to show
that the length of the bill has no bearing upon the age of the individual.

We possess abundant evidence of the destruction caused by members
of the Ixodidae in spreading disease and death among the animals they
attack. A species of Argas has been know to infest fowls in South Africa,
and to occasion so much loss of blood that the fowls die in great numbers.
It has also been a subject for conjecture if the endemic New Zealand quail
really owes its extinction altogether to the prevalence of bush and grass fires,
and to the persecution of sportsmen and introduced carnivorous animals.

The two species of tick to which I have here directed attention are
widely distributed throughout Africa, and Hyalomma aegyptium is also
recorded from southern Europe, and ranges through Asia Minor to Persia
and adjoining countries as far as China. Their hosts include almost all
domestic and wild animals, numerous birds, and a tortoise. Haema-
physalis leachi transmits the distemper or malignant jaundice of dogs.

We have long known that the huia has been subject to attack from an
endemic parasite belonging to the Mallophaga, but I am not aware if the
identity of the species has ever been established, or if its specific characters
are known. Every skin of Neomorpha that I have examined reveals the
presence of the louse, by the great number of egg-cases, or nits, attached
to the bases of the feathers, particularly in the orbital region ; I have counted
as many as ten of these nits attached to a single very small feather. The
perfect insect I have never seen.

360 Transactions.

Art. XXXVIII.—The Crab-eating Seal in New Zealand.
By W. R. B. Ontver, F.L.S., F.Z.S., Dominion Museum, Wellington.

[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 17th November, 1920; received by
Editor, 31st December, 1920 ; wssued separately, Sth August, 1921.]

Plate LVI.

So far as I am aware, the crab-eating seal (Lobodon carcinophaga)* has
not hitherto been recorded in the New Zealand area, and I have therefore
to note the two following instances. In both cases the specimen or a
part of it has been preserved.

In the Wanganui Museum there is a stuffed skin with the skullincluded. It
was stranded on the beach outside Wanganui Heads (8. lat. 39° 56’) some
time previous to 1892, and was referred to Leptonychotes weddelli by Sir J.
Hector.t It is entirely white, with the dental formula C. 2, I. 4, M. 2 = 32.

The second specimen, an aged female, was observed in April, 1916, off
Petone Beach (8. lat. 41° 14’), Wellington Harbour, where it remained
a few days. It was then captured and taken to the Newtown Zoo, but
died the following day. The skull is preserved in the Dominion Museum,
Wellington (Plate LVI).

The record of this species in New Zealand is especially interesting on
account of the great distance between the natural habitat of this seal, the
Antarctic pack-ice, and the few northern localities where stragglers have
been obtained. Besides the two specimens now recorded, stray examples
have been taken at San Sidro (S. lat. 34° 28’), north of Buenos Ayres; at
Melbourne (S. lat. 37° 45’); and at Portland (S. lat. 38° 20’), Victoria.
The usual northern limit of the species is stated by Dr. Wilson to be
between 58° and 60° S. lat. It is found chiefly in the pack-ice of the
open sea, extending as far south as McMurdo Sound (S. lat. 77° 50’). It
is the common seal of the pack-ice, and is found all round the Antarctic
Circle. The occurrence of northern stragglers is, according to Dr. Wilson,
explained by the fact that large masses of ice drift up into more northern
waters from the south, no doubt very often with seals on them. But in
this connection may be mentioned the following remark by Dr. Wilson{:
“Certain it is that Lobodon, notwithstanding its pelagic habit of life, tends
to wander great distances at the approach of death, and to extraordinary
heights up the glaciers of South Victoria Land.”

The crab-eating seal is easily recognized, notwithstanding the variation
in its colour, by the nature of the teeth. The molars have each a large
lobe with a small lobe in front and two or three behind, the lobes being
slightly recurved and the spaces between them deep. Quoting from
Dr. Wilson again,§ “‘ The use of the extraordinary development of the lobes
of the post-canine teeth in this seal was suggested by Captain Barret
Hamilton in an article on the seals of the Southern Cross collection.
These lobes, as he pointed out, form a sieve when the jaws are closed,
through which the water can be ejected from the mouth, while the mud
and crustaceans are retained and swallowed.”

* HOMBRON AND JAcQuINOoT, Phoca, Voy. Pole Sud, t. 10, 1842.
{+ Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 25, p. 258, 1893.

t Appendix II to Scott’s Voyage of the ‘* Discovery,” p. 476, 1905.
§ Nat. Ant. Exped., Zool., vol. 2, p. 34, 1907.

Transy NeZ. Inst Vor. LI Prare V1:

Skull of crab-eating seal taken at Petone in 1916

face p. 360.)

OLIvER.—Variation in Amphineura. 361

Art. XXXIX—Variation in Amphineura.
By W. R. B. Ottver, F.L.S., F.Z.S., Dominion Museum, Wellington.

[Read before the New Zealand Science Congress, Palmerston North, 26th January, 1921 .
received by Editor, 2nd February, 1921; issued separately, 8th August, 1921.]

VARIATIONS in the shell-valves of the Amphineura from the normal number
of eight have been recorded from time to time. ‘The following list con-
tains all the species I have been able to trace in which fewer than eight
valves have been noted. I have found no reference to specimens having
more than eight valves.

Chiton tuberculatus, a West Indian species, was described by Linné as
having only seven valves (Syst. Nat., ed. x, p. 667). A second specimen
with seven valves was collected at Tobago. In this two of the valves were
soldered together, the result of an injury (Pilsbry, Man. Conch., vol. 14,

. 155).
: Mopalia ciliata, from California, with seven valves (Pilsbry, l.c , p. 305).

Trachydermon cinereus, five valves, and Callochiton laevis, seven valves,
from British seas (Jeffreys, Br. Conch., vol. 3, pp. 224, 227).

Trachydermon ruber, six valves; Ischnochiton conspicuus, six valves ;
and J. contractus, three valves. In the last example the reduction is
ascribed to the union of two or more valves (Sykes, Proc. Mal. Soc:, vol. 6,
0. 268).

: Plaxiphora egregia, six valves, and Sypharochiton jpellisserpentis, five

valves, from New Zealand (Iredale, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 40, 1908, p. 375,
Lol).

4 Plaxiphora conspersa, with six valves, from South Australia (Bednall,

Proc. Mal. Soc., vol. 2, p. 154).

Onithochiton neglectus, with seven valves, trom New Zealand ; Cryptoplax
striatus, with three valves; and Trachydermon cinereus, with six and seven
valves, from France (Pelseneer, Ann. Soc. Roy. Zool. Belg., vol. 50, p. 41,
1920).

It appears, therefore, that the variations are always of the nature of
reductions, occur in various genera, and have been ascribed to injury,
union, or suppression of the valves. (See Pilsbry, Man. Conch., vol. 14,
p. xii; also Sykes, I.c., and Pelseneer, l.c.)

The specimen I have now to describe differs from all those previously
recorded in that the reduction of the number of valves has occurred on the
left side only. Here is a case of meristic variation disturbing the bilateral
symmetry of the animal. A further result is to throw the median line of
the anterior, second, and third valves about 10 degrees to the left of the
median line of the remainder of the animal. The specimen was found
under a stone near low-tide mark at Shag Point, Otago, and is a member
of a species—Callochion platessa—rather rare in New Zealand, though
recorded from various points on the east coast between Stewart Island
and Rangitcto. The third and fourth valves are fused. The left side is
apparently normal, the Jateral area belonging to the fourth valve, but the
ventral area may be derived from the third valve. On the right side
the third valve overlaps, but is fused to the fourth valve from the mantle
to the apex, which is double. The composite valve, therefore, consists
of the central and right lateral areas of the third valve fused to the right
and left lateral areas of the fourth valve.

362 Transactions.

Art. XL.—Notes on Specimens of New Zealand Ferns and Flowering-
plants in London Herbaria.

By W. R. B. Oxtver, F.L.S., F.Z.8., Dominion Museum, Wellington.

[Read before the Weilingion Philosophical Society, 17th November, 1920 ; received by Editor,
9th December, 1920 ; issued separately, 8th August, 1921.)

Tue following notes are extracted from a number I made during a short
stay in London in 1919. I was able to spend a few weeks in the British
Museum and Kew herbaria examining, among other things, some of the
type specimens collected by the Forsters and R. Brown, and those described
by Bentham.

Polystichum Richardi (Hook.) Diels.

Aspidium coriaceum var. acutidentatum A. Rich., Voy. ‘“ Astrolabe,”
Bot., 71, 1832. A. Richardt Hook., Sp. Fial., 4, 23, 1862.
A. oculatum Hook., Sp. Fil., 4, 24, 1862.

Specimens of A. oculatum in the British Museum marked “ Prope Tigadu,
Tologa, Opuragi, Totaranui—Sir J. Banks and Dr. Solander (1769) ” are
the ordinary coastal forms of A. Richardt.

The earliest name applied to this species was a varietal one—acuti-
dentatum of Richard—and it would conduce to stability of nomenclature
if, following the zoological practice, such names were adhered to, but in
deference to the rules for botanical nomenclature I use Richardt.

Davallia scoparia (Mett.) Hook.

Adiantum clavatum Forst. (not Linn.), Prodr., No. 459, 1786. Lindsaya
scoparia Mett., Fil. N. Caled., 64. Davallia (Stenoloma) scoparia
(Mett.) Hook. & Bak., Syn. Fil., 101, 1868. D. Forstera Carr.
in Seem., Fl. Vitv., 339, 1869 (no desc.) ; Baker, Syn. Fil., ed. 2,
470, 1874.

The specimen (No. 1550) collected by Vieillard in New Caledonia and
quoted by Hooker and Baker (Syn. Fil., 101) is in the British Museum.
On the same sheet are two specimens of a different species, labelled “ Kanata,
New Caledonia.” Another sheet with three specimens is marked “ New
Zealand, Dusky Bay, Messrs. Forster,” and, in a different handwriting,
“ Adiantum clavatum Forst.’ These are identical with the species collected
by Vieillard. It is probable that Carruthers (FI. Viti., 339) gave them a
new name on account of their difference from the Kanata specimens. In
any case, Davallia scoparia is a tropical species, and, as suggested by
Cheeseman, Forster’s specimens were in all probability collected in some
locality in Polynesia, and I would therefore recommend that the name
D. Forsteri be omitted from the list of New Zealand plants.

Oniver.—V.Z. Ferns and Flowering-plants in London Herbaria. 363

Zannichellia palustris L.

Zannichellia palustris L., Sp. Pl., 969, 1753. Z. Preissii Kirk (not
Muell.), Trans. N.Z. Inst., 10, App. xl, 1878. Lepilaena Preissii
Kirk (not Muell.), Trans. N.Z. Inst., 28, 499, 1896.

Specimens labelled “ Lepilaena Preiss” and collected by T. Kirk at
Rangiriri are in the British Museum. They are included with Z. palustris,
being so determined by Ostenfeld. They appear to agree perfectly with
specimens of Z. palustris collected by Cheeseman from the Waikato River.

Muehlenbeckia complexa (A. Cunn.) Meissn.

Polygonum complecum A. Cunn., Ann. Nat. Hist., 1, 455, 1838.
Muehlenbeckia axillaris Bentham (not Walp.), Fl. Austr., 5, 275,
1870 (Lord Howe Island locality only) ; Oliver, Trans. N.Z. Inst.,
£9F 1355191:

In the Kew Herbarium are specimens from Lord Howe Island marked
“MM. axillaris.” In all the leaves are identical with specimens from
Kast Cape, New Zealand—that is, small orbicular leaves, 10-12 mm. long.
Further, the fiowers are in short racemes or spikes. I would therefore
include the Lord Howe plant under WM. compleza.

Phrygilanthus tenuiflorus (Hook. f.) Engl.

The only specimen known, that in the Kew Herbarium, is a small twig
with five leaves and several flowers; leaves about 30mm. long. A note
on the sheet states, ““ Very near L. celastroides.”” On comparing these
found the leaves to be very different, but the flowers and inflorescence
similar. It is not like any other New Zealand species.

EDWARDSIA.

This genus was founded by Salisbury (Trans. Linn. Soc., 9, 299, 1808)
for the following three species: #. chrysophylla (Sandwich Islands) ;
E. microphylla (New Zealand); E. grandiflora (New Zealand). These,
with some others, differ from typical Sophora in the four-winged pod,
short standard, and exserted stamens. The two groups are so distinct
that 1 think Hdwardsia should be reinstated as a separate genus, with
E. chrysophylla Salisb. as genotype. This species is near to HL. tetraptera
(Mill.), but has larger leaves and smaller. flowers. Other species are
FE. mollis and E. interrupta, both large-leaved forms from India.

Edwardsia microphylla (Aiton) Salish.
Sophora tetraptera Linné (not Miller), Suppl. Pl. Syst. Veg., 230,1781 ;
Forst., Prodr., 32, 1786. S. microphylla Aiton, Hort. Kew., ed. 1,
2, 43, 1808; Jacq., Hort. Schonbr., 3,17. Edwardsia grandiflora
var. microphylla Hook. f., Fl. Nov. Zel., 1, 52, 1853. Sophora
tetraptera var. microphylla Hook. f., Handb. N.Z. Fl., 1, 53, 1864.
Edwardsia Macnabiana R. Grah., Edin. N. Phil. Jowrn., 26, 195,
1838. Sophora chathamica Cockayne, Trans. N.Z. Inst., 34, 319,
1902 (Chatham Island). 8S. toromiro Phillipi, Bot. Zeit., 31, 743,

1873 (Kaster Island).

Both Linné’s and Salisbury’s specimens came from New Zealand.
£. Macnatiana is founded on Chilian examples. Specimens from Chile

364 Transactions.

(including #. Macnabiana) and Juan Fernandez are indistinguishable from
those from New Zealand. Those from Easter Island are similar, but the
leaves and shoots are very hairy. In the Kew Herbarium they are kept
as a separate species (S. toromiro). The Chatham Island form is a distinct
variety or perhaps closely allied species.

Edwardsia prostrata (Buchanan).

Sophora prostrata Buchanan, Trans. N.Z Inst., 16, 395, 1884.
S. tetraptera var. prostrata Kirk, Forest Fl. N.Z., 85, 1889.

Confined to the mountains of the South Island of New Zealand.

Edwardsia tetraptera (Miller).

Sophora tetraptera J. Miller, Ic. Pl., t. 1, 1780 (also S. tetraptera of
Bot. Mag., t. 167; Lamarck, IIl., t. 325; and Aiton, Hort.
Kew., ed. 1, 2, 43: fide Salisbury). Hdwardsia grandiflora Salisb.,
Trans. Iinn. Soc., 9, 299, 1808. Sophora tetraptera var. grandi-
flora Hook. f., Handb. N.Z. Fl., 1, 53, 1864. SS. tetraptera var.
howinsula Oliver, Trans. N.Z. Inst., 49, 139, 1917 (Lord Howe
Island).

Miller’s Sophora tetraptera is founded on specimens flowering and fruiting
at Chelsea and Islington (England) introduced from New Zealand. The
plate is good, and represents the large New Zealand form. There is no
description. Salisbury described EH. grandiflora from specimens collected
by Sir J. Banks in New Zealand, and gives the references quoted above.
This species is confined to the North Island of New Zealand, with a variety
in Lord Howe Island.

Coriaria ruscifolia L.

Coriaria ruscifolia Linné, Sp. Pl., ed. 1, 1037, 1753. C. sarmentosa
Forster, Prodr., 71, 1786.

Linné’s species is based on plate 12 of Feuillet’s Journ. Obs. Phys.
Math. et Bot., 1725. The figure shows small broadly-ovate leaves in threes
at the racemes and opposite elsewhere. Specimens agreeing with these,
except that the leaves are all opposite, are in the British Museum from
Talcahuano, Chile. A plant from Ternuco, Chile, has very large ovate
acuminate leaves in both threes and twos. The South American forms
cannot be distinguished as a species from those of New Zealand and
Polynesia. Though the leaves may be more acuminate, and the racemes
longer, with more scattered flowers, yet specimens from Fiji, Samoa, Sunday
Island, and New Zealand are indistinguishable from Chilian examples.

Coriaria lurida Kirk.

Coriaria thymifolia Hook. f. (not Humb. & Bonpl.), Fl. Nov. Zel.,
1, 45, 1853. C. lurida Kirk, Students’ Fl. N.Z., 98, 1899.

This New Zealand species, hitherto referred to C. thymifolia, can easily
be distinguished from all the American forms by the habit and shape of the
leaves. C. thymifolia occurs from Mexico to Peru, and is a quite distinct
species with small closely-set ovate acute leaves, which, though varying in
size, are nearly constant in shape The New Zealand plant has the leaves

Outver.—NV.Z. Ferns and Flowering-plants in London Herbaria. 365

on the shoots much more narrow and acuminate It passes by gradations
into C. ruscifolia, and is possibly a derivative of that species. If the Andine
C. thymifolia is likewise a derivative of the South American forms of
C. ruscifolia, then the similarity of the two small-leaved mountain forms
may be due to convergence in similar habitats ; but they are nevertheless
easily separated, and should not pass under the same name.

Aristotelia serrata (Forster).

Dicera serrata Forst., Char. Gen., 80, 1776. Friesia racemosa
A. Cunn., Ann. Nat. Hist., 24, 1840. Aristotelia racemosa
Hook. f., Fl. Nov. Zel., 1, 33, 1853.

Specimens marked “227 Dicera serrata, G. Forster Herbarium,”’ in the
British Museum, and which I presume are the type of Forster’s species,
are the ordinary form of the plant usually known as Aristotelia racemosa.
There are also specimens of the same species in the Kew Herbarium labelled
‘‘Herb. Mus. Paris, Dicera serrata Forst. Friesia racemosa A. Cunn., N.
Zélande (Akaroa), M. Ste. Croix de Bellegny.”’ As Forster’s name has
more than fifty years’ priority over Cunningham’s it should be adopted.

Coprosma retusa Hook. f.

Coprosma retusa Hook. f., Journ. Bot., 3, 415, 1844. C. Baueriana
Hook. f. (not Endl.), Fl. Nov. Zel., 1, 104, 1853.

In my account of the vegetation of the Kermadee Islands (Trans. N.Z.
Inst., 42, 171, 1910) I omitted this, as [ could find no specimens either on
Sunday Island or in any New Zealand herbarium. There are two specimens
in the Kew Herbarium collected on Sunday Island, August, 1887, by
Cheeseman, so that the species should be reinstated in the Kermadec Island
flora,

Art. XLI.— Descriptions of New Native Flowering-plants, with a
few Notes.

By): Pere: MA. Ph.D, HIN-Zlnst.

[Read before the Auckland Institute, 15th December, 1920; received by Editor, 31st
December, 1920 ; issued separately, Sih August, 1921.]

Plates LVII, LVILi.

1. Note on Pittosporum cornifolium A. Cunn.

As existing descriptions of this interesting Pittosporum appear to be
imperfect, if not inaccurate, the following observations, which may help to
clear up the position, seem worthy of record.

In July last I was able to study, on Kawau Island, a number of these
shrubs showing good flowers as well as ripe capsules. Most of them grew
on clay soil just above low sea-washed rocky faces. The plants were cf
two kinds, which may be distinguished as male and female. The male

366 Transactions.

plants were less common than the female, and of less vigorous growth.
Not a single capsule was to be found on any of the males, while on the
females they were plentiful, and just ripe enough for the valves to be
opening and exposing the numerous rather large pitchy seeds. The male
inflorescence was terminal on the branchlets, and consisted of an umbel of
10 or usually fewer (6-8) flowers on long very slender peduncles. These
flowers had every appearance of being hermaphrodite, the pistils beng
well developed and equalling the stamens in height, while the stigmas were
more or less coated with pollen. But as no capsules occurred on any of
the male plants it is clear that fertilization did not take place. The
pistils are probably sterile to the pollen of their own flowers; but more
extended observations are needed before this conclusion can be considered
established. In the female plants the inflorescence was reduced to a
single terminal flower, rather smaller than the male ones, seated on a short
stouter peduncle about as long as the flowers. Here the pistil hardly
differs from that present in the males. The stamens are much shorter,
with anthers greatly aborted, and destitute of pollen. As already noted,
these plants produced a capsule at the end of almost every branchlet. In
every case the capsule was two-valved, and this is the case in the consider-
able number of dried fruiting specimens in my herbarium, gathered from
various widely-scattered stations in the North Island. Mr. H. B. Matthews,
a very careful observer, has examined many plants bearing capsules, and
in one case only has he seen a three-valved one, and in it the extra valve
was much smaller than the other two. Both Mr. Kirk and Mr. Cheeseman
give the number of the valves as three, but there can be no doubt that
two is the normal number. Though the Kawau plants all showed solitary
terminal female flowers, binate flowers are sometimes met with. Mr. H.
Carse has sent me one or two such flowers, and I have one fruiting
specimen with binate immature capsules.

The facts set forth above seem to show that the flowers of this
Pitlosporum are not truly polygamous. The conclusion that the plants
are never truly terrestrial seems also devoid of warrant, for the oreat
majority of the plants seen at Kawau grew in clay soil, though certainly
close to a rocky shore.

2. Notospartium glabrescens sp. noy. (Plate LVII, fig. 1.)

Arbor subhumilis ramosus N. Carmichaeliae Hk. f. similis ; differt truncis
crassioribus ; rhachide pedicellis et calyce glabris; floribus paullo majoribus
purpureis ; leguminibus multo crassioribus, 15-25 mm. longis + 4mm.
latis, subteretibus oblongis -_ coriaceis subacutis, breviter apiculatis, haud
torulosis ; seminibus subreniformibus haud complanatis, 2mm. longis
1:75 mm. latis, rubris, punctibus atris -- maculatis.

A small round-headed leafless tree 15-30 ft. (45-9 m.) high, usually
with several trunks up to 8in. (2dcem.) in diameter springing from the
ground, in habit not unlike a weeping-willow, the lower branches and
branchlets more or less pendulous, the upper erect or ascending; twigs
flattened striate, often closely placed on the branchlets ; stems, branches,
and older branchlets terete.

Inflorescence usually erect or ascending, springing from the upper nodes
of the twigs; rhachis glabrous, 4-7-5cem. long, usually many-flowered ;
flowers like those of N. Carmichaeliae but somewhat larger and purplish
in colour; pedicels glabrous, -- 8mm. long, generally with two mmute

PETRIE.

New Native Flowering-plants. 367

bracteoles near their tips; calyx }-2 as long as the pedicels, broadly
campanulate with short subtriangular teeth, more or less distinctly ribbed,
glabrous or with faint pubescence at the teeth and more or less on the
edges between ; standard broadly rounded in front, marked by numerous
close delicate purplish nerves diverging from the rather broad claw, and with
a large purplish blotch above the base covering more than half its upper
surface ; wings shorter than the keel, oblong, obtuse, narrow-clawed and
with a triangulo-hastate expansion at the base opposite the claw. Pods
15-25 mm. long, + 4mm. broad, oblong, a little flattened or semiterete,
subacute, shortly apiculate, not torulose, more or less wrinkled and
marked by obvious distant divaricating ves; seeds subreniform, not
flattened, 2mm. long, 1:75 mm. broad, red when mature, more or less
mottled with small black spots.

Hab.— Awatere Valley, Marlborough: T. Kirk! Mouth of Clarence
River: G. Stevenson! Throughout the upper basin of the Clarence River
and its tributary valleys: B.C. Aston !

I am deeply indebted to Mr. B. C. Aston for a fine series of specimens
of this plant which he collected in 1915, the fruiting pieces in April and
the flowering in December. The pods in his specimens are, however, still
immature. Mr. G. Stevenson also deserves my warmest thanks for very
fine flowering and fruiting specimens gathered near the Clarence Bridge.
These show the mature pods. I have put off describing this species for
several years, as I was long uncertain whether it might not prove to be a
form of one of the species already described. Thanks to the much-valued
help of Dr. L. Cockayne, and Mr. H. H. Allan of Ashburton, good
specimens of the pods of N. Carmichaeliae and N. toruloswm have now been
available for study, with the result that I am satisfied that the present
plant is quite distinct from both.

3. Observations on the Genus Notospartium. (Plate LVIIiI.)

The accurate investigation of this genus has been greatly delayed by
the very incomplete material that has been available for examination by
local botanists. The species appear to be nowhere plentiful, and some
of them are confined to small areas more or less difficult of access. In my
view the genus contains at least three well-marked species, the habitats of
which seem nowhere to overlap— WN. Carmichaeliae Hk. f., N. torulosum
T. Kirk, and N. glabrescens, a new species described on page 366. The
flowers of these species are all very much alike in size and form, and one
has to fall back on the pods for characters that can be depended on in
distinguishing the species.

N. Carmichaeliae appears to be confined to the valleys of tributaries
flowing northwards into the Wairau River, and the Awatere Valley
immediately to the south of these. It is distinguished when flowering by
the pubescent rhachis, pedicels, and calyx, and by the pink colour of the
flowers. Its pods were apparently first collected by Mr. Teschemaker a
few years ago at the Avon River, a tributary of the Waihopai, a district
in which only N. Carmichaeliae is known to grow. These fruiting pieces
were sent to Dr. Cockayne, from whom I received about a dozen of the
pods. They are thin, narrow, more or less curved, and much flattened.
I consider it certain that the pods figured in the Botanical Magazine as
those of N. Carmichaeliae do not truly belong to that plant ; they may be
immature pods of N. glabrescens. These pods were figured from material

368 Transactions.

collected by Waitt in the northern part of North Canterbury, but it is now
almost certain that the species does not extend even so far south as the
Clarence Valley.

N. torulosum T. Kirk is, I think, a valid species. It has the widest
distribution of all the species of the genus, extending from Amuri County
and Mason River to Mount Peel in the Canterbury Alps. In this species
the inflorescence is quite glabrous, the petals are purple, and the pods long,
narrow, strongly torulose, almost square in cross-section, and produced
into a fairly long slender apical bristle. The seeds are larger than those
of N. Carmichaeliae. This is doubtless the plant of which, in its flowering
state, Dr. Cockayne has given a minute description in Z'rans. N.Z. Inst.,
vol. 49, p. 59, 1917.

The third species, NV. glabrescens, is more distinct from the two others
than these are one from another. So far as is at present known, it occurs
only in the Clarence basin, coming down almost to sea-level at the Clarence
mouth. It reaches the dimensions of a small tree, and has much thicker
trunks than its congeners. Some specimens are as much as 30 ft. high,
with trunks 8 in. in diameter. The inflorescence is glabrous, the petals
are purplish, the pods are not torulose and are much stouter than those
of the allied species. In order to make it easier to obtain further material,
and especially flowers and fruit from the very same plants, the places from
which the specimens in my herbarium came are set out below :—

N. Carmichaeliae.— Awatere Valley (J. Stevenson); Upper Awatere
Valley (T. Kirk) ; Avondale, near Renwicktown (H. J. Matthews) ; Omaka
River, near Blenheim (B. C. Aston); Avon River, tributary of Waihopai
(Mr. Teschemaker).

N. torulosum.—Mason River, south-east Nelson (LL. Cockayne) ; Whale-
back, Amuri County (H. J. Matthews); Mount Kautu (back of), Waipara
watershed (R. M. Laing); The Point, Rakaia Gorge (A. Wall); river-
terrace scrub, Mount Peel (H. H. Allan); Lynn Stream, Mount Peel
(R. M. Laing).

N. glabrescens n. sp.—Clarence mouth (G. Stevenson); Swale River,
Clarence Valley (B. C. Aston) ; Nidd Valley, Clarence Valley (B. C. Aston) ;
Dee River, Clarence Valley (B. C. Aston); Mead Valley, Clarence Valley
(T. Kirk—this specimen was sent me named ‘“‘ N. Carmichaeliae”); Mead
Gorge, Clarence Valley (B. C. Aston); Ure River, Clarence Valley (B. C.
Aston).

All the species of the genus flower late in December or early in January,
according to the altitude of the station ; the pods are not ripe till well on
in the following year.

Since this paper was written Mr. James Stevenson has sent me flowers
and pods of N. Carmichaclia from the same plant. These pods exactly
match that shown in Plate LVIII, fig. 3.

4. Coriaria thymifolia var. undulata var. nov.

A typo differt foliis tenuioribus ac secundum margines emorso-undulatis,
floribus minoribus.

Hab.—Both flanks of the Kaimanawa Range: B.C. Aston! Te Whaiti
(Whakatane County), c. 1,500 ft.

Mr. Aston writes me that this is the only form of the species that grows
on the Kaimanawa Mountains. The edges of the leaves look as if a small
insect had made a regular series of closely-placed bites all round.

Trans, N.Z. Inst, Vor. LIL. Prate JLVIT.

ay) set ot :

|B. C. Aston, photo.

Fie. 1.—Noiespartium glabrescens in flower, Nidd Valley, Clarence River, Marlborough.

[B. C. Aston, photo.

Fra. 2.—Notospartium Carmichaeliae, Tynterfield, Wairau Valley. (Inserted for
comparison. )

Face p. 368.)

TRANS. New. Ins... Vou. kT. Prate LVILI.

Fie. 1.—Pods of Notospartium ylabrescens, collected near Clarence Bridge by Mr. G. Stevenson.
The actual length of the specimen here figured is 3}in. (9cm., nearly).

Fig. 2.—Pods of Notospartium torulosum, collected at Lynn Stream, Mount Peel, by
Mr; Ei: ES Allan:

Fre. 3.—Pods of Notospartium Carmichaeliae, collected at Avon River,

a tributary of the
Waihopai, Marlborough, by Mr. Teschemaker, .

All the figures in this plate are shown on the same scale.

Perrin.—New Native Flowering-plants. 369

5. Epilobium nerterioides A. Cunn.

Most local botanical workers refer A. Cunningham’s Epilobium nerterioides
to EB. nummularifolium R. Cunn. as a variety. The seeds of EH. nerterioides,
however, always have a smooth testa, whereas the testa is papillose in all
the forms of H. nummularifolium. As in addition to this constant difference
the vegetative characters are also fairly distinctive, it seems to me that
E. nerterioides should be considered a valid species. its leaves are usually
quite entire, though occasionally slightly sinuate at the edges, are generally
marked by irregular shallow fairly-wide semidepressions on the upper sur-
face, and when fresh show a general green hue more or less mottled with
pale yellow. Its stems are prostrate, creeping and rooting, little branched,
and up to 10cm. long, though commonly shorter. The plants form more or
less matted tufts from 8 em. to 13cm. across. There are two prevalent forms :
one, occurring on damp sandy soil, has small rather thin orbicular leaves
somewhat distantly placed, fairly long peduncles that may reach 5 em. when
in ripe fruit, and rather long capsules (= 2-5-3cm.); the other form has
the leaves closer, more coriaceous, larger, and longer (sometimes broadly
elliptic and slightly reflexed with shallow smuation at the edges), and
peduncles equalling the short rather stout capsules. I find no variation
in the size or form of the seeds. Mr. Cheeseman’s variety angustum
of BL. nummularifolium and Mr. Kirk’s variety minimum both belong to
E. nerterioides. The species is widely spread throughout the Dominion, and
occurs also on the Subantarctic Islands of New Zealand. I have examined
specimens from Peria and Fairburn (Mongonui County), Mercury Bay,
Gordon’s Knob (Nelson), Cass River (Lake Tekapo), Speargrass Flat (Vincent
County), Pembroke (Lake Wanaka), Ashburton, Mount Cargill (Dunedin),
and Fortrose and Bluff (Southland).

6. Note on Epilobium antipodum Petrie.

For a considerable time I have been satisfied that my Epilobium anti-
podum is no other than #. crassum Hook. f. The latter was in cultivation
for a year or two in my garden, and chance seedlings of it grew up where
the seeds of the Antipodes Island plant had been sown some considerable
distance away. Satisfactory foliage-bearing pieces of the island plant had
not been seen, hence the regrettable failure to recognize what had happened.

7. Epilobium Matthewsii n. sp.

This name is proposed for my Epilobium arcuatum, a combination that
now proves to have been preoccupied when the origmal name was published
(Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 45, p. 266, 1913). The plant was only coming into
flower when I visited the Clinton Valley. Subsequently the late Henry J.
Matthews collected a few ripe capsules, but no entire plants. Though
the plant is still very imperfectly known, I consider it one of the most
distinct of the native species. The unavoidable change of name affords
me a welcome opportunity to commemorate the services of an enthusiastic
student of the native flowermg-plants of our Dominion.

8. Aciphylla Poppelwelli sp. nov.

Planta A.- Traillii T. Kirk subsimilis, differt inflorescentia principal
recta (haud flexuosa), bracteis floralibus pernumerosis (nonnunquam 40 v.

370 Transactions.

ultra) arctissime confertis trifoliolatis, umbellis quam bracteae multo
brevioribus vaginas subtumidas vix excedentibus, fructibus paullo major-
ibus oblongis, apicem versus +- contractis.

Small, 12-22cm. high, with scapes solitary or occasionally two from
the same main root.

Leaves 6-12cm. long, + 35mm. wide, linear, pungent- pointed, sub-
coriaceous scarcely stiff, striate, thickened along the margins, midrib
inconspicuous ; petiole short, gradually dilated downwards into a broad
membranous subhyaline sheathing base.

Scapes rather stout for the size of the plant, -- 3-5 mm. across, the naked
part (as long as the leaves) supporting a much longer spike-like main in-
florescence with very numerous (sometimes 40 or more) densely-crowded
floral bracts enclosmg the umbels, bracts + 3em. long trifoliolate with
rather short slightly tumid sheaths ; umbels both male and female com-
pactly branched, much shorter than the bracts. Fruit oblong, rather
large, more or less contracted at the top.

(A. Trail Kark, Students’ Flora, p. 210, pro parte; also A. Traillii
Kirk, Cheeseman’s Manual, pp. 211-12, pro parte.)

Hab.—Mount Kyeburn (Maniototo County), 3,000 ft.; Rock and Pillar
Range (Taieri County), 3,800 ft.: B. C. Aston! Arnold Wall! Garvie
Mountains (Southland), 4,000 ft.: D. L. Poppelwell! Dr. L. Cockayne !

The Garvie Mountain plant is taken as the type.

Var. major var. nov.

Elatior, scapo nudo quam in typo ter quaterve longiore, inflorescentia
principali scapo nudo multo breviore, bracteis umbellisque paucioribus,
bractearum vaginis brevioribus paene aeque latis ac longis.

Hab— Mount Buster (part of Mount Ida Range, Maniototo County),
3,500 ft.

I have authentic specimens of A. Tradllii from Mr. T. Kirk, collected
on Mount Anglem, Stewart Island, and others that exactly match these,
collected in the same place by Mr. W. R. B. Oliver. In the Mount Anglem
plant the floral bracts are placed far apart; the inflorescence is markedly
zigzag, the bracts being seated on the bends ; the bracts are long, few (5-8),
and nearly always simple; the midribs are very prominent, and the space
on the underside of the leaves between the midrib and the thickened margins
is of a dull-brown colour; the male umbels have long delicate branches
that greatly exceed the elongated sheaths enclosmg them; the fruits also
appear to be smaller than in ‘the present species.

9. Note on Veronica Willcoxii Petrie.

Though this plant has been in cultivation for several years in the alpine
garden of the late H. J. Matthews (now Dr. Hunter’s) at Mornington,
Dunedin, I have never succeeded in getting specimens in flower or fruit
from there. For a few years two plants grew in my garden in Auckland,
but they languished season by season, and died without flowering. The
flowers and capsules described by me from plants growing in the University
grounds at Dunedin most likely belong to this species, but it is highly
desirable that flowering and fruiting pieces should be got from plants known
to have come from the Lake Harris habitat, where alone the wild plant has
so far been found. For the present there must remain some doubt as to
whether the flowers and capsules ascribed to the species truly belong there.

Pretrie.—New Native Flowering-plants. Sul

10. Veronica angustifolia A. Rich. var. abbreviata var. nov.

Racemi foliis breviores 2-3 cm. longi, 1-2 cm. lati, obtusi, dense multi-
flori; folia quam in forma typica subbreviora ; capsulis haud visis.

Valley of the Ure River, Marlborough: B.C. Aston!

Collected early April, 1915. Though collected very late in the season,
Mr. Aston’s specimens are in full flower. When ripe capsules can be
examined this plant may be found to deserve specific rank.

11. Carex Wallii sp. nov.

Planta humilis laxe caespitans, in locis humidis v. uliginosis crescens.

Folia pauca filiformia flaccida plana v. leviter complicata striata apices
versus delicatule scaberula, 6 em. longa v. breviora ; vaginis valde tenuibus
+ striatis in hgulam latam truncatam desinentibus. Culmi folia longe
excedentes suberecti filiformes -- trigoni flaccidi nudi ad 12cm. longi.
Spiculae solitariae terminales parvae subovatae ad 5 mm. longae ebracteatae,
floribus superioribus masculis, inferioribus (ad 6) femineis ; florum femine-
orum glumis membranaceis late ovatis subacuminatis 1-nerviis pallide
viridibus, marginibus + scariosis, gluma infima nonnunquam bractiformi.
Utriculi glumas excedentes 2mm. longi semiteretes v. late biconvexi ovati
subpaullo alati, dorso leviter 5-nervii, a basi + rotundati, supra gradatim
in rostrum gracile vix longum integrum abeuntes. Styl rami 3. Nux
+ triquetro-biconvexa.

A more of less matted slender plant, growing in wet or damp spots.

Leaves, few, filiform, flaccid, flat or more or less folded striate, finely
scaberulous towards the tips, 6 cm. long or less; sheaths very thin, finely
ribbed, and ending in a broad truncate ligule. Culms much exceeding the
leaves, suberect, usually more or less curved, glabrous, filiform, more or
less trigonous, flaccid, 12cm. long or less. Spikelets solitary, terminal,
small, ovoid in outline, ebracteate, 5mm. long or rather less; the upper
flowers male, the lower (6 or fewer) female ; glumes of the female flowers
membranous, broadly ovate, subacuminate, pale green, the edges more or
less scarious; the lowermost glume occasionally produced into a_ bracti-
form elongation. Utricles longer than the glumes, + 2mm _ long
semiterete or broadly biconvex, slightly winged, rather faintly 5-nerved
on the back, ovate rather wide near the more or less rounded base and
gradually narrowed above into a slender short entire beak ; style-branches
3; nut more or less triquetrously biconvex.

Hab.—Wet ground at Centre Hill, Southland: Arnold Wall! Collected
February, 1920.

I have not seen much material of this plant, and most of the specimens
were over-mature. It is very distinct from any other native species of
Carez, but its position can hardly be determined with certainty until fuller
material is available for examination. The present description may then
prove to need amendment in some details.

372 Transactions.

Art. XLII.—The Genus Cordyceps in New Zealand.
By G. H. CunNINGHAM.

With Special Entomelogical Notes on the Hosts, by J. G. Mygrs.

[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 27th October, 1920; received by Editor,
31st December, 1920 ; issued separately, 8th August, 1921.]

Plates LIX—LXII.

Ix the genus Cordyceps are included those fungi which produce the so-called

“vegetable caterpillars,” “vegetable wasps,” &c., which are insects that
have been attacked by fungi and their tissues replaced by the vegetative
portion of the attacking fungus.

In writings of about a century age the various species of Cordyceps were
supposed to “be insects changing into plants. To quote one example, an
author (25) in 1763, describing Cordyceps sobolifera Tul., which he called
the “‘ vegetable fly,” states, “In the month of May it buries itself in the
earth and hegins to vegetate. By the latter end of July the tree arrives
at its full orowth and resembles a coral branch, and is about three inches
high, and bears several little pods which, dropping ofl, become worms, aud
from thence flies; ike the English caterpillar.”

Naturally, the earlier systematists had some difficulty in placing
such peculiar fungi. Species of this genus were first included under
Clavaria (12), a Basidiomycete; they were then transferred to Sphaerva (19),
a genus which at that time covered all the genera now included in the
Pyrenomycetes ; thence to Cordyceps by Link ane ; from this to Torrubia*
by Tulasue; and, as this latter genus was not tenable, back to Cordyceps.

For the most part, the species of Curdyceps grow on insects, but two-—
C. capitata (Holmsk.) Link, and C. ophioglossordes (Khr.) Link—grow on
subterranean fungi, Elaphomyces spp. C. ophioglessoides has recently heen
recorded growing on a locust in Japan (15).

DISTRIBUTION.

The genus Cordyceps is widely distributed, bemg found in Britain,
EKurope, North and South America, China, Ceylon, Japan, Australia, and
New Zealatid. Many species are extremely limited in their distribution,
while others again are more or less cosmopolitan: e.g., Cordyceps gracihs
Grev. has been recorded from Britain, Hurope, North America, Algeria,
Australia, and, doubtfully, from New Zealand (as Cordyceps entomorrhiza
(Dicks.) Link).

BroLoey.

Little is known of the life-history of Cordyceps. Tulasne (21) and
de Bary (1) have worked out the life-history of the common European
species, C. militaris (L.) Link. Their iavestigations tend to show that a
spore, on coming in contact with u host, germinates and produces a germ-
tube which penetrates the cuticle and body- -wall. Inside the body-cavity
this germ-tube branches, forming hyphae, which penetrate to all parts of
the body. In the blood gemmee are produced: these are cells asexually
produced from the ends ot ee. They are exceedingly small, and are

* The genus one of Link was by manana (22) divided into two genera:
(1) Torrubia, because of the presence of two spore- -forms in the life-cycle; and
(2) Cordylia, embracing all forms growing on subterranean fungi.

CunnincHam.—The Genus Cordyceps im New Zealand. 373

rapidly carried in the blood-stream to different parts of the body, where
they in turn give rise to hyphae. In this manner the fungus rapidly spreads
and quickly kills the host.

Infection of the host may occur from the germ-tube from an ascospore, or
from hyphae developed from conidia borne by the Isarial forin uf Cordyceps.
A conidium may germinate, and the subsequent hyphae live saprophytic-
ally on decaying wood or other organic matter for some considerable
tine. These hyphae on coming in contact with a host are eapable of
entering the host-tissues. In the decaying wood from which Cordyceps
Aemonue Lloyd was taken, mycelial development was so pronounced as to
be visible to the naked eye. The writer carried out some rough experi-
ments to ascertain whether this mycelium was capable cf attacking the
larvae of Aemonu hirta Fabr., the host of C. Aemonae. Healthy host larvae
(quiescent) were obtained from rotting logs in which no sign of Cordyceps
was found, and were buried in pots filled with sterilized sawdust in which
were mixed fragments ef infected wood taken from the centre of the log
that contained C. Aemonae. The pots were kept moist and covered with
bell jars. In two months’ time these larvae were exhumed, and were all
found to be dead and surrounded by hyphae. They were replaced, and
in three months stromata bearing the Isarial stage of C. Aemonae appeared
above the surface of the sawdust. Unfortunately this experiment was
not carried further tu determine whether the perithecial stage could be
obtained ; but at the time of the first experiment Isarial forms of C. Aemonae
were brought into the laboratory from logs in the forest in which they were
found, and were buried in sawdust with the stromata alone showing. The
pots were kept moist and covered; in three months immature perithecia
had appeared on one or two of the stromata. (Plate LIX, fig. 1, )).
The sawdust used in these experiments was obtained by sawing up dead,
sound, dry logs of mahoe (Melicytus ramiflorus Forst.).

In the host the hyphae continue to develop until finally the whole of
the internal tissues are replaced by the mycelium of the fungus, when it
forms a hard, compact mass, the cuticle and sometimes portions of the
alimentary system alone remaining unaltered. (Plate LXI, fies 22), his
mycelial mass is known as a sclerotium; from it, usually after a period
ot rest, the stromata bearing the fructifications of the fungus arise. The
stromata vary considerably in shape, size, and number, according to the
nature and habitat of the host. If the host is subterranean, then the
stromata will necessarily have to be long enough to rise to the surface of
the ground, so the length would be governed by the depth of the host.
Again, if the host is exposed, as in the case of Cor dyceps clavulata (Schw.)
Ellis & Evy.,* the stromata would necessarily be short.

In some species there are two kinds of fructification : the first is known
as the Isarial form, and bears conidia ; the second furm, which appears after
the Isarial (when the latter is present), bears the ascospores. Conidia are
simple, short-lived spores, and are abjointed in immense numbers from
the ends of hyphae. They may be borne on a stroma, in which case they are
abjointed from the terminals of the hyphae forming the stroma, or may
occur on the terminals of hyphae which form a loose covering over the
external surface of the host. The relationship between this Isarial and
the later (or Cordyceps) stage is kncwn in a few species only, and in tke
majority of cases is assumed merely on account of the occurrence of both
forms from the same host. As mentioned above, Jsaria is capable of

* This species occurs on various species of Lecanium.

374 Transactions.

living as a saprophyte ; Isaria-lke forms also occur as the conidial stages
in the life-cycle of Xylaria, the species of which are saprophytes, occurring
on dead logs, grass, &c. The ascospores of Cordyceps are filiform, multi-
cellular bodies borne in asci (cylindrical sacs), which in turn are enclosed
in perithecia (variously shaped receptacles bearing asci on their inner walls).
The perithecia are, as a rule, densely packed on the surfuce of or embedded
in the substance of the stroma. Each is provided with a definite opening
(ostiole) through which the spores escape at maturity. Each ascus bears a
small cap on its distal end, pierced by a minute pore. The ascospores are
filiform, and lie closely packed i in parallel fascicles, eight in each ascus; they
are at first continuous, but when mature are divided by many transverse
septa—a hundred or more. Eventually they break up at these septa into
secondary spores. Each secondary spore is capable of germinating and
infecting a host. From this it is obvious in what enormous numbers these
spores are produced. Assuming a stroma to bear 100 perithecia, each
perithecium to contain 100 asci, and each ascospore to break up into 100
secondary spores, the number of ascospores produced would total 8,000,000
and this is, of course, a very modest estimate of the actual contents of
each perithecium, ascus, &c.: for example, a large specimen of Cordyceps
Robertsii Hook. contains many thousands of perithecia.

DISTRIBUTION OF SPORES.

Conidia are light, minute bodies borne on the ends of hyphae, and are
thus adnurably adapted for wind distribution. Ascospores, being enclosed
in perithecia, are primarily dependent on other means of distribution. Ti
a mature perithecium be placed in water, in an hour or so enormous numbers
of asci are seen to be collected outside the ostiolum. They have been forced
out of the perithecium by the swelling of certain hyphal tissue at the base
of the asci. No doubt in nature a similar condition exists: here the
spores are forced cut and remain on the exterior of the perithecia, or are
washed on to the ground, leaves, logs, &c., and when dry may be earried
by wind, insects, or other agency io some iciceaties from their source.

TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIES.
Although a large number of species have been described, five only are
definitely known tov occur in New Zealand; of these, four are endemic,
and one occurs also in Australia and Tasinania.

Corpyceps* (Fries) Link, Handbk., vol. 3, p. 347, 1833 (emended).

Sphaeria § Cordyceps Fries, Syst. Myc., vol. 2, p. 323, 1823; Torrubia
Lév. Tulasne in Fung. Carp., vol. 3, p. 5, 1865.

Stromataf arising from a sclerotium composed of mycelial tissue within
the bodies of insects (rarely in other fungi), simple or branched ; sterile
below, fertile on upper portion.

Perithecia immersed or superficial, seated on or in fertile portion of
stroma ; spherical, oval, flask-shaped, &c.; ostiolate.

Asci cylindric, 8-spored, hyaline, distal end capitate ; paraphyses absent.

* The name Cordyceps was first used by Fries as the name of a tribe of the
Pyrenomycetes, including the genera Cordyceps and Xylaria. Torrubia was first used
by Léveillé in manuscript in the Paris Museum Herbarium, and was later adopted by
Tulasne (l.c.).

+ Stromata: This term is used very loosely by the various mycologists who have
worked on this genus; as here used it includes both fertile and sterile portions of the
clubs.

CunnincHam.—The Genus Cordyceps in New Zealand. 315

Spores hyaline, filiform, multiseptate, arranged in the asci in parallel
fascicles, or interwoven ; breaking up in the asci into secondary spores, or
remaining entire.

Isarial stage when present forming an effused downy weft or an erect
simple or variously branched stroma, consisting of hyphae bearing the
hyaline continuous conidia on their apices.

1. Cordyceps Sinclairii Berk., Fl. N.Z., vol. 2, p. 338, 1855. (Plate LXII,
fig. 2.)
Sphaeria Basilt Taylor, N.Z. and its Inhabitants, p. 424, 1844. Tor-
rubia caespitosa Tulasne; Select. Fung. Carp., vol. 3, p. 11, 1865.
Cordyceps caespitosa Sacc., Syll., vol. 2, p. 565, 1883.

Isarial Stage: Stromata growing from head of host, yellowish, from
18mm. to 25mm. high; stems cylindrical, slender, simple or forked, some-
times confluent, 8mm. or more high, divided above into numerous more
or less cylindrical simple or slightly-lobed heads, which are sometimes dis-
posed into a flabelliform mass clothed with innumerable oblong conidia
7-8» long. (Berkeley.)

Perithecia unknown.

Hosts —Melampsalta cinqulata Fabr.; M. cruentata Fabr. (Plate LXII,
fig. 3.)

‘ Type Locality—Tauranga, Poverty Bay, in loose gravelly soil in garden
of Bishop Williams ; ‘‘ growing from larva of some orthopterous [sic] insect.’

Distribution —Tauranga (Colenso) ; Farewell Spit, Nelson (Benham) (2) ;
Weraroa (EK. H. Atkinson)! Hokitika (unknown collector) !

There is a fine specimen in the Canterbury Museum collection !
(Plate LXII, fig. 2, c).

No. 79, Biol. Lab. Herb. (Crypt.), Wellington.

This form should really have been named as an Isaria, as only he
conidial form is known. It is possible that this may be the conidial stage of
Cordyceps sobolifera Tul., as this species occurs on cicada in Japan. As all
the other species occurring in New Zealand are endemic, with the exception
of Cordyceps Roberts, which is found only in Australia and New Zealand,
it is, however, more likely that Cordyceps (?) Sinclairii is also endemic.

It is a very variable form, and assumes many different shapes. The
colour of the stroma ranges from white in the most immature specimens,
through yellow (colour mentioned by Berkeley), light brown, in more mature
forms becoming pink, deepening in colour with age.

Although specimens are fairly plentiful in the New Zealand museums,
none are known in any of the mycological collections abroad (14). A most
interesting account of this species (with plate) is given by Benham (2).

Notes on the Hosts (by J. G. Myers).—Of the four specimens available
for study, only two are in at all a good state from an entomological point of
view ; but it is significant that all four hosts are nymphs of the final instar,
with wing-pads well developed and the whole appearance suggestive of
almost immediate emergence. This is of interest in that it is an indication
that the nymphs are, of course, full-grown—a fact which enables an esti-
mate of their species to be made with greater accuracy than would otherwise
be possible. The two large specimens can be assigned almost certainly to
Melampsalta cingulata Fabr. (6), while the two others, both of the same
size and smaller than the other two, belong to one of the smaller cicadas,
most probably to Melampsalta cruentata Fabr. (6).

376 Transactions.

2. Cordyceps Craigii Lloyd, Myc. Notes, p. 527, f. 718, 1911 (emended).

(Plate LX, fig, 3; and text-figs. 1, 2.)

Isarial stage unknown.

Stroma solitary, 5-7cm. long; growing from head of host; stem
3-4 mm. thick, 3-4 cm. long; fertile portion brown when fresh, blackening
with age, flattened, falcate, 2-3 cm. long, 8-10 mm. wide, 3-4 mm. thick ;
surface smooth, or punctate with ostioles of perithecia.

Perithecia completely immersed, densely packed in stroma, flask-shaped,
with long slender slightly curved necks; up to 1,500 long, 300-500 p
wide ; walls 35 » thick.

Asci hyaline, narrowly cylindrical, tapering slightly towards distal end,
markedly towards proximal end, terminating in a long slender pedicel, not
constricted below cap; 250-330 x 6-7 p.

Spores in parallel fascicles in asci, same thickness throughout, ends
bluntly pointed, 180-260 x 2,3; secondary spores 3-4 X 2; readily
separable in asci.

ay: [Drawn by E. H. Atkinson.
Cordyceps Craigii Lloyd.
Fic. 1.—Transverse section through fertile portion of stroma.

Fic. 2.—A. Perithecia (enlarged). B. Capitate apex of ascus. C. Base of ascus.
D. Secondary spores, 3-4 2 u.

Host.—Porina enysti Butl.; growing from head. (Plate LX, fig. 2.)

Type Locality —Old and abandoned kumara (Ipomoea batatas Poir) beds,
Auckland.

Distribution —Auckland (K. Craig); Wellington, in ground under a
karaka (Corynocarpus laevigata Forst.), in forest, vicinity of Wireless Hill
(unknown collector) !

No. 192, Biol. Lab. Herb. (Crypt.), Wellington.

“Mr. Craig also sends two specimens collected in the bush which are
very similar and probably the same species. I could not say positively,
however, from the specimens, as they are both immature.”’ (Lloyd.)

Specimen 192 was given me by Mr. H. Hamilton, of the Dominion
Museum. He obtained it from a man who dug it up in the forest under a
karaka.

Note on the Host (by J. G. Myers).—As this species has so far been
recorded only from the North Island, the host, taking its size into consider-
tion, is almost certainly Porina enysw Butl. (1), the larva of which, in
the North Island, is the victim also of Cordyceps Robertsiz Hook.

INRANS Se NeA. INST Vote lailile

{E. Bruce Levy, photo.

Fic. 1.—Cordyceps Aemonae Lloyd. % 6. a, c. Showing characteristic fasciculate
growth of stromata. 6. Isarial form. Arrow points to developing perithecia.

Fia. 3. |£. Bruce Levy, puoto.

Fic. 2.—Larva of Aemona hirta Broun, the host of Cordyceps Aemonae Lloyd. X 23.
Fra. 3.—Imago of Aemona hirta. x 24,

Face p. 376 |

MRANSe NEA. UNSES. (Vion lie

RR ein OIE RR HERR ENTE:

RO

RIE NEE I ET CE A a

Ries 1 Fie. 2
Fig. 1.—Cordyceps consumpta n. sp. Natural size.
Fig. 2.—Porina enysii Butl., the larva of which is the host of C
Natural size.
Fic. 3.—Cordyceps Craigii Lloyd. Natural size.

Prate LX.

[E. Bruce Levy, photo.
Ibi, 3:

. Craigit and C. Robertsit.

Pratt LXI.

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Cunnrncuam.—The Genus Cordyceps in New Zealand. Sd

3. Cordyceps consumpta, n. sp. (Plate LX, fig. 1; and text-figs. 3, 4.)

Isarial stage unknown.

Stromata gregarious, two springing from head; 2-3cm. long; fertile
portion cylindrical, curved, apex obtuse, black, 8-i0 mm. long, 2-3 mm.
thick ; rough with projecting necks of the perithecia ; sterile portion slender,
cylindrical, straight or curved, glabrous, black, 20mm. long, 1-5 mm. thick.

Perithecia completely immersed, flask-shaped, or more frequently very
irregular and distorted ; not crowded in the stroma, each perithecium being
separated by stromal hyphae; necks protruding; 1,000-1,200 » long,
200-500 » wide ; necks short; walls 30 thick.

Asci hyaline, narrowly cylindrical, tapering slightly towards distal end,
markedly towards proximal end, not constricted below capitate apex ;
250 X 7p.

Spores in parallel fascicles in asci, same thickness throughout, ends
bluntly pointed, 180-220; secondary spores 4-5 X 1-15 yp, readily
separable in asci.

[Drawn by E. H. Atkinson.

Cordyceps consumpta.

Fic. 3.—Transverse section through fertile portion of stroma.
Fic. 4.—A. Perithecia (enlarged: note distortion). B. Capitate apex of ascus. C. Base
of ascus. D. Secondary spores, 4-5 « 1°5 wu.

Host.—Porina sp. (see note) ; growing from head.

Type Locality —Rotorua, N.Z., growing from larva buried in soil
(A. Lush)!

Distribution — Known only from type locality.

No. 230, Canterbury Museum collection. (Type.)

In macroscopic characters this species resembles Cordyceps falcata Berk.,
but differs in having the perithecia completely immersed; in C. falcata
they are perfectly superficial. In microscopic characters there is a strong
resemblance to Cordyceps Craigii Lloyd ; but the difference in perithecial
characters, together with the difference in all macroscopic characters,
indicates that this is a valid species. It bears a closer resemblance to
C. falcata and C. Craigii than to any other described species.

This specimen, together with many others, was kindly forwarded for
examination by Mr. G. Archey, of the Canterbury Museum. It was collected
by Mr. A. Lush at Rotorua in June, 1920. Unfortunately, no particulars
as to exact locality were appended.

_ Note on the Host (by J. G. Myers)—The larva infected, unless it be
immature, must in this case be that of one of the three smaller common

378 Transactions.

species of the genus Porina—namely, P. cervinata Walk. (23), P. signata
Walk. (24), or P. umbraculata Guen. (8). At present we have no ascer-
tained constant structural characters by which to distinguish these larvae.
The insect is far too small for a Jarva of Porina enysii Butl. (5)—at any
rate, for a full-grown one.

4. Cordyceps Robertsii Hook., Fl. N.Z., vol. 2, p. 202, 1855 (emended).
(Plate LXI, figs. 1, 2; and text-figs. 5, 6.)

? Sphaeria larvarum Westw., Proc. Ent. Soc. Lond., vol. 2, p. 6,
1836. Sphaeria Robertsii Hook., Icon. Pl., vol. 1, t. 11, 1837.
S. Hugelu Corda, Icon., vol. 4, 44 F, p. 129, 1840. SS. Forbesii
Berk. in Lond. Jour. Bot., vol. 7, p. 578, 1848. Torrubia Robertsia
Tul., Sel. Fung. Carp., vol. 3, p. 6, t. 1, 1865. Cordyceps Selkirkia
Olliff in Ag. Gaz. N.S.W., vol. 6. p. 411, 1895. ?C. Comii Olliff, lc.
C. larvarum (Westw.) Olliff, lc.

Isarial stage unknown.

Stroma slender, 10-38 cm. long; fertile portion 6-12 cm. long, 3-4 mm.
thick, acute, densely covered with superficial perithecia, which reach to
apex of stem; brown, becoming black with age; sterile portion slender,
5-15 cm. long, 2-3 mm. thick, same colour as fertile portion.

6

[Drawn by E. HH. Atkinson.

Cordyceps Robertsii Hook.

Fic. 5.—Transverse section through fertile portion of stroma.
Fic. 6.—A. Perithecium (enlarged). B. Capitate apex of ascus (note constriction below
cap). C. Base of ascus. D. Secondary spores, 5-6 X 3 u.

Perithecia superficial, small, elongate-obovate or elliptical, densely
packed around central axis, easily separable; dark brown, composed of
coarse hyphal threads ; 600-880 x 300-400 » ; wall thick, 30-50 p.

Asci hyaline, narrowly cylindrical, tapering slightly towards distal end,
markedly towards proximal end, terminating in a long slender pedicel ;
shghtly constricted below capitate apex ; 280-400 x 9-10 p.

Spores in parallel fascicles, filiform, equally thick throughout, bluntly
pointed, multiseptate, 280 x 3 w; secondary spores 5-6 x 3 p, not readily
separable in asci.

Hosts.—Porina enysti Butl.; P. dinodes Meyr. Growing usually from
head, rarely from anal region. (Plate LX, fig. 2; Plate LXII, fig 1.)

Type Locality —Given in Icones Plantarum as “ N.Z.”

Distribution.— More or less general throughout the North Island.
Specimens have been recorded from the following localities: Rotorua

CunnincHAam.—T'he Genus Cordyceps in New Zealand. 379

(H. Hill) (10), Petane (A. Hamilton) (9), Auckland (E. Craig) (13),
Waikanae (H. C. Field) (7), Raurimu (EK. H. Atkinson)! In the South
Island this species appears to be less common. Specimens have been
recorded from the following localities: Catlin’s and Tokonui Range, near
Gore (teste Benham); Riverton (W. G. Howes)! Lloyd (16) states that it has
been collected in Australia by Cheel. Rodway (20) records its incidence
in Tasmania. Australia, N.S.W. (E. Cheel). Tasmania (L. Rodway), gully
at foot of Mount Wellington.

No. 191, Biol. Lab. Herb. (Crypt.), Wellington.

Many improbable tales of the life-history of this species may be found
in the earlier articles on the subject. One assertion that has gained
credence is that these fungi are found only under the rata (Metr osideros. spp.).
It is true that they are often found under the rata, but they occur as
frequently in areas in which no rata is found growing; for example,
Hamilton (9) records its occurrence under Coprosma grandifolia Hook. f.

Frequent mention is made of its being used as food by the Maori.
I am informed by Mr. Elsdon Best, that, although in times of famine the
Maori undoubtedly made use of certain terrestrial and arboreal fungi as
articles of food, they certainly did not eat the awheto, as this fungus is
called by them.

The sclerotium of Cordyceps Robertsii was, however, made use of in
tattooing, Mr. Best stating that the vegetative portion of the fungus, or
awheto—the living grub being known as ngutara—was burnt and pulverized,
and the powder so ‘obtained mixed with water to form a black paste. The
pattern of the tattoo having been marked out on the limbs and body (the
pigment was not used on the face, as it did not give a deep enough black),
the edge of the whi whakatataramoa was placed on a line of the pattern
and the back struck with the take rarauhe,* causing the skin to be severed.
A second implement, the wht puru (which had a serrated edge), was then
dipped in the pigment, applied to the cut made by the whi first used, and
struck with the take rarauhe, the pigment remaining on removal of the whi.

Cordyceps Roberts is an extremely variable form. (Plate LXI, fig. 1.)
I have specimens with a single stroma; with stromata occurring in pairs
from the head ; with a single ‘stroma bifurcate about half-w ay between apex
and base ; and with stromata growing from both head and anal regions.

Specimens are most plentiful in the summer months. Hill (10) states
that the mature stage is most common in October, November, and
December, but he has seen Maori children offering them for sale along the
Rotorua railway-line as late as March.

Note on the Hosts (by J. G. Myers).—Practically all the earlier naturalists
accepted without question the current belief that the host of this species
was Hepialus virescens Dbld. Hamilton, Field, Maskell, and other writers
in the early volumes of the Transactions of the New Zealand Institute considered
this to be the only larva large enough to coincide with the ‘“ vegetable
caterpillar” in size. This was, however, merely a conjecture. G. V. Hudson
was the first to point out the improbability of the arboreal Hepialus as a
host, seeing that the infected larvae were invariably found underground.
He suggested Porina mairt Buller as the host; but only one specimen of
this moth has been taken, and the supposition rests only on its large size,

*The take rarauhe was made from a piece of fern-stalk (Pteridium esculentum
Cockayne), lashed round at the end to prevent its splitting. Fuller information on
tattooing as practised by the Maori may be obtained in the Journal of the Polynesian
Society, vol. 13, p. 166, 1904.

380 Transactions.

its metamorphosis being unknown. The argument that its rarity may be
due to the heavy larval mortality consequent on the attacks of Cordyceps
Robertsvi is obviously inadmissible. Porina mairi may be a host, but that
it is the usual host is highly improbable.

In 1895 Olliff (Ag. Gaz. N.S.W., vol. 6, p. 407) supported the hypothesis
that the victim was the larva of a species (not necessarily P. mairz) of Pielus
(syn. Porina), a view which subsequent evidence has justified.

The first experimental indications of the host’s specific identity were
published in 1903, when A. Philpott registered his opinion that the larva
of Porina dinodes Meyr. ‘‘is the vegetable caterpillar. No other moth in
this district [Southland] known to me is large enough to warrant the
assumption that its larva may be the host of the fungus. I have several
times found the fungus-attacked larvae here, and, so far as a comparison
between these and the living larvae of P. dinodes can be trusted, I think it
bears out my opinion.”

W. G. Howes gives similar evidence (1910) regarding Cordyceps found
plentifully at Riverton. He found “along with thefungi . . . an appa-
rently healthy larvae of Porina dinodes, and, so far as I can see, all the
vegetable caterpillars there were those of this moth. The largest specimen
I took was 5in., but I have never seen a living dinodes larva of this
length, and suppose that the fungus growth distends the skin of the host.”

As Porina dinodes is confined to the South Island, definite evidence of
the North Island bost was lacking. This evidence was, however, forthcoming
in 1905, when G. V. Hudson, at Karori, received “two Hepialid larvae, one
very recently dead and infested with Sphaeria [Cordyceps| fungus
the other an identical larva unaffected by the fungus—alive and very healthy.
Both the larvae were found in the earth, close together, amongst the roots
of some native shrubs.” The healthy larvae was successfully reared, and
proved to be that of Porina enysw Butl. As distinguished from the smaller
and commoner species of the genus, this frequents the bush, and is by no
means rare in the localities where Cordyceps abounds. It is interesting to
note that the abundance of the imago, like that of many other Lepidoptera,
is somewhat periodic. One season may produce large numbers in a locality
where the moth was at other times rare.

It seems probable that the usual host of Cordyceps Robertsii is Porwma
dinodes Meyr. in the South Island, and P. enysiz Butl. in the North.

For the suggestion that the larva of Sphinx convolvuli L. may sometimes
be the victim no grounds of evidence exist. Moreover, an affected cater-
pillar of this species would be immediately recognizable by Sphingid
characters which no fungous attack would completely obscure.

5. Cordyceps Aemonae Lloyd, Myc. Notes, p. 932, fig. 1695, 1920.
(Plate LIX, fig. 1; and text-figs. 7, 8.)

Tsarial stage preceding the perithecial on the same stroma; at first
white and pruinose with conidia, becoming light brown; conidia hyaline,
subglobose, 4-6 p.

Stromata fasciculate, 3-5; stipitate, short, 2-3 mm. long; tipped with
sterile apices, ight brown; growing from head of host.

Perithecia subsuperficial, irregularly globose, obtuse, contiguous ; light
brown, becoming dark with age; 300-500 in diameter; wall thick, up
to 80 p.

Asci hyaline, narrowly cylindrical, tapering slightly towards distal end,
markedly towards proximal end, terminating in a long slender pedicel ;
not constricted below capitate apex; 180-220 x 5-6 p.

CunnincHamM.—The Genus Cordyceps in New Zealand. 381

Spores in parallel fascicles in asci, filiform, same thickness throughout,
ends bluntly pointed, multiseptate, 100-120 < 2-2-5; secondary spores
easily separable in ascus, 3-4 X 2-2°5 p.

Host.—Larva of Aemona hirta Fabr.; growing from head. (Plate LIX,
figs. 2, 3.

: Type Tioalsig! Wee (G. H.C.), in rotting logs of mahoe (Melicytus
ramiflorus Forst.).

Distribution.—Known only from type locality.

No. 78, Biol. Lab. Herb. (Crypt.), Wellington. (Co-type.)

These specimens were collected by the author and sent to C. G. Lloyd.
They were obtained from rotting logs of mahoe. This is a brittle, soft
wood, soon decaying on contact with the ground. The parasitized larvae
were all found with their heads towards the surface of the log. It is
apparently necessary for the stromata to make their way through about
5mm. of solid wood before coming to the surface; frequently, however,
they follow the old larval tunnels until they come to an opening at the
exterior.

[Drawn by E. H. Atkinson.

Cordyceps Aemonae Lloyd.

Fic. 7.—Transverse section through fertile portion of stroma. (Enlarged.)

Fic. 8.—A. Perithecium (enlarged), showing coalescence of walls. B. Capitate apex
of ascus. C. Base of ascus, showing hyaline pedicel. D. Secondary spores,
3-4 X 2-2°5 uw.

Although the perithecia are superficial, in section they appear to be
immersed. That this is due to the coalescence of the perithecia] walls with
the formation of a pseudo-stromal tissue, careful microscopic examination

shows. (Text-fig. 2, A.)

Note on the Host (by J. G. Myers).—Aemona hirta Fabr., Broun in Man.
N.Z. Colecpt., p. 570, 1275: This fairly common Cerambycid beetle was
reared by David Miller, Government Entomologist, from healthy larvae
taken with specimens. undoubtedly of the same species, infested with the
mycelium of Cordyceps Aemonae Lloyd. This beetle is variable in size,
colour, and relative quantity of pubescence, one variety formerly ranking
as a distinct species under the name of Aemona humilis Newman. The
latter species, commonly known as the “ flat-headed lemon-tree borer,”
falls, according to Broun (3), into synonymy with Aemona hirta Fabr. under
the name of A. humilis. The species has been recorded as a pest of lemon-
trees in the Auckland District (4).

The beetle passes its larval and pupal stages in manuka (Leptospermum
scoparitum Forst.) (3), mahoe, and a variety of other trees and shrubs

(teste W. W. Smith, Taranaki).

382 Transactions.

DoUBTFUL SPECIES.

The following have been recorded as occurring in New Zealand, but as
no specimens have to my knowledge been collected, and as none from this
biological area exist in any of the mycological herbariums abroad, they are
here recorded as doubtful.

Cordyceps gracilis Grev.

Host.—‘ Larvae of insects.” ;

Massee (17) states that this species—determined by him as Cordyceps
entomorrhiza (Dicks.) Link—was collected by Colenso and sent to Kew.

There are no specimens of this fungus from New Zealand in the Kew
Herbarium (14).

Cordyceps Gunnii Berk.

Olhff (l.c.) doubtfully records this species for New Zealand without
mention as to who collected it, where it was collected, or where the original
reference was obtained. It is probable that a specimen of Cordyceps
Craigii Lloyd has been mistaken for it.

Frequent mention is made of a species of Cordyceps attacking Hepialus
vurescens Dbld. Unfortunately, I have not seen any specimens, and so
cannot do more than record this animal as a host. The following particu-
lars have been supplied by Mr. Myers :—

In the Entomologist, London, vol. 31, p. 128, 1898, W. G. Howes records
the discovery of “‘ vegetable caterpillars’ in the trunks of trees buried at a
considerable depth and exposed by mining operations at Orepuki, Southland.
The situation of these infected larvae was taken as indubitable proof that
Hepialus was the host [of C. Rebertsiz]. The matter, however, must remain
extremely uncertain, since Hepialus virescens is confined to the North Island.

The second case occurred about 1903, when G. V. Hudson was “ shown
a specimen of a vegetable caterpillar in the trunk of a tree. . . . On
examination I at once recognized the insect as a larva of Hepialus virescens,
and the portion of the tree-trunk with the burrow in which this larva was
situated precisely agreed with the usual habitat of that species.”

LITERATURE CITED.
Bary, A. DE, Comp. Morph. & Biol. of Fungi, &c., 1887.
Brenuam, W. B., Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 32, p. 4, 1900.
Broun, T., V.Z. Dept. Ag. Rep., p. 157, 1896.
N.Z. Dept. Ag. Rep., p. 151, 1897.
Butuer, A. G., Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., p. 381, 1877.
Fapricius, J. C., Syst. Ent., p. 680, 1775.
Frevp, H. C., Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 28, p. 623, 1896.
xUENBE, Ent. Mo. Magq., vol. 5, p. 1, 1868.
. Haminton, A., Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 18, p. 210, 1886.
10. Hi, H., Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 34, p. 401, 1902.
11. Ling, H. F., Cordyceps, Handbook, vol. 3, p. 347, 1833.
12. Linnazus, C., Clavaria, Species Plantarum, p. 1182, 1753.
13. Luoyn, C. G., Myc. Notes, p. 528, 1911.
Synopsis Cordyceps Australasia, p. 11, 1915,
Myc. Notes, p. 809, fig. 1260, 1918.
16. —— Myc. Notes, p. 912, 1920.
17. Massrxn, G., Annals of Botany, vol. 9, p. 26, 1895.
18. Meyrick, E., Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 22, p. 206, 1890.
19. Persoon, C. H., Sphaeria, Syn., p. 90, 1801.
20. Ropway, L., Proc. Roy. Soc. Tas., p. 116, 1919.
21. Tunasne, L. R., Ann. Sci. Nat., 4, ser. 8, pp. 34-43, 1857.
Torrubia Lév., Sel. Fung. Carp., vol. 3, p. 4, 1865.
23. WaLKeER, F., Cat. Lep. Brit. Mus. Suppl., vol. 2, p. 595, 1865.
: Cat. Brit. Mus., vol. 7, p. 1563, 1856.
25. Watson, J., Clavaria sobolifera in Phil. Trans, Lond., vol. 53, pp. 271-74, 1763.

2 90 I OTR 9 NO

Martin.—Unrecorded Plant-habitats. 383

Arr. XLIII.— Unrecorded Plant-habitats for the Eastern Botanicat
District of the South Island of New Zealand.

By W. Martin, B.Sc.

[Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, Ist December, 1920 ; received by
Editor, 31st December, 1920; issued separately, Sth August, 1921.]

Tuis paper records the habitats of certain plants growimg in the Kastern
Botanical District of the South Island as defined by Cockayne (1). Only
such plants are included in the list as have not previously been recorded
from this district or are of rare occurrence ; or such as have been omitted
from published lists of the florulae of defined areas; or such, again, as
add to our knowledge of their distribution.

No catalogue has been prepared of the species occurring in the above
district other than that of J. B. Armstrong (2), and, as it 1s by no means
certain that all of his identifications were correct, there is room for a
revision of the flora. Again, Armstrong’s habitats are so vague as to be
of little service to students of this district. Most of the plants named in
this paper have already been recorded from Canterbury, though the specific
habitats given are new.

Twelve native plants are added to the sixty-eight already recorded by
Dr. Cockayne as occurring in the Riccarton Bush, Christchurch (3 and 4).
Hymenophyllum minimum is recorded from this botanical district for the
first time. Helichrysum Purdier has previously been collected in Canterbury
by Dr. Cockayne, Professor Wall, and Mr. H. H. Allan. Hryngium vesi-
culosum and Deyeuxra Billardiert are new records for Banks Peninsula. The
habitat mentioned for Carex Berggrent is the most northerly for this species,
while the genus Gahnia seems to have eluded the notice of observers since
Armstrong recorded five species in his catalogue (2). he recorded habitat
for Gleichenia Cunninghamii is worthy of note.

Aciphylla Colensot Hook. f. var. maxima Kirk. In stream-bed at foot of
patch of Nothofagus Solandert between Hororata and South Malvern.

Agropyrum scabrum Beauv. Hagley Park, Christchurch.

Angelica geniculata Hook. f. Upper Rakaia Bridge, on the island.

Asplenium flabellifolium Cav. Riccarton Bush, Christchurch.

Asplenium Lyallii Moore. Mount Oxford; Mount Somers; Omihi Hills.

Asplenium Richardi Hook. f. Kaituna Bush; Balgueri Valley, Akaroa,

Astelia nervosa Banks & Sol. Riccarton Bush, Christchurch.

Blechnum Patersoni Met. Kaituna Reserve.

Blechnum penna marinum Kuhn. Riccarton Bush, Christchurch.

Blechnum vulcanicum Kuhn. Kaituna Reserve, Omihi Hills.

Bulbinella Hookert Benth. & Hook. Summit Road, at head of Le Bon’s
Bay. This is a “ species inquirendae ” of Laing (5).

Carex Berggrent Petrie. Arthur’s Pass, close to the railway-station.

Carmichaelia Monroi Hook. f. Left bank of the Rakaia, quarter of a mile
from the lower bridge, near the Mead Road.

384 Transactions.

Carnvichaelia subulata Kirk. Riccarton Bush, Christchurch.

Carmichaelia sp.¢ Shingle terrace, Birdling’s Flat. Apparently close to
or a form of C. subulata, but so prone as not to exceed 2 in. in height.

Celmisia Mackaw Raoul. This disappearing species is growing freely on
the upper part of the cliffs at The Caves, Akaroa. ES

Cheilanthes Siebert Kunze. Canterbury Plains, Templeton. a

Cheilanthes tenuifolia Swartz. Two plants of this also fast-disappearing
species were gathered on Birdling’s Flat, near Lake Forsyth.

Clematis afohata Buch. Abundant in the gorge of the Hurunui River near
Ethelton.

Clematis australis Kirk. Le Bon’s Bay; Rakaia Gorge; River Grey.

Clematis foetida Raoul. Rakaia Gorge.

Corokia Cotoneaster Raoul. Rakaia Gorge.

Cyclophorus serpens C. Chr. Riccarton Bush, Christchurch.

Cystopteris novae-zealandiae Armstr. Mount Oxford, 1,000 ft. This fern is
still common at about the same level on Mount Somers where it was
noted and recorded by Potts (6).

Dacrydium cupressinum Soland. Mount Grey, where it was once fairly
common.

Deyeuxia Billardieri Kunth. On coastal rocks at Akaroa beyond the
abattoirs. ‘3

Dianella intermedia Endl. Beside the beech plantation near the source of
the Omihi Stream; River Grey.

Drosera binaia Labill. Swamp near intersection of road from Lincoln
College and that between Greenpark and Springston.

Dryopteris pennigera C, Chr. Omihi Stream.

Dryopteris punctata C. Chr. Riccarton Bush, Christchurch.

Echinopogon ovatus Beauv. Mount Grey.

Elaeocarpus Hookerianus Raoul. Mount Grey; Kaituna Reserve, Banks
Peninsula.

Erectites prenanthoides DC. Riccarton Bush, Christchurch.

Eryngium vesiculosum Labill. On shingle close to the outlet to Lake
Forsyth ; on roadside exactly two miles beyond the rabbit-proof fence
on the road to Akaroa.

Gahnia sp.? Near the source of a stream between the River Grey and
the Little Grey River. Probably G. lacera.

Gleichenia Cunninghamit Heward. This fern was collected on Mount
Somers on an open shingle-slope, facing north, at an elevation of 3,500 ft.
The only shelter from the howling nor’-westers was a boulder about
18 in. high, while from the glare of the sun there was none.

Helichrysum Purdiet Petrie. Bed of River Grey; Mr. Anderson, of West
Oxford, has sent me specimens of this rare plant from near the source
of Gammon’s Creek, on Mount Oxford.

Hoheria angustifolia (Raoul) Cockayne. Rakaia Gorge.

Hymenophyllum minimum A. Rich. Near source of Gammon’s Creek,
Mount Oxford.

Iphigenia novae-zealandiae Baker. Tarn near Lake Coleridge.

Juncus caespiticius HE. Mey. Beside water-race, Rolleston.

Juncus pallidus R. Br. Swamp between Kaituna and Birdling’s Flat.

Korthalsella Lindsayi Engl. Island in Rakaia Gorge ; parasitic on Myrtus
obcordata and on Coprosma rotundifolia.

Korthalsella salicornioides Van Tiegh. On Leptospermum ericoides, at Kai-
tuna Reserve ; abundant.

cae

4

a_i loeb

Martin.—Unrecorded Plant-habitats. 385

Leptocarpus simplex A. Rich. Inland shore of Lake Ellesmere ; head of
Le Bon’s ; Barry’s Bay ; Onawe Peninsula.

Leptolepia novae-zealandiae Kuhn. Mount Oxford, 1,500 ft.

Inbertia ixioides Spreng. Island in Rakaia Gorge ; Mount Grey.

Loranthus micranthus Hook. f. Riccarton Bush, Christchurch.

Mariscus ustulatus C. B. Clarke. Roadsides between Tai Tapu and Motu-
karara.

Metrosideros lucida A. Rich. Abundant on hill near Omihi; also on shore
of Lake Coleridge.

Muehlenbeckia ephedrioides Hook. f. This plant has been recorded from the
shingle ridge near the mouth of the Rakaia River, and it is now recorded
from the end of the same ridge, twenty miles or so farther north, near
the outlet to Lake Forsyth, where it is the commonest plant in the
first zone of vegetation. It is abundant on the beach shingle at Otaio,
in South Canterbury; old bed of the River Waimakariri, not far from
the Paparua Prison, beyond Yaldhurst; banks of stream near Cust.

Nothofagus Solandert (Hook. f.) Oerst. Hills near source of Omihi Stream.

Olearia arborescens Cockayne and Laing. Mount Grey; common in light
bush.

Ophioglossum costatum R. Br. Mount Grey; vicinity of Lake Coleridge.

Panax simplex Forst. Mount Grey.

Parietaria debilis Forst. Riccarton Bush, Christchurch.

Parsonsia capsularis (Forst. f.) R. Br. var. rosea (Raoul) Cockayne. Island
in Rakaia Gorge.

Paesia scaberula Kuhn. Omihi; Mount Grey; Mount Oxford.

Polypodium diversifoluum (Willd.) C. Chr. Riccarton Bush, Christchurch.

Polystichum vestitum Presl. Riccarton Bush, Christchurch.

Pseudopanax feroz Kirk. Island in Rakaia Gorge.

Raoulia Monroi Hook. f. Old bed of Waimakariri; island in Rakaia
Gorge ; Amberley Beach ; Maronan Road, Ashburton.

Scirpus sulcatus Thouars var. distigmatosa Clarke. Between Greenpark and
Springston, in manuka swamp.

Tetrapathaea australis Raoul. Kaituna Reserve.

Uncinia leptostachya Raoul. Riccarton Bush, Christchurch.

Urtica incisa Poir. Outlet to Lake Forsyth.

Utricularia monanthos Hook. f. Tarns near Lake Coleridge.

REFERENCES.

—

. L. Cockayne, Notes on New Zealand Floristic Botany, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 49,
p- 65, 1917.
. J. B. Armstrone, A Short Sketch of the Flora of the Province of Canterbury,
with Catalogue of Species, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 12, p. 325, 1880.
. L. Cockayne, Riccarton Bush—List of the Fiowering-plants and Ferns of Riccarton
Bush, 30th July, 1906.
—— Some Hitherto-unrecorded Plant-habitats, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 46, p. 63,
1914.
. R. M. Larne, Vegetation of Banks Peninsula, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 51, p. 355, 1919.
. T. H. Porrs, Out in the Open, p. 258, 1882.
. L. Cockaynkr, Some Hitherto-unrecorded Plant-habitats, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 48,
p. 205, 1916.

bo

ID O1 isa aN)

13—Trans.

386 Transactions.

Art. XLIV.—Purther Studies on the Prothallus, Embryo, and Young
Sporophyte of Tmesipteris.

By the Rev. J. HE. Hottoway, D.Sc., F.N.Z.Inst., Hutton Memorial
Medallist.

Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 1st December, 1920 ; received by
Editor, 31st December, 1920 ; issued separately, 12th August, 1921.]

Plate LXIII.

INTRODUCTORY.

THE first accounts of the prothallus of Tmeszpteris to be published were
those contained in the two papers of Professor A. A. Lawson (11, 12), in the
latter of which the author also described the prothallus of Pszlotwm. In
the same year Darnell-Smith (3) published an account of the prothallus of
Psilotum, and described his successful attempts to germinate the spores
experimentally. Lawson’s two accounts relate to the mature prothallus
and sexual organs of both T'’mesipteris and Psilotum, there bemg shown to be
a more or less close resemblance between the two plants with regard to the
gametophyte generation. A single embryo of T'mesipteris was figured also
in his first paper.

In the followmg year I published an account (7) of the prothallus and
young plant of Tmesipleris, based on abundant material obtained in the wet
forests of Westland, New Zealand. The development of the sexual organs
and of the embryo was described, but in the case of the latter the series
obtained was incomplete, although it indicated the absence of root, suspensor,
and cotyledon. The main object of the present paper is to trace more
fully the development of the embryo and of the young plant. The absence
of a root organ from the adult plant, and its probable absence also from the
embryo, together with the discovery of the rootless Rhynie plant fossils
in the Scottish Karly Devonian (8, 9, 10), gives to the Tmesipteris embryo
and young plant an exceptional interest. Although the series of embryos
studied for the purpose of the present paper is still not altogether complete,
the results obtained seem to be such as to warrant immediate publication.

The new material on which this account is based has, as before, all been
obtained in Westland. It embraces about seven hundred prothalli in all,
many of which bore embryos of different ages and attached plantlets, and
also a full series of detached plantlets.

It may be mentioned that the embedding in paraffin was practically all
done at home by the aid of the simple brass table illustrated by Chamberlain
on page 14 of the third edition of his Methods in Plant Histology (Chicago,
1915), the results obtained being quite satisfactory. The stain used
throughout was Delafield’s haematoxylin, this being chosen on account of
its clear differentiation of embryos. In some cases safranin was used in
conjunction with it. The drawings were made with the aid of a Leitz camera
lucida. I have to thank Dr. Charles Chilton, of the Canterbury College
Biological Laboratory, for permission to work in the laboratory from time
to time, and for his interest in my work.

Hotitowayr.—Prothallus, &c., of Tmesipteris. 387

GENERAL.

The climate of Westland is a continuously wet one, there being practically
no really dry periods at any season of the year. For example, at Hokitika,
on the coast, as shown in the Meteorological Office records, for the ten years
1909 to 1918 the average annual rainfall was 117-36 in., the lowest for any
one year being 100-97 in. and the highest 154-32in. A detailed examination
of these records shows that during this decade twice only was the monthly
rainfall less than 2 in., while generally speaking the annual total was fairly
evenly distributed over the twelve months, and no one month in the year
showed usually a markedly less rainfall than any other. As a general rule,
also, the Westland climate is characterized by the absence of dry winds.
On the main mountain-ranges, which run more or less parallel with the coast,
the rainfall is, of course, much heavier than at sea-level, this being especially
so in the gorges and on the lower flanks of the ranges. For example, at
Otira, at the western end of the tunnel which pierces the main divide, on the
Midland Railway, lying at an altitude of 1,255 ft., the average rainfall for
the five years 1914 to 1918 was 198-73 in.

On account of the wet climate and constantly high humidity the whole
district from sea-coast to the mountain-ranges is covered with heavy forest,
and the growth of ferns and other cryptogamic plants is luxuriant both
epiphytically and on the floor. Tree-ferns, especially Dicksonia squarrosa,
are abundant in the lowland forest and up to the bases of the mountains.
Away from the coast Metrosideros lucida (the southern rata) is a common
member of the forest, and its large much-branched and irregularly-growing
trunks frequently show thick accumulations of epiphytic humus with
colonies of Pteridophytes.

In the coastal forest T'mesipteris occurs abundantly on the stems of
Dicksonia, being frequently accompanied in this station by Lycopodium
Billardieri var. gracile and by the two filmy ferns Hymenophyllum ferru-
gineum and Trichomanes venosum. In this part of the district the mature
plants of Tmeszpteris also occur, but far less frequently, in the forks of large
trees or even on the ground. Colonies of young plants can often be found
on the tree-fern stems, the youngest plants being invariably at the upper-
most limit of the colony. The most favourable place for the germination of
the spores is clearly that part of the stem in which the bases of the frond-
stipites are beginning to form a firm but net too dense substratum with an
accumulating humus by the extension upwards of the tree-fern’s clothing
of aerial rootlets. As the Dicksonia grows in height the Tmesipteris plantlets
extend upwards, those farther down the stem exhibiting progressively older
stages of development. These are favourable places for finding prothalli,
in some cases in relative abundance. I have dissected out from selected
portions of tree-fern stems a total of considerably over one hundred
prothalli. In this coastal forest, and even farther inland wherever Dicksonia
occurs commonly, one can always be sure of obtaining the young plants and
prothalli, although the work of dissecting them out from the tree-fern-stem
surface is generally tedious and requires considerable care. Undoubtedly
the easiest places in which to-find the prothalli of T’mesipteris are the large
overhanging trunks of the rata, where, as has been mentioned previously,
humus frequently accumulates to a considerable depth on the upper sides
of the trunks and lower limbs and in the crevices, within easy reach of the
ground. Here colonies of large mature plants are to be met with, the humus
being permeated with their rhizomes. The young plants, if present, occur
quite indiscriminately, there being an absence of the useful grading which is

13*

388 Transactions.

invariably to be found on tree-fern stems, but with the different advantage
that the humus lacks the irritating entanglement of tough aerial tree-fern
rootiets and is easily crumbled down. I have found that Tmesipteris occurs
in this station more particularly at middle altitudes in the district, on the
lower parts of the mountain-flanks and in the valleys, where the rainfall
is even heavier than at the sea-coast ; and, although I have not often found
large colonies of the young plants in these situations, I fee] sure that a
systematic investigation of these large overhanging tree-trunks would show
that the plantlets occur not infrequently. From one particular rata in the
valley of the Greenstone River, on the lower parts of the Hohonu Range,
at an altitude of about 1,300 ft., I took home on each of three occasions a
parcel of humus and secured altogether no less than 580 prothalli.

On the flanks of the ranges Z'mesipteris is frequently to be met with
growing in the thick humus on the forest-floor either as single plants or in
colonies, although here, owing to the dense accumulation of undecayed
vegetable debris, germination of the spores probably does not take place
frequently.

THE PROTHALLUS.

I have already given (7) a fairly complete account of the form and
structure of the prothallus and development of the sexual organs. As a
result, however, of the study of the very large number of prothalli since
discovered by me there are some additional facts to be noted.

Of the total number of prothalli found on the one rata, as mentioned
in the previous section of this paper, about one hundred were quite young—
that is, they were from 1mm. to 2 mm. in length. A good many of these
showed the original spore still attached. The youngest found was just
under 1mm. in length, and is shown in general view in fig. 1. It had
developed no sexual organs. Its lower two-thirds was brown in colour,
as also were the rhizoids, but the head was colourless. Throughout the
brown region the cell-walls showed very distinctly, as is always the case
in the T'mesipteris prothallus, while the cells themselves each contained a
circular compact fungal skein. At the uppermost limit of the brown
region, however, the fungal skeins were thin and delicate. The browning
of the cell-walls extended slightly beyond the point reached by the fungus,
and also a slight general tinge was beginning to show on the left side of
the head. This brown or almost golden-yellow colour is characteristic of
both young and old prothalli of Tmesipteris, except for the actual head,
and it seems to arise very early in the development. Darnell-Smith
(5, p. 86) notes that in Psilotum the first cells formed on germination of
the spore are light brown in colour, and that the fungus begins to infect
the prothallus at the three-cell stage. He also notes (2bid., p. 88) that the
small bulbils borne on the older prothalli are colourless in the early stages
of growth, but later become brown. The cells of the head of the prothallus
shown in fig. 1 were large and bulging, and contained much starch. There
was no basal filament of a single cell in thickness, as is sometimes to be
seen even in older prothalli (7, figs. 1, 11), but the prothallus began
immediately from the spore to increase gradually in width by cell-
multiplication. The fungus was present in the lowest cells of the
prothallus and in the spore also. The basal region of another young
prothallus with the spore attached is shown in fig. 2. The wall of the
spore is thick, and its outer surface pimpled.

Older prothalli not infrequently show the basal end intact, and in some
cases the spore can still be seen attached. Fig. 4 shows in general view

Houttoway.—Prothallus, &c., of Tmesipteris. 389

Fic. 1.—A very young complete prothallus in general view. x 110.

Fic, 2.—Basal end of a young prothallus in general view, showing the spore. -x 270.

Fie. 3.—Basal end of the prothallus shown in fig. 4. x 110.

Fic. 4.—Medium-aged prothallus in general view, showing twofold forking of the
head, and also the distribution of the fungus. x 36.

390 Transactions.

a medium-aged prothallus which is beginning to fork, and fig. 3 its basal
end. Fig. 5 is a median longitudinal section of the lower regions of a still
older prothallus, in which the gradual extension in width in a series of
gentle swellings is clearly seen. The latter prothallus had preserved the
unbranched carrot form unusually long (fig. 6), and was rather more
attenuated in form than usual, but it illustrates well the manner in which
the Tmesipteris prothallus always in-
creases in girth. That shown in fig. 4
is more typical. In the latter the
first forking of the head had already
taken place, and the two large swollen
apices were in the act of forking
again. The shaded area in the main
body shows the extent of the fungal
distribution, the two apices being quite
clear.

The prothalli vary a good deal in
both length and thickness. Measurc-
ments of mature specimens showed
variations in thickness from 0-3 mm.
to 1-25mm., and an extreme length
of 18mm. has been observed Gene-
rally speaking, it is the more attenu-
ated prothalli which show the greater
tendency to an extension in size by
a second forking of the apices, the
thicker individuals seldom appearing
to fork more than once unless one of
Fia. 5.—Longitudinal section of the basal the first branches has ceased to grow.

end of the prothallus shown in fig. 6. The stouter prothalli frequently pos-

x 63. sess much-swollen heads. The apex
Fre. 6.—General longitudinal section of of the attenuated form was given in

@ prothallus, showing its gradual ex- joycitudinal section in my previous

tension in width, and also an attached Canny : ; yiele

plantlet. x 12. paper at fig. 21, while that of the

stouter form is shown in the present

paper in longitudinal section in fig. 7,

and in transverse section in fig. 8. There is always a single apical cell of

the same form as is found throughout the life of the sporophyte. I have

found that serial sections of large thick prothalli may show the presence of

several fertilized archegonia and very young developing embryos in close

proximity to one another, but I have seldom found more than one plantlet
attached to a single prothallus.

The close similarity in general appearance between the prothallus and the
very young sporophvte must be noted. This, of course, arises mainly from
the fact that the prothallus possesses an extended and branched chlorophyll-
less body with a fairly regular radial growth, and that the young sporophyte
consists at first of a simple branching rhizome devoid of appendages, both
being brown in colour and covered with the same long brown rhizoids.
It is sometimes quite impossible to be sure to which of the two a fragment
belongs until it is closely examined under the microscope. This similarity
is more marked in the case of T’mesipteris than in any other Pteridophyte.
The young adventitiously-produced plantlet of Psiletum is also similar
in appearance to the prothallus.

Hotitoway.—Prothallus, &c., of Tmesipteris. 391

Some additional figures illustrating the development of the sexual organs
are given in the present paper. That of the antheridium is easily followed
(figs. 9 to 19). It begins at an early stage to project from the surface,
and at the mature stage does so very strongly. The number of sperm-
cells is much less than in either Lycopodium or in the Ophioglossaceae.

. 7.—Longitudinal section of a stout apex of a prothallus,

showing the apical cell. x 100.
8.—Transverse section of a stout apex of a prothallus, showing
the apical cell. x 100.
Fires, 9-17.—Developmental series of antheridia in longitudinal
section. xX 100.

Fig.

Spermatogenesis was not followed, but Lawson states that the spermato-
zoids of Psilotum are multiciliate (12, p. 105). Two additional figures
illustrating the development of the archegonium are also given (figs. 20, 21).
It is clear that there is here no basal cell. The demonstration of neck-
canal cells and the ventral-canal cell which was left over from my previous

392 Transactions.

paper I have not been able to determine satisfactorily. As with the
antheridium, the archegonium projects strongly from the surface, practically
only the venter being sunk.

Fig. 18.—Transverse section of a large antheridium, showing the main divisions.
XxX 250.

Fic. 19.—The same antheridium as in fig. 18, showing the opercular cell. x 250.

Fie. 20.—Longitudinal section of a stout apex of a prothallus, showing two
young archegonia but not the apical cell. x 75.

Fie. 21.—Longitudinal section of a medium-aged archegonium. X 170.

ADVENTITIOUS PROTHALLIAL Bups.

Three instances of portions of old prothalli bearmg small adventitious
buds were noticed. Cn one of these three young buds had been formed,
these being shown in longitudinal section in figs. 22 to 24. Fig. 24
shows the actual apex of the bud marked X in fig. 23, from which it is
clear that there is a single apical cell. On another fragment of an old
prothallus three buds in different stages of development were found, one
(fig. 25) being quite young, and the other two (figs. 26, 27) much older.
The two latter became detached from the prothallus. Sexual organs were
present on both these fragments, so that their prothallial nature is beyond
question. The buds were in every case packed with starch, and fungal
coils were present in the prothallial cells which immediately adjoined them.
The buds arise from the superficial cell-layer of the prothallus, but it is
not quite clear whether one or two of these cells are concerned in their
formation. The sections shown in figs. 22 and 23 make it appear that the

Hottoway.—Prothallus, &c., of Tmesipteris. 393

buds arise from two cells, but the bud shown in general view in fig. 26,
judging from the old point of attachment at its base, seems to have arisen
from a single cell. The two largest buds found (figs. 26, 27) were some-
what brown in colour in their lower portions, the cell-walls being strongly
marked as in the case of prothalli formed from the spores. The cells in
this region showed the presence of fungal coils. From fig. 22 it is clear
that the fungus had infected this particular bud through a rhizoid Nothing
was found to illustrate the further history of these structures.

Fie, 22, 23.—Young prothallial adventitious buds in longitudinal section. X 75.

Fie. 24.—Longitudinal section of the bud marked X in fig. 23, showing its apical
cell. X 75.

Figs. 25-27.—Prothallial buds of different ages in general view. Fig. 25 x 75;
fig. 26 x 44): fig. 27 x 30.

Darnell-Smith notes (3, p. 87) that the prothallus of Pszlotum (presum-
ably P. triquetrum) frequently bears small bulbils which are carried upon
short stalks one cell in width. I have found on old rhizomes of P. tri-
quetrum collected on the scoria islet of Rangitoto, Auckland Harbour, an
abundance of the bulbils which were first described by Solms Laubach (14).
But no corresponding structures have been observed on the rhizomes of
Tmesipteris, so that it is interesting to find that the prothallus of the latter
bears under certain conditions small superficial buds. The occurrence of
adventitious buds in both generations of the Psilotaceae increases the
similarity between them noted above.

394 Transactions.

THE EMBRYO.
A. General Observations.

From the study of the limited number of embryos described in my
former paper I drew the following conclusions. The first wall to be formed
in the zygote, the basal wall, is transverse to the direction of the axis
of the archegonium, and separates the embryo into its two main regions,
the hypobasal (lower) region wholly giving rise to the foot, and the
epibasal wholly to the shoot. There is no suspensor, cotyledon, or root.
The superficial cells of the foot develop into haustorial protuberances. The
initiation of an apical meristem in the shoot-region was not traced, although,
judging from one particular embryo found, a single apical cell had
apparently been set apart very early. The position of the second apex of
growth in the young plantlet was described. I have since been able to study
a much larger number of embryos, although the series is still not quite
complete, lacking certain stages as seen in transverse section. The present
study confirms my previous conclusions, and makes more clear the main
segmentations of the embryo. It also determines the early initiation of
the apical meristem in the shoot, as well as that of the latter’s secondary
apex of growth.

The majority of the large number of prothalli which I have examined
in external appearance apparently bore no embryos at all. On the other
hand, a few, and they almost always of the stouter type, showed the
presence of several (Plate LXIII, fig. 1). A good number of very young
embryos were found showing only the first one or two segmentations,
some of the stouter prothalli bearing from two to five of these. In
most instances a prothallus did not bear more than one developing
embryo, although one or more undeveloped fertilized archegonia
might be present. This condition of things may be compared with
what I have found in the prothalli of those New Zealand species of
Lycopodium which belong to the two large subterranean types. For
example, one large prothallus of L. fastigiatum, which conforms to the
clavatum type, bore no fewer than eleven young embryos as well as three
young plants. This was, of course, an exceptionally large number, but
many of the prothalli of L. volubile, L. fastigiatum, and L. scaiiosum which
I have sectioned showed three or four developing embryos, and it is quite
usual for these prothalli to be found with two or three well-grown young
plantlets attached to them.

Generally speaking, all stages in embryo development except the very
youngest can be detected in external examination. The two general
features which make them thus apparent are, firstly, a superficial localized
swelling of the prothallial tissue, and, secondly, the presence of an old
archegonium neck at the apex of this swelling. These were what one
always looked for. In the case of fairly well advanced embryos, which,
however, had not as yet ruptured the prothallial tissues, the interior of
this swollen region always appeared somewhat darker than the surrounding
tissues.

It may be as well to state at once the most prominent features in the
embryo of Tmesipteris. These are, firstly, the basal wall, which can clearly
be traced throughout the whole development until the young sporophyte
becomes detached (the plantlet usually detaching itself here, leaving its foot,
embedded in the prothallial tissues) ; secondly, the superficial swelling of
the prothallial tissues around the embryo, together with the repeated trans-
verse divisions of the large prothallus-cells lying immediately interior to the

Hottoway.—Prothallus, &e., of Tmesipteris. 395

foot (the browned “cup.” being an outstanding feature on the prothallus-
surface at an old point of attachment of a plantlet) ; thirdly, the haustorial
protuberances from the foot into the tissues of the prothallus ; fourthly,
the presence of a single large apical cell in the outer, or shoot, region, in
some cases a second apical cell being set apart in the other outer quadrant ;
and, lastly, the Tmesipteris embryo, when compared with those of other
Pteridophytes, shows the important feature of the absence of suspensor,
cotyledon, and root organs.

The hypobasal region of the very young embryo curves somewhat as
it develops, so that frequently a single longitudinal section does not
show both foot and shoot cut truly medianly. On this account, in illus-
trating some of the embryos on which my description is based, I have
thought it advisable to show a series of several consecutive sections.
Unless otherwise indicated, a series so illustrated always consists of con-
secutive sections. Again, in the epibasal region the apical cell never seems
to be in the line of the archegonium-axis, so that the young shoot-apex
bursts out from the tissues of the prothallus inclined at a greater or less
angle, which, moreover, is not infrequently out of the plane in which the
prothallus-limb lies. Hence in longitudinal] section the apical cell is some-
times cut slightly obliquely.

In several cases developing embryos were seen on sectioning to be
browned, the nuclei being small and the cell-walls more or less distorted.
This would seem to have been due not to anything in the preparation of the
material for embedding in paraffin, but to the previous death of the embryo.

B. First Segmentations.

In my earlier paper I described and figured several very young embryos
(7, figs. 52 to 57), noting (p. 22) that the first wall to be formed divides the
embryo into lower and upper regions, and that the next division is in
the hypobasal cell by a wall leading at an angle from the basal wall into
the lower end. The exact sequence of the subsequent segmentations was
not demonstrated, although from the figures and from the further study of
the same embryos it would appear that an inclined wall is formed also in
the epibasal cell, the embryo thus attaining a quadrant stage. From the
present study, also, this seems to be the normal sequence of segmentation,
although several abnormal cases will be described.

Fias. 28a, 28B, 29.—Two fertilized egg-cells in longitudinal section. x 100.

The fertilized egg-cell at once grows considerably in size. A good many
instances of this condition were observed, two of which are shown in
longitudinal section in figs. 28a, 288, and 29. The former of these was cut
a little obliquely, but from fig. 284 it is apparent that cell-divisions in the
surrounding prothallial tissue begin immediately. A considerable number
of embryos showing the first segmentation only were found (figs. 30 to
344-c. The basal wall is always transverse, and divides the fertilized egg

396 Transactions.

into two more or less equal portions. I have never found any variation
from this. The surrounding prothallial tissue at this stage projects con-
siderably (fig. 34), so that it is possible sometimes to detect these young
stages in an external examination of the prothallus (see Plate LXIII,
fig. 1). Following this, there is formed in the inner or hypobasal cell an
inclined wall leading from the basal wall down towards the lower end of
the embryo and dividing the hypobasal portion into two somewhat unequal
quadrants. This stage is shown in longitudinal section in the series given
in figs. 35a to 35p and figs. 36a to 36D, and in transverse section in the
series figs. 387A to 37r. Next, a similarly inclined wall leads off from the
basal wall towards the upper end of the epibasal cell, though not into

Fies. 30-34.—Five young embryos in longitudinal section, showing first division-wall
only. The series 344 to 34c consists of consecutive sections, as in all
series of sections illustrated in this paper unless otherwise stated. Xx 100,

the actual “beak,” the embryo thus attaining the complete quadrant
stage. This is shown in longitudinal section in the two series figs. 38a
and 38B, and figs. 39a to 39p, and in obliquely transverse section in the
series figs. 40a to 40G. This sequence in segmentation seems to be the
normal rule, so that before referrmg to the abnormal cases met with I
will describe the subsequent cell-divisions which lead up to the setting
apart of an apical cell in the epibasal region.

I have not found a sufficient number of young embryos cut trans-
versely to determine whether or not there is normally a regular octant
formation, but judging from the embryo cut obliquely transverse and
illustrated in the series figs. 414 to 41e@, and from others also, I should say
not. In this case in the lower portion of the hypobasal region the first

Hotioway.—Prothallus, &c., of Tmesipteris. 397

inclined wall is alone present (figs. 414 to 41c). The section marked D
probably also represents the embryo in section below the basal wall,
showing a wall in each of the hypobasal quadrants which has led off from

Fics. 354-35, 36A-36D.—Two young embryos in longitudinal section, showing basal
wall and also first hypobasal wall. x 100.

Figs, 374-37r.—A young embryo in transverse section from below upwards, showing
first hypobasal wall. x 100.

Fias. 38a, 388, 394-39p.—Two young embryos in longitudinal section, showing “basal
wall and also first epibasal and hypobasal walls. X 100.

the first inclined wall. In the epibasal region also (figs. 41H, 41¥F) the
segmentation is not octant-wise. Figs. 42a and 42p show a slightly older
embryo in longitudinal section, in which a regular segmentation of the

398 Transactions.

quadrants in both epibasal and hypobasal regions has proceeded. Those
illustrated in figs. 54 to 57 of my previous paper correspond fairly closely
with this. The first inclined walls in both main regions of the embryo
shown longitudinally in figs. 434 to 43E are apparent, but the subsequent
segmentation has followed a somewhat unusual course.

Fies. 404-40¢.—Young embryo in oblique transverse section from below upwards at
a similar stage of development to those shown in figs. 38 and 39. x 100.

Fics. 414—-41G.—Young embryo in oblique transverse section, illustrating absence of
octant walls. x 100.

Fies. 424, 428.—Young embryo in longitudinal section, showing first segmentations of
the epibasal and hypobasal quadrants. x 100.

Abnormally segmented embryos are set forth in figs. 444 to 440, 454
to 45r, and 46a to 46p. In each of these the basal wall is clearly to be
cistinguished, and also the first inclined wall in the hypobasal half, but
in the two last-mentioned embryos the segmentation in the epibasal half is
rather difficult to interpret. In that shown in figs. 444 to 44D a single

Houtoway.—Prothallus, &c., of Tmesipteris. 399

ias, 434-43n.— Young embryo in longitudinal section, showing irregular segmentation
of epibasal and hypobasal quadrants. x 135.

Fias, 444-44p.—Young embryo in longitudinal section, showing abnormal segmenta-
tion. In that marked D the transverse section of the prothallus is
shown at the point where the embryo was borne. A to C x 180; D x 66.

Fias. 45a-45r.—Young embryo in longitudinal section, showing abnormal segmenta-
tion. x 135.

400 Transactions.

division of the epibasal half has taken place by a wall which, instead of being
inclined to the basal wall, is parallel to it. The uppermost cell thus has
almost the appearance of a suspensor, but comparison with other embryos
shows that this cannot be its nature. Fig. 44D represents a transverse
section of the parent prothallus at the point at which this embryo was
borne, and it will be seen that the prothallial tissues protrude here rather
more than usual. Possibly the embryo has been stimulated by this to a
rapid elongation. In the other two-abnormal cases mentioned the arche-
gonial neck appears towards the end of each series, so that the sections
must be considered more or less obliquely longitudinal. In the case of
that shown in figs. 45a to 45Fr there seem to be two inclined walls leading
off at very slight angles from the basal wall into the epibasal region, and
along with this it must be noticed that the embryo is squat in form. It
was situated well up the prothallial protuberance which surrounded the
foot of a well-grown plant, where the cells, although not compressed, were

Fies. 464—46D.—Young embryo in longitudinal section, showing abnormal
segmentation. 135.

yet all much extended in a horizontal direction. I would suggest that the
extension of the young embryo in this direction had caused it to repeat
the formation of the epibasal inclined wall. In the third of these abnormal
cases (figs. 464 to 46D) it will be seen by reading the series from the last
section backwards that the first-formed epibasal wall approaches the basal
wall and presumably joins it before the section marked A is reached.
Here too, then, it is apparent that this wall is inclined at an unusually
slight angle, as is also that in the hypobasal region. These were the only
abnormally segmented embryos observed.

C. Initiation of the Shoot Apex.

An apical cell is set apart comparatively early in one of the epibasal
quadrants, and from this the shoot-apex is formed. In my earlier paper
I noted that an apical cell was probably already present in the young
embryo shown there in figs. 55 and 56, and a re-examination of these
sections in the light of my subsequent studies confirms this belief. The

Prate LXIII.

Vor Wir:

N.Z. Inst.

TRANS.

YMors Fo soorde oj YIM goqyuRTd payoryye Sunod v Surmoys ‘snypeyzoad vw yo pua pavaarofz oyy Fo YdvaBoyoyg + stvajdisam,g—¢e
to YOsT/ q f Ua ¢ = : ¢ ; ; 5 i ( i
sonssly peypeqgord oyy YSnoryy Suysmg oOAIqua UR SuLMOYsS ‘snz[VYyZoud v Fo pus pavMaoz oy JO YdvaBoyoyg ¢ seajdisau,f,—Z

i = oS a aS ee ed T) ’
‘soArq uta SuNOA OM} sUTeUOD gF 4 Ae.

‘q puv y 94e soourseqnzoid OAuquia SuN0A AoA OMG OS[R pUR OAIQUIe Sutpnazord vw Surmoys snypeygoud wv yo uomiod wv jo ydeisoyoyg : siajdisawf;— |

Le) Dex — .
€ Oly Z ‘ply TT Og]

3) A |
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3) A |

Ho.titoway.—Prothallus, d&c., of Tmesipteris. 401

young embryo figured in longitudinal section in the present paper in the
series figs. 47a to 47D possesses an apical cell from which segments have
apparently already been cut off. In the series figs. 48a to 48F another
embryo, at a slightly older stage of development, is given in longitudinal
section which apparently possesses two apical cells, one in each epibasal
quadrant. In these early stages it is not clear whether or not the cells
alongside the apicals have actually been cut off from them as segments
or have arisen simply by the general segmentation of the quadrants. In
those figured the former seems to be the case, and the apicals are strongly
defined. Until the shoot has reached the size when the overlying pro-
thallial tissues are ruptured, the apical cell usually cuts off more segments
towards the base than towards the apex of the embryo. That illustrated

Fies. 474-47p.—Embryo in longitudinal section, showing initiation of the apical
cell and also the main divisions. xX 100.

in fig. 48 is not cut medianly for foot and shoot together. The full size
of the former appears at the beginning of the series, but of the latter in
the sections marked D and E. The section F, which shows the neck of
the archegonium, lies five sections beyond that marked E. In fig. 49
another embryo is shown in which the single apical cell has been functioning
for only a short time. The position of this embryo in the transverse section
of its parent prothallus is shown in fig. 50. A median longitudinal section
of another such embryo, with the foot rather more developed, is given in
fig. 51. In all these the basal wall and the first inclined walls in both
epibasal and hypobasal regions can be distinguished. They illustrate also
the beginning of the outgrowth of the superficial cells of the foot, and in
fig. 49 the cell-divisions in the prothallial tissue abutting on the foot can
be well seen.

402 Transactions.

Frias. 48a—-48r.—Embryo in obliquely longitudinal section, showing two apical cells
The section marked F is the fifth beyond that marked E. x 100.

Houtitoway.—Prothallus, &c., of Tmesipteris. 403

Three obliquely transverse sections through the shoot region—the third,
sixth, and ninth respectively from the one which first touches the top of
the embryo—are shown in figs. 52a to 52c. The apical cell appears in

Fie. 49.—Embryo in longitudinal section, showing the apical cell and the main divisions.
x 100.

Fic. 50.—Transverse section of the prothallus, giving the position of the embryo shown
in fig. 49. A is the area in which rapid cell-division is taking place, and
B is the fungal area. x 40.

Fic. 51.—Embryo in longitudinal section, showing apical cell and main divisions. x 100,

Fias. 52a-52c.— Three obliquely transverse sections from above downwards
(Nos. 3, 6, and 9) through the epibasal region of an embryo. »X 100.

that marked A. What is probably the first inclined division in the
epibasal region appears in all three sections at aa, but an intersecting
octant wall could not be traced throughout the series.

404. Transactions.

Two browned and probably dead embryos are illustrated in longitudinal
section in figs. 53 and 54. In neither does the apical cell appear, but the
main basal wall is obvious. The foot of that shown in fig. 54 had grown
considerably.

Fies. 53, 54.—Two browned and dead embryos in longitudinal section, showing the
main basal wall but not the apical cell. 75.

Fics, 554, 55z.—Embryo in longitudinal section, showing two apical cells in the shoot-
region. A and B are not consecutive sections. X 75.

Fies. 56a, 568.—Embryo in longitudinal section, showing two apical cells in the
shoot-region. The sections A and B are not consecutive. X 75.

Hottowayr.—Prothallus, &c., of Tmesipteris. 405

Not infrequently two apical ce]ls, one in each epibasal quadrant, are set
apart more or less simultaneously at an early stage. The youngest embryo
which showed this feature is that in fig. 48, the apicals lying alongside one
another at the apex of the shoot, separated only by the quadrant wall.
Three other embryos, at rather older stages of development, which possess
two apicals, are shown in figs. 554 and 55s, 56a and 56B, and 57a and 57s,
While at first segments are cut off from the apicals rather towards the base
of the embryo than outwards, all-round segmentation soon begins, and they
become more widely separated, inclming from one another, as in the
figures, at an obtuse angle, or even eventually in exactly opposite directions.
In the Tmesipteris embryo the apical cells are always large and are readily
observed, the regular arrangement of cells cut off from them being also a
distinguishable feature. The growth of the young shoot from two similar
apices will be dealt with in the next section of this paper, but the fact that
the two apices are sometimes present together in the young embryo is
noteworthy.

When only one shoot-apex is present a certain amount of cell-division
takes place in the other quadrant until the young apex has actually burst
through the prothallial tissue. The second quadrant thus forms a smooth
rounded base to the shoot proper. consisting eventually of a uniform tissue
of large-sized cells in which the symbiotic fungal coils early establish them-
selves. Before it emerges from the surface of the prothallus the shoot is
more or less globular in shape, but the apex or apices soon become beak-
like in form (Plate LXIII, fig. 2, and fig. 584). A strand of elongated and
narrow conducting-elements is early differentiated at the centre of the
epibasal region by the longitudinal division of the cells there situated
(figs. 56a, 568, 57a, 57B). As the apex grows forward these narrow elements
curve round and lead up behind it, extending back almost to the main basal
wall. When there are two apices present the two strands both lead down
in this way towards the foot.. The haustorial protuberances early arise all
over the foot-surface by the outward growth of its superficial cells, and the
foot as a whole sometimes assumes a very irregular shape (figs. 54, 56a,
56B, 57a, 578). The full development of these outgrowths is not attained
until the young plantlet has become well advanced. Starch is often present
in the foot and central cells of the embryo in large quantities, and in the
cells of the prothallus also which lie adjacent to the foot (figs..56a, 568).
On account of the rapid cell-divisions, and also of the large size of the
nuclei in the upper region of the young embryo, mitotic figures can often
be seen here to great advantage.

THE YouNG SPOROPHYTE.
A. The Rhizome.

The forward growth of the young plantlet after it has emerged from
the prothallial tissues is illustrated in figs. 58a, 59a, and 59p. In the
former of these there is only one apex, and on account of its lower part
not being cut medianly the conducting-strand does not appear. In the
latter there are two equally-developed apices of growth, each with its
conducting-strand. This plantlet had become detached from its prothallus.
It may be compared with that shown in fig. 65 in my previous paper.
Although for a considerable time the young plant is dependent upon its
parent prothallus for the main food-supply, as evidenced by the continued
extension of the haustorial outgrowths of the foot and the presence of

Transactions.

406

gion. The sections A and B are not consecutive. x 100.

Figs. 574, 578,—Embryo in longitudinal section, showing two apical cells in the shoot-
regi

Hotioway.—Prothallus, &c., of Tmesipteris. 407

starch in and around them, it early forms rhizoids and shows the presence
of the fungal coils in its cells. The largest of the embryos borne on the
prothallus shown in Plate LXIII, fig. 1, may be compared with that in
figs. 58a and 58s.

Young plants up to 4mm. in length may frequently be found in which
growth is taking place from only one apex. The base of the young stem
is smooth and round, and in longitudinal section is seen to consist of

Fies. 58a, 588.—A protruding embryo in longitudinal section, showing the beak-like
apex, and also the presence of the endophytic fungus. The sections A
and B are not consecutive. X 75.

Fies. 59a, 598.—A very young detached prothallial plantlet in longitudinal section,
showing two apices, each with its conducting-strand. The sections A and B.
are not consecutive. 75.

a uniform tissue. There is no undeveloped apex present at this point.
Two such plantlets are figured in my earlier paper (7, figs. 60, 67), and
those shown at figs. 74 and 77 in the present paper will serve to illustrate
the same point. In the majority of cases when the second apex of growth
is formed in such plantlets it arises at the base of the first in just the
position it would occupy if it had been initiated in the second epibasal
quadrant of the young embryo. This second apex is inclined at a varying

408 Transactions.

BD
ec
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ZEEE

Fic, 60.—The base of a young prothallial plantlet in longitudinal section, showing an
early stage in the development of a secondary apex. %X 75. ;

Fic. 61.—A young prothallial plantlet in longitudinal section, showing the secondary
apex in an unusual position. x 45.

Fics. 62, 63.—Two young prothallial plantlets in longitudinal section, showing two
equally-developed shoot-regions. x 55. .

Hotioway.—Prothallus, d&c., of Tmesipteris. 409°

angle to the primary shoot, being sometimes almost in a straight line with
it (figs. 75, 76, 78, 81, 83). Comparison may be made with those illustrated
in my other paper in figs. 68, 69, and 71. I have not observed the
actual initiation of this secondary apex when thus late developed, but
fiz. 60 represents an early stage. It is, of course, adventitious in origin,
and, judging from what takes place in the case of the origin of lateral
adventitious shoots on both old and young rhizomes, an apical cell is cut
out from one of the surface cells while at the same time the inner cells
lying between this and the vascular strand of the primary shoot divide
longitudinally to form conducting-elements. I have observed a few
instances out of the large number of plantlets examined in which the

Fic. 64.—The point of attachment of the young prothallial plantlet shown in
Plate LXIJI, fig. 3, in longitudinal section, showing foot, basal
wall, and accumulation of starch. x 100.

secondary apex was not situated at the base of the primary stem,
but much higher up. One such plantlet is shown in fig. 61 in longi-
tudinal section. In this the appearance is rather as if there had been a
dichotomy of the apex. However, I have never come across an undoubted
instance of such dichotomy in a young rhizome, although it may be seen
in older rhizomes. Plantlets in which two primary apices of growth are
present are shown in longitudinal section in figs. 62, and 63, and in general
view in Plate LXIIIL, fig. 3, and in figs. 75 and 83. <A corresponding
instance was given in my previous paper (fig. 70). Fig. 64 is a longi-
tudinal section of the point of attachment of the young plant shown

in Plate LXIIL, fig. 3.

410 Transactions.

Fics. 654-65c.—The young lateral adventitious apex shown in fig. 65D in three trans-
verse sections from the apex downwards (Nos. 1, 2, and 5). x 75.

Fig. 65p.—Outline of a young prothallial plantlet in longitudinal section, showing the
first and second apices of growth, foot, distribution of fungus, and the
position of a lateral adventitious apex. x 20.

Fics. 664, 668.—The apical region of a young prothallial plantlet in longitudinal section,
showing a very young lateral apex cut obliquely. The sections A and B
are not consecutive. X 75.

Fics. 674-67c.—A very young lateral adventitious apex in three transverse sections
from the apex downwards (Nos. 1, 7, and 12). x 75.

Hotioway.—Prothallus, &c., of Tmesipteris. 411

Adventitious branches are a well-known feature in older rhizomes of
Tmesipteris, where they sometimes apparently function as storage-tubers
before developing further. Laterally- developed adveatitious apices may
be found also in quite young plantlets (figs. 74, 75, 81). One such was
present at the point indicated on the plantlet shown in longitudinal section
in fig. 65D. It projected very slightly
above the surface of the main stem,
and is shown in transverse section in
figs. 654, 65B, and 65c, which represent
the first, second, and fifth sections
passing through it. A slight strand
of narrow elements led from behind
it to join the strand of the main
shoot. Another young adventitious
apeX occurring in a similar position
is shown in figs. 66A and 668. In
the section marked B the apex and
strand of the main shoot is cut longi-
tudinally, but the adventitious apex
and its strand does not lie quite in
the same plane. The apical cell of
the latter appears in the seventh sec-
tion from B, and is shown cut obliquely
at A. In figs. 67A and 67B a very
young lateral apex is showin cut trans-
versely. The section marked A passes
through the apical cell. This has
evidently been functioning for some
time, judging by the arrangement of yy. 6g, —A young prothallial plantlet
the cells in B, which les six sections in longitudinal] section, showing the
below A. Deeper down towards the primary apex and also two apices at
main strand, however, the adventitious the base of the plantlet. 45.
strand has the appearance, as seen in
C, as if it had arisen not from the apical cell, but by the subdivision of an
ordinary cortical cell of the main shoot. Sometimes a plantlet will show
a third apex of growth at its base in close proximity to the second apex,
as illustrated in longitudinal section in fig. 68. Here the main strand has
been cut obliquely transverse, since the foot into which it leads hes in a
plane at right angles to the direction of growth of the two young apices.
The latter also are not cut medianly throughout their length, so that the
course of their strands is not included in the figure. A plantlet in a similar
condition is also shown in general view at fig. 79. One very young plantlet
(figs. 694, 69B, 69c) was found on sectioning to have three apices. Two
of these—namely, B and C—had given rise to well-defined strands, and had
probably been initiated in the embryo. The third, shown at A, had given
rise as yet to no strand, and lay rather out of the plane of the other two,
as can be seen from the fact that this section does not include the foot.
It must probably be interpreted as an adventitiously-formed apex rather
than as one which had arisen in the embryo.

The apical cell of the main shoot in the young subterranean plantlet,
and its manner of segmentation, is shown in longitudinal section at fig. 71.
A series of transverse sections taken at intervals from apex to foot through
a young plant of about the same age as that shown at Plate LXIII, fig. 3,

Transactions.

Fias. 694-69c.—A very young attached prothallial plantlet in longitudinal section,
showing three apices of growth, two of which possessed conducting-strands.
Sections B and C are respectively the tenth and fifteenth from A. X 47.

Fias. 70a-70r.—A young prothallial plantlet in six transverse sections taken at
different points from the apex downwards to the foot. A to D x 100;
Eand F x 80.

Hottoway.—Prothallus, &c., of Tmesipteris. 413

is given in figs. 70a to 70r. The section marked A passes through the apical
cell of the shoot, and shows that it segments regularly from four sides.
B, C, and D show the differentiation of the strand in progressively older
regions of the shoot. Section E is taken at a point a little above the main
basal wall, and shows the narrow conducting-elements which lead down

Fie. 71.—The apex of a young prothallial plantlet in longitudinal section,
showing the apical cell and its segmentation. x 75.

Fie. 72.—The point of attachment of a young plantlet to the prothallus,
showing unusually long intraprothallial shoot-region. The extra-
prothallial shoot-region is cut obliquely. x 80.

to it from the shoot. Section F shows the foot in transverse section a
little below the basal wall, the original first inclined wall in the hypobasal
region of the embryo being still very evident. The haustorial outgrowths
from the foot of a well-grown plantlet are illustrated in my previous paper
at Plates IT and III and figs. 58 and 59, the main basal wall appearing in
the latter figure. In fig. 72 in the present paper is shown a young plantlet

414 Transactions.

Fies, 73-87.—-Young subterranean plantlets in general view, showing variations in
form. pr.= prothallus; ft.= foot: adv. ap.= lateral adventitious apex.
All x 6.

Hotioway.—Prothallus, &c., of Tmesipteris. 415

in longitudinal section, in which that part of the epibasal region contained
within the prothallial tissues was of unusual length. The extra-prothallial
shoot-region is cut somewhat obliquely, so that the course of the strand
becomes lost.

From the above account it will be seen that the young sporophyte of
Tmesipteris, before the development of the aerial shoot, shows variations in
form. A number are given in figs. 73 to 87, and with these can be

compared others illustrated in my previous paper at figs. 66 to 72. The
development of a third apex of growth has given an irregular form to those
shown at figs. 80, 85, 86, and 87. In the plantlet at fig. 82 probably the
longer of the two branches was the one secondarily developed, and it here
occupies an unusual position. Some of these figures show that the plantlet
may attain a considerable size while still attached to its prothallus. When
detached they generally show a fragment of old prothallial tissue still
attached to the foot, frequently in the form of a dark ring. The plantlet
apparently becomes detached from the prothallus at the basal wall, and
sections through a prothallus at an old point of attachment invariably
show the whole foot of the plant still embedded in its tissues.

It may be stated here that throughout the life of the sporophyte no
indications are to be met with of the adoption of any special root-lke
function on the part of any of the branches of the rhizome. These
branches are all similar to one another in both external appearance and
internal structure.

B. The Aerial Shoot.

The young wholly-subterranean plantlet frequently attains a length of
tin. to 2in. before forming an aerial branch. Generally one of the two
main growing apices turns up out of the soil, the other continuing to extend
in the humus (figs. 88, 89). In some cases both ends may grow out into
aerial shoots (fig. 90, and 7, fig. 73), the rhizome-system then extending by
the formation of lateral branches. Again, in other instances, the first aerial
branch arises laterally, the main apices of the rhizome continuing under-
ground (7, fig. 5).

The aerial shoot is much thinner than the rhizome, and is at first quite
scaleless and leafless. Usually when the shoot is from }in. to 4in. high,
leafy outgrowths are formed immediately behind the apex, but these form
only scale leaves. ‘The first aerial shoot generally does not grow more than
lin. or 2in. in height, and remains very slender and sterile, withering off
when other shoots are formed. Frequently the second may do the same ;
but those next formed are much longer, although still slender. The mature
well-grown shoots are to be found only when the rhizome-system has
become strongly developed. In most cases aerial shoots remain unbranched,
but a single forking sometimes takes place at or near the base, or occasion-
ally, in well-grown pendulous branches, even higher up.

At the base of well-grown aerial shoots there is generally only a short
region bearing the scattered scale leaves, the ordinary form of the leaf being
fairly early and often suddenly attained, but the first shoots of the young
plant frequently show a much longer scale-leaf region. In the latter the
transition to the larger form may be either sudden or gradual. There is
much variation in the size shown by the mature sterile leaf, this generally
being longer, as might be expected, in pendulous branches than in those of
more erect growth. The leaves of juvenile plants, also, are rather smali
in size. Sometimes however, elongated pendulous branches show a much

416 Transactions.

shorter form of leaf than usual. Three examples of mature sterile leaves
are given in figs. 914 to 91c, the first two coming from luxuriantly-growing
pendulous plants, and the third from the lower part of a short, erect, but
fully-grown shoot. The normal size is narrower and slightly longer than
that shown in 91c. Individual branches may be met with showing marked

Fras. 88, 89.—Young plantlets, showing first aerial shoot. X 3.

Fie. 90.—Young plantlet in which both main apices of rhizome
have grown up into aerial shoots. x 3.

Fre. 91.—Three varieties of the mature sterile leaf taken from
well-grown shoots. X 1:3.

variation in size of the leaves up and down the branch, a zone of quite
stunted and almost scale-like leaves sometimes occurring in amongst those
of the ordinary form. The leaves are sometimes in two orthostichies only,
being then flattened in one plane, this being a common state in juvenile

Hotitoway.—Prothallus, &c., of Tmesipteris. 417

slender branches, but to be seen also in older ones. Again, they may be
arranged in three or in four orthostichies, the stem in transverse section
showing a corresponding number of ridges. These different leaf-arrange-
ments may be found intermixed along the one branch. ‘The leaves are never
in whorls, but are scattered.

In pendulous branches the sporophylls are grouped in zones alternat-
ing with sterile zones. A characteristic very short and compact variety
may sometimes be found on tree-ferns in which the whole of the
upper two-thirds of the branch is fertile, there being no zoning. The
two or three first-formed small aerial shoots in the young plant remain
sterile. Sporophylls generally make their first appearance singly, juvenile
shoots about 4in. to 6in. in height commonly showimg one sporophyll
situated about half-way along their length, and sometimes also another

9 2 \ \

Fic. 92—Portion of sporophyll, showing amoral number of loculi in the
synangium. X 1:5.

Fics. 934, 9328.—A sterile leaf in side and face views, showing a lobe-like
outgrowth from the lamina. X 3.

Fic. 94.—The upper portion of a sterile leaf showing a small marginal
outgrowth and thickening. x 3.

Fries. 95a, 958.—The apex of a sterile leaf in side and face views, showing
forking of the tip. X 3.

borne singly still nearer the apex. Well-grown shoots showing the usual
alternate fertile and sterile zones may be found with these single sporophylls
towards the base. Occasionally a juvenile shoot is found in which the
sporophyll formation has been initiated not singly but in a normal zone.
The lobes of the sporophyll are similar in form, and sometimes also almost
in size, to the sterile leaf appendages, but generally they are narrower.

- Abnormalities in the sporophylls have been described by A. P. W.
Thomas (15). [ have occasionally found synangia with three loculi instead
of two (fig. 92), and not infrequently it happens that one of the lobes of the
sporophyll is more or less reduced in size, or is even almost entirely absent.
A sterile leaf in one instance bore about half-way down its flat surface a small
lobular outgrowth (figs. 934 and 938), the appearance being that of an abortive
forking. Both sterile leaves and the lobes of the sporophyll sometimes
show a slight projection at the margin with the tissues of the Jamina
thickened immediately behind it (fig. 94), suggesting a less-developed stage

14—Trans.

418 Transactions.

of the outgrowth shown in fig. 93. At the tip of another sterile leaf an
outgrowth was present alongside the mucro, as if the tip was preparing to
fork (figs. 954 and 958). Such abnormalities may or may not have any
significance in indicating that reduction has taken place in these leafy
appendages, but they seem to show that the sporophyll and the sterile leaf
are not in nature essentially different from one another, and that neither
of them is altogether fixed in form. In fact, the sporophyte generation
as a whole in Tmesipterts provides many details indicating, as might be
expected in a plant showing undoubted primitive characters, a general
lack of specialization.

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS.

As has been noted above, there is a very striking similarity in form and
general external appearance between the prothallus and the young sub-
terranean sporophyte of Tmesvpteris. It is evident that this similarity
between the two generations holds for Psilotum also, judging from Lawson’s
description (12) of the prothallus and that of Solms Laubach (14) with
respect to plantlets developed from buds on old rhizomes. Bearing in mind
how plastic, generally speaking, the Pteridophyte gametophyte is known
to be, and, moreover, how largely the distribution and persistence of these
ancient families has probably been due to the ability of the gametophyte to
adapt itself to new conditions, it would be, of course, unwise to conclude too
hastily that the similarity between the two generations in the Psilotaceae
is a primitive feature. On the other hand, a close correspondence of this
nature is not found in the life-history of other modern Pteridophytes, even
in those epiphytic forms of Lycopodium and Ophioglossum which possess
a cylindrically-built, branched, and ramifying prothallus; nor can this
be attributed altogether to the more complex organization of the young
sporophyte in these families. Whatever view we take of this external
similarity as it is to be seen in the Psilotaceae, the fact that it exists is
at least worthy of attention, and becomes even more so when it is found
to go hand in hand with certain important structural features in both
generations which can with reason be claimed to be primitive.

The superficial position of the sexual organs on the prothallus of
Tmesipteris and Psilotum can be regarded as a structural feature of the
gametophyte which has not arisen by modification from a more deeply situ-
ated position. The adoption of the subterranean habit of growth in other
pteridophytic families has not resulted in a similar simple organization and
structure of the sexual organs as is to be found in the Psilotaceae, and it is
therefore difficult to see why in the latter this simplicity should be regarded
as the result of modification. The persistence of the single apical cell
throughout the life of the prothallus, the dichotomous branching, the gradual
extension in girth of the prothallus from an initial filament without the
formation of such a primary tubercle as is found in some Lycopodiums, and
the complete absence of any differentiation of tissues in the prothallus-body,
may all be urged as more or less primitive features.

In correspondence with the superficial position of the sexual organs on
the prothallus, the embryo also is shallowly seated, there being no suspensor
organ to push it down into the food-supplying tissues of the prothallus
such as has been developed in the Lycopodiaceae, and in certain also of the
Ophioglossaceae. On the assumption that the suspensor is a primitive
organ, it might be urged that it had become lost in Tmesipteris owing to

Hotioway.—Prothallus, &c., of Tmesipteris. 419

the very early adoption of the fungal habit by the young sporophyte and
its consequent ability to nourish itself. However, the dependence of the
young sporophyte upon its prothallus is a protracted one, and the absence
of the suspensor is compensated for by the development of haustorial
protuberances from the foot, just as is found, only there not to so great
an extent, in the sporogonium of the Anthoceroteae. The inference seems
to be that the superficial position of the embryo and the absence of the
suspensor 1s the more primitive condition.

There are only two main body-organs in the embryo and young
sporophyte of Tmesipteris—namely, the shoot and the foot—there being
no trace of root, cotyledon, or suspensor. Thus its embryogeny is the
simplest among existing Pteridophytes. It would be difficult to conceive
of a more simple organization for a vascular cryptogam, and in instituting
comparisons we are forced to look to the young sporogonium of Anthoceros
rather than to any Pteridophyte embryo. While not suggesting that
Tmesipteris has been actually derived from the Anthoceros cycle of affinity,
it is clear that the absence from the former of any such organs as root or
cotyledon suggests that they approximate in so far as they both represent
primitive lines of development. In his Origin of a Land Flora Bower
contemplates the fundamental structure-plan of the various pteridophytic
types of embryo as a spindle-shaped axis with the shoot-apex situated at
the apex of the epibasal region. The embryo is primarily a shoot, and
the other main body-organs. are appendages developed secondarily upon
it. Speaking of the light which it was hoped the embryogeny of the
Psilotaceae would throw upon this matter, he says (ibid., p. 421), “ If
the embryo develops without appendages directly into the rootless and
leafless rhizome, then either reduction has been effective back to the
earliest phases of the individual, or the sporophyte at first represents
that primitive state of an axis without appendages which a strobiloid
theory contemplates in the far-back ancestry.” That the simplicity of
Tmesipteris is not due to reduction is a belief which has been greatly
strengthened by the discovery of the rootless and leafless Rhyniaceae.
The embryogeny of Tmeszpteris as described in the present paper makes
more clear-cut the theory of the origin of the sporophyte of the
Pteridophyta from an Anthoceros-like sporogonium.

Pursuing this theory further, it may be noted that two definite
suggestions based on the embryogeny of existing Pteridophytes have been
put forward as to how this origin could have taken place. Campbell
(2, p. 210) would see in the young embryo of Ophioglossum moluccanum a
primitive type of Ophioglossum which can be derived from an Anthoceros-
like ancestor. In this species the lower portion of the embryo forms the
large foot and the upper the cotyledon, the latter, however, not being
sporogenous, us is the upper part of the sporogonium of Anthoceros. The
new organ in Ophioglossum is the root which arises at the junction of the
cotyledon and the foot. Theve is at first no stem-axis, this being developed
late as a secondary structure upon the primary root. Campbell links up
Ophioglossum, which he regards as “‘ the most primitive type of the fern
series” (zbid., p. 42), with the Bryophytes in the suggestion that the
Anthoceroteae progressed to the formation of a root from the basal meristem
of the sporogonium, and that the “ pro-Ophioglossum”’ produced spores
upon the first leaf. Bower (1, p. 469) has criticized this theory by
pointing out that for his primitive form Campbell has chosen the most
abnormal of all the species of Ophioglossum, instead of starting with such

14*

420 Transactions.

a form as O. vulgatum, which approximates more to the usual pteridophytic
type of embryo.

The presence of the “* protocorm” in the embryo plant of certain species
of Lycopodium has given rise to another suggestion with regard to the
origin of the free-living sporophyte—namely, that the protocorm was the
precursor of the leafy shoot. Against this it has been urged, especially
by Bower (1), that the embryo of Lycopodium is prone to parenchymatous
swellings, and that the protocorm is best regarded as a physiological
specialization. My own study of the large development of this organ in
the two New Zealand species L. laterale and L. ramulosum (4, 5) led me
to conclude that its abnormal size in these two species could be put in
connection with the fact that the young sporelings were required to tide
over a summer season, during which their natural boggy habitat would be
usually dried up, before they could establish themselves, and that the manner
of development of their protocormous rhizome was capable of a physio-
logical explanation. I concluded that this lent weight to the theory that
the Lycopedium protocorm in general may best be interpreted in this way
(4, p. 289). I was careful, however, to add that the fact that this organ
is characteristic of two out of the five sections of the genus Lycopodium,
and is also present in a specialized form in Phylloglossum, indicates
“‘a considerable degree of antiquity for the protocorm within the genus
Lycopodium.” Vegetatively-produced plantlets of these New Zealand
species possess a basal protocorm (5), as Osborn also (18) has shown in
plantlets of Phylloglossum produced on detached leaves. This author
inclines to regard the tuber of Phylloglossum as of physiological importance
only. Since writing my first accounts of the ly ycopodium protocorm I
have found at the close of a dry summer season a colony of young
sporelings of L. cernwum growing upon a roadside clay cutting im
which this organ was as- largely developed through the formation of a
rhizomatous extension as in the other two New Zealand species men-
tioned (6, p. 189). This is unusual, for in L. cernuum the stem-

axis 1s generally initiated early on the protocorm, and it indicates

that the unusual conditions were the cause of this extra development.
Recently Kidston and Lang (9) have described under the name Hornea
Ingniert a rootless protocormous plant from the Early Devonian of
Scotland which “ retains in the adult condition an organization comparable
to the protocorm stage in the species of Lycopedium. The relation of the
aerial stems of Hornea to the rhizome is similar to that of the protophylls
to the protocorm in Lycopodium” (9, p. 620). It is, of course, a perfectly
legitimate criticism to make that even in this archaic plant the protocorm
is merely a physiological specialization called forth by precisely the same
conditions as govern the life of the modern swamp-growing species of
Lycopodium, and the fact that the authors have indicated (9, note, p. 612)
that an intercellular fungus is present in the rhizome is of considerable
significance in this respect. However, the plant in its general organization
is obviously primitive, and is associated with other types of plants of very
simple structure, and, belonging as it does to a group which comprises the
earliest known land-plants, can be considered as lending great weight to
Treub’s theory of the protocorm. If the protocorm can be regarded as
primitive, it is, of course, open to be interpreted either as an organ by
which the supposed sporogonium-like ancestor of the Lycopods first
attained independence of the gametophyte, or as a more or less modified
representative of a possible thalloid ancestor.

Hottoway.—Prothallus, de., of Tmesipteris. 421

A third definite suggestion with regard to the origin of the leafy axis of
existing Pteridophytes from a strobiloid ancestor arises out of the facts
of the simply organized embryo of T'mesipteris. The only new feature to
be postulated here is the extension in length of the shoot from an apical
meristem Instead of, as in Anthoceros, from an indefinite basal meristem,
and the initial cause of the continued shoot-elongation might be set
down as being the adoption of a subterranean mode of life by the gameto-
phyte. The differences between the ancestral strobilus and the derived
rootless shoot would then be referred largely to their different modes
of life. Further development in complexity of the sporophyte of this
“ pro-T'mesipteris”? would take place by the continued growth of the shoot
and by its dichotomous and lateral branching. On this view, the sub-
terranean habit of the gametophyte would be regarded as of very early
origin in at least one line of descent of the higher plants, although in
other phyla, as, for example, that of Lycopodium, and possibly also that
of the Ophioglossaceae, it is probably a very much later development.
Bower in a general way regards the subterranean habit of the gametophyte
as being modified from the subaerial habit. He says (1, p. 710), “ It
may accordingly be concluded as probable that the prothallus of early
Pieridophytes at large was a relatively massive green structure with
deeply-sunk sexual organs.” If, as suggested above, the superficial position
of the sexual organs in the Psilotaceae is not a modified feature, the
gametophyte of this class stands apart from that of other Pteridophytes.
From Kidston and Lang’s description of the asexual generation in the
Rhyniaceae one is tempted to conclude that the gametophyte of these
plants was subterranean rather than subaerial. The presence in the
gametophyte of an endophytic fungus is a widespread feature of existing
Pteridophyte prothalli, and I suggest that it may with as much reason
be considered to have played a part in leading to the development of the
rootless and leafless shoot of the Psilotaceae as to have been the cause
of reduction taking place in a more complex plant-body. Modern Pteri-
dophytes are so far removed in point of time from the hypothetical
primitive form or forms that deductions based on comparative embryology,
lacking as they do any support which might have been afforded by a
knowledge of the embryogeny of archaic vascular plants, might be con-
sidered as altogether undependable. On the other hand, ihe extreme
simplicity of the Tmesipteris embryo, wholly devoid as this is of appen-
dicular organs, 1s full of significance, and the demonstration of a rootless
and leafless condition in the earliest known land-plants strengthens the
belief that the Psilotaceae have preserved in the first stages of their
development primitive features.

The lateral origin of branches in the young rhizome of Tmesipteris would
seem to be a more specialized character than branching by dichotomy of
the apex, and it is curious to find that the latter does not apparently take
place in the youngest rhizomes, whereas in those of a somewhat older age
it is present along with lateral branching. The initiation of the second apex
of growth may take place in the young embryo or be postponed till the shoot
is well advanced, and even then varies in its position. This is just such
a generalized character as might be expected in a primitive type of plant-
body. The distinction also between the subterranean and the subaerial
parts of the sporophyte would seem to be very indefinite, one or both of
the first apices of growth emerging and becoming leafy according as the
needs of the young plant direct. Sometimes the first-formed aerial shoot

422 Transactions.

is still{more unspecialized in its origin, arismg as a lateral branch from the
thizome just as do the aerial shoots in the older state. The alternation
of fertile with sterile zones on the aerial branch is not a fixed character,
a branch being zoned or practically altogether fertile according to its habit
of growth. Neither the sporophyll nor the sterile leaf is fixed in form.
Thus the ZT'mesipteris sporophyte is a peculiarly unspecialized plant-body
not only in the absence of cotyledon and root organs from the embryo,
but also in the general organization of the rhizome and of the aerial shoot.

In their description of the rootless and leafless Rhyniaceae, Kidston
and Lang express the opinion that this simple plant-body “ might as well
be termed a cylindrical branched vascular thallus as a stem” (9, p. 619).
They are more inclined to interpret it in the light of the theory that
the sporophyte of the higher plants has arisen by modification and by
specialization in the time of appearance of the asexual stage of an algal
ancestor, rather than as the result of the adoption of an independent
existence by a sporogonium-like ancestor with the consequence of a pro-
gression in sterilization of its parts. The simple organization of the
Psilotaceae is, of course, susceptible of the same interpretation—but this has
not been the one followed in the above remarks.

LITERATURE CITED.

. Bower, F. 0., The Origin of a Land Flora, Macmillan and Co., London, 1908.

. Camppect, D. H., The Husporangiatae : the Comparative Morphology of the
Ophioglossaceae and Marattiaceae. Carnegie Institution, Washington, 1911.

Darneti-Smitu, G. P., The Gametophyte of Psilotum, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin.,
vol. 52, pt. i, pp. 79-91, 1917.

Hoxtitoway, J. E., Studies in the New Zealand Species of the Genus Lycopodium,
Part I, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 48, pp. 255-303, 1916.

—— Ibid., Part II, Methods of Vegetative Propagation, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 49,
pp. 80-93, 1917.

. —— Ibid., Part III, The Plasticity of the Species, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 51,

pp. 161-216, 1919.

7. —— The Prothallus and Young Plant of T'mesipteris, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 50,
pp. 1-44, 1918.

8. Kipston, R., and Lane, W. H., On Old Red Sandstone Plants, showing Structure,
from the Rhynie Chert Bed, Aberdeenshire: Part I, Rhynia Gwynne-
Vaugham, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. 51, pt. iii, pp. 761-83, 1917.

9. —— Ibid., Part II, Additional Notes on Rhynia Gwynne-Vaughani, with Descrip-
tions of Rhynia major and Hornea Lignieri, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. 52,
pt. iii, pp. 603-27, 1920.

10. —— Ibid., Part II, Asterorylon Mackiei, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. 52, pt. iii,
pp. 643-80, 1920.

11. Lawson, A. A., The Prothallus of T’mesipteris tannensis, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin.,
vol. 51, pt. iii, pp. 785-94, 1917.

12. —— The Gametophyte Generation of the Psilotaceae, Trans. Roy. Soc. Hdin.,
vol. 52, pt. i, pp. 93-113, 1917.

13. Osporn, T. G. B., Some Observations on the Tuber of Phylloglossum, Ann. Bot.,
vol. 33, pp. 485-516, 1919.

14. Soums Lausacu, Der Aufbau des Stockes von Psilotum triquetrum und dessen
Entwickelung aus der Brutknospen, Ann. du jard. bot. de Buit, vol. 4,
pp. 139-94, 1884.

15. Tuomas, A. P. W., The Affinity of J’mesipteris with the Sphenophyllales, Proc.

Roy. Soc., vol. 69, pp. 343-50, 1902.

oa 7 fF ww Ne

CHEESEMAN.—New Species of Flowering-plants. 423

Art. XLV.—New Species of Flowering-plants.

By T. F. Cuezsemay, F.LS., F.Z.8., F.N.Z.Inst., Curator of the Auckland
Museum.

[Read before the Auckland Institute, 15th December, 1920; received by Editor, 31st
December, 1920; issued separately, 12th August, 1921.]

1. Agrostis pallescens Cheesm. n. sp.

Affinis A. subulatae Hook. f. (A. Muellert Benth.) sed tenuior, culmis
3-nodis, nodo superiore supra culmi medium disposito, spiculis stramineis.

Annual, densely tufted and often forming a close sward, pale straw-
coloured. Culms 3-6 in. high, slender, smooth, erect, 3-noded, the uppermost
node high up the culm. Leaves numerous at the base of the culms and
shorter than them, very narrow, almost filiform, smooth or very minutely
scabrid, erect or somewhat spreading; sheaths long, deeply grooved ;
ligules thin, scarious. Panicle narrow, but not so much so as in A. subulata,
lanceolate or ovate-lanceolate, $-lin. long, straw-coloured ; branches in
fascicles of 2-4, unequal in length, somewhat spreading, finely scabrid.
Spikelets ~,-;,in. long. Two outer glumes slightly unequal, oblong-
lanceolate, subacute, membranous, scabrid on the keel; margins thin;
third or flowering glume about 4 shorter, thin and membranous, hyaline,
truncate, faintly 5-nerved; awn wanting. Palea not developed. Grain
oblong —A. Muelleri var. paludosa Hack. in Cheesem. Man. N.Z. Fl. (1906),
864.

Hab.—South Island: Swamps near the Broken River; TY. Kirk!
Swamps in the Tasman Valley, not uncommon; TJ. F.C. 1,500-2,500 ft.

Near to A. subulata, but amply distinct in its 3-noded culms, the upper
node of which is sometimes situated quite ? of the way up the culm, in the
straw-coloured spikelets, and in the broader and more open panicles. In
A. subulata the culms are seldom more than 1-noded, the node being placed
near the base of the culm, the panicles are narrow and spike-like, and
usually purplish in colour. In addition to the above, A. subulata is always
limited to the steep rocky slopes of high mountains, and never occurs in
swamps.

2. Atropis chathamica Cheesem. n. sp.

Affinis A. Walkeri Cheesem. a qua differt culmis multo robustioribus
et laxe caespitosis, paniculis longioribus, spiculis 4-6 floribus.

Tall, stout, loosely tufted, perfectly smooth and glabrous, 9-18 in. high.
Culms erect or decumbent at the base, 4-noded, the upper node placed above
the middle ; innovation shoots intravaginal. Leaves numerous, those at the
base short and seale-like, membranous, without any lamina; cauline leaves
sheathing the whole culm and the greater part of the panicle, perfectly
smooth and glabrous, pale whitish-green, folded, grooved, tip cartilaginous,
subobtuse ; sheaths very large and broad, longer than the blades, split to

494 Transactions.

the base, compressed, deeply striate ; ligules broad, transversely oblong,
membranous. Panicle narrow-linear, 2-6in. long, rigid, erect, glabrous ;
branches few, unequal, solitary or 2-nate, more rarely 3-nate, erect, often
almost appressed to the rhachis. Spikelets 4-+in. long, narrow lanceolate,
4—6-flowered. Two outer glumes unequal, the longer one about 4 the length
of the spikelet, lanceolate, 3-nerved ; the shorter one broader, 1-nerved.
Flowering-glume oblong-ovate, subacute, faintly 3-nerved, glabrous, or a
tuft of fine silky hairs on the callus. Palea nearly as long as the glume,
margins ciliate.

Hab.—Chatham Islands: Exact locality not stated; F. A. D. Cox!

This appears to be a distinct species, easily recognized by the stout
loosely-tufted habit, long narrow panicle, and narrow many-flowered spikelets.

3. Plantago Masonae Cheesm. n. sp.

Affinis P. triandrae Berggren, sed differt folits crassis et carnosis,
spathulatis lanceolatisve, integerrimis vel dentatis vel pinnatifidis, lobis
callosis, floribus minoribus, pedunculis brevissimis.

Rootstock short, stout, putting down numerous thick and fleshy rootlets.
Leaves many, all radical, spreading, the outer closely appressed to the surface
of the ground, thus forming rosettes }-24in. diam., very thick and fleshy,
greenish blotched with purple, $-14in. long, rarely more, ovate- or oblong-
spathulate to lanceolate-spathulate, suddenly narrowed into a broad flat
petiole of variable length, towards the apex gradually narrowed into a
blunt fleshy or almost callous point ; margins, with the exception of the
triangular tip, regularly and almost pinnatifidly divided into numerous
shallow blunt fleshy or callous lobes; upper surface furnished with short
whitish jointed hairs that are usually arranged in transverse bands ; under-
surface glabrous or nearly so; base of the leaf usually furnished with longer
brownish tortuous hairs, but sometimes almost glabrous. Flowers minute,
solitary in the axils of the leaves ; peduncles wanting or nearly so, apparently
not elongating in fruit. Bract ovate, minute. Calyx-segments 4, ovate,
obtuse. Corolla-tube three times the length of the calyx in the flowering
period ; limb 4-lobed, lobes oblong, obtuse. Stamens invariably 4 in all
the numerous flowers examined. Capsule globose ; seeds numerous, 10-20.

Hab.—wNorth Island: Sea-cliffs at Manaia, Taranaki, often in localities
well washed with sea-sprav ; Mrs. F. Mason !

This is evidently a close ally of P. triandra Berggren, but differs in the
more robust habit, verv fleshy and proportionately much broader leaves
with obtuse callous tips, more minute sessile flowers the peduncles of which
apparently do not lengthen in fruit, in the stamens being always 4, and in
the smaller capsules. I have pleasure in associating the plant with the
name of its discoverer, to whom | am. much indebted for information
respecting the vegetation of south-western Taranaki.

4. Colobanthus strictus Cheesm. n. sp.

Dense pulvinatus glaberrimus, foltis arcte imbricatis, strictis, erectis,
rigidis, lineari-subulatis, supra canaliculatis, apicibus piliferis; sepalis 5,
basi late ovatis, incrassatis, supra longe attenuatis.

A perfectly glabrous densely-tufted rigid plant, forming hemispherical
cushions 1-3in. diam. Leaves numerous, densely imbricated all round the

CHEESEMAN.—New Species of Flowering-plants. 425

branches, straight or slightly curved, strict, erect, broad and membranous
and sheathing the branch at the base, above rigid and coriaceous and
gradually narrowed into a straight acicular apex, channelled above, convex
beneath, 4-2 in. long. Peduncles terminating the branchlets, stout, shorter
than the leaves, stiffly erect. Sepals 5, broadly ovate at the base, suddenly
narrowed into long acicular poimts half as long again as the capsule.—
C. Muelleri var. strictus Cheesem., Man. N.Z. Fl. (1906), 68.

Hab.—South Island: Upper Clarence Valley, near Lake Tennyson ;
T.F.C. Shingly flats in the Tasman and Hooker Valleys ; 7. F.C. Dunstan
Mountains ; Petrie! Altitudinal range, 2,500-3,500 ft.

In the first edition of the Manual I treated this as a variety of
C. Muelleri ; but since then I have had opportunities of studying it in
the Mount Cook district, where it is not uncommon, and have now no hesita-
tion in constituting it a distinct species. It is mainly distinguished by
the short, strict, erect leaves, and broad calyx-lobes which are suddenly
narrowed into long acicular points much exceeding the capsules.

5. Colobanthus Hookeri Cheesm. new comb.

A small densely tufted moss-like plant, forming small rounded patches
1-1}in. across, smooth and glabrous in all its parts. Leaves closely
imbricate, §-t1in. long, strict and rigid, subulate, tapering from the base
to a short acicular apex, channelled above, convex below, sometimes with
a groove between the midrib and the margin. Flowers terminal, solitary ;
peduncles short, the flowers slightly exceeding the uppermost leaves.
Sepals 5, ovate-subulate, thickened at the base, acute or very shortly
mucronate, equalling or very slightly exceeding the capsule. Stamens
always 5.—C. subulatus Hook. f., Fl. Antarct., i (1844), 138, but not Sagina
subulata D’Urv., Fl. Ins. Mal. (1826), 617, or Fl. Antarct., ii (1847), 247,
t. 93. C. subulatus Hook. f., Handb. N.Z. Fl. (1864), 25. C. Benthamianus
Cheesem., Man. N.Z. Fl. (1906), 68, but not of Fenzl.

Hab.—Auckland and Campbell Island: Hooker, Kirk! Aston!

This is the plant long known to New Zealand botanists as Colobanthus
subulatus. But in the Subantarctic Islands of New Zealand (ii, p. 402) I
have pointed out that the plate of C. subulatus given in the Flora Antarctica
(uu, t. 93) under the name of Sagina subulata represents a plant with a
much more lax habit than the Auckland and Campbell Islands species ;
and that the sepals are only 4 in number, instead of 5. I think that it is
quite clear that the New Zealand plant differs in several important characters
from the Fuegan and Falkland Island species, and, as the name subulata must
remain with the South American plant, I have applied the name Colobanthus
Hookeri (in memory of its original discoverer) to the species found within
the New Zealand area.

I have not seen any South Island specimens that I can refer to the
species, although three localities are quoted by Hooker. Possibly they
represent small states of C. acicularis.

496 Transactions.

Art. XLVI.—New Plant-stations.

By A. Watt, M.A., Professor of English, Canterbury College.

[Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 6th October, 1920; received by
Editor, 21st October, 1920 ; issued separately, 12th August, 1921.]

(The initials in square brackets are those of the person by whom the species or
variety has been identified: B. C. A. for Mr. B. C. Aston; T. F. C. for Mr. T. F.
Cheeseman; L. C. for Dr. L. Cockayne; D. P. for Mr. D. Petrie; A. W. for the
author.)

Ranunculus sericophyllus Hook. f. Mount Rolleston; mountains at the
head of the Waimakariri, 6,000 ft. [A. W.].

Ranunculus gracilipes Hook. f. Two Thumb Range, near Lake Tekapo,
6:500/ftaDarF |:

Ranunculus foliosus T. Kirk. Walker’s Pass, head of the Hawdon River
(DS 1ealk

Ranunculus Cheesemanw T. Kirk. Mount White district, 2,500 ft. [D. P.].

Ranunculus depressus 'T. Kirk. Two Thumb Range, 6,500 ft. [D. P.].

Cardamine depressa Hook. f. Old Man Range, 5,000 ft. [D. P.].

Cardamine fastigiata Hook. f. Mount Skedaddle, Mandamus River, North
Canterbury, 5,000 ft. [L. C.]. Formerly only in Nelson, Marlborough,
the Macaulay River, and Otago.

Cardamine Enysti Cheesem. Puketeraki Range, 6,000 ft. ; mountains flank-
ing Hawdon River, 6,000 ft. [A. W.].

Lepidium sisymbrioides Hook. f. Maniototo Plains, near Waipiata [A. W.].
Not recorded previously south of the Waitaki and Lake Wanaka.

Hectorella caespitosa Hook. f. Old Man Range, 5,000 ft. [L. C.].

Aristotelia Colensot Hook. f. Mount Hutt, in Fagus forest, 2,000 ft. [L. C.].

Carmichaelia gracilis Armstr. Poulter River, 2,000 ft. [A. W.]. Recorded
only to 1,500 ft. in Manual, and not before in the south alpine region.

Carmichaelia prona 'T. Kirk. Lake Mary Mere, Craigieburn [A. W.].

Geum parviflorum Sm. Mount Herbert, Banks Peninsula, 2,800 ft. [A. W.].

Acaena inermis var. breviscapa Bittr. Mandamus River, North Canterbury
[Es@.].

Epilobium brevipes Hook. f. Mouth of Mandamus River, tributary of the
Hurunui River, North Canterbury [L. C.].

Epilobium gracilipes T. Kirk, Esk River and Iron Creek (Upper Waimaka-
rirl), on sandstone cliffs [A. W.].

Hydrocotyle dissecta Hook. f. Waikawa, Southland [D. P.].

Eryngium vesiculosum Lab. Balmoral scrub, North Canterbury, about
twenty-four miles from sea-coast [L. C.].

Aciphylla Cuthbertiana Petrie. Takitimu Mountains, 4,500 ft. [D. P.].

Iigusticum piliferum var. pinnatifidum T. Kirk. Macaulay River, 4,000 ft.
Peal:

Pseudopanax ferox 'T. Kirk. Camp Bay, Lyttelton Harbour [A. W.].

Coprosma grandifolia Hook. f. Mount Grey, near Amberley, North Canter-
bury [L. C.].

Coprosma virescens Petrie. Port Hills and Banks Peninsula [A. W.].
“Lake Forsyth ”’ was the only Canterbury station for this recorded by
Kirk.

Olearia lacunosa Hook. f. Crawford Range, Lake Sumner, 4,000—5,000 ft.
[L. C.].

Olearia moschata Hook. f. Takitimu Mountains, 4,000—-5,000 ft. [A. W.].

Celmisia ramulosa Hook. f. Rock and Pillar Range, 5,000 ft. [D. P.].

Celmisia densiflora Hook. f. Takitimu Mountains, 4,000 ft. [A. W.].

Watu.—New Plant-stations. 497

Celmisia Armstrongi Ee Crawford Range, Lake Sumner, 5,000 ft.
[L. ©.]. Ee

Celmisia Petriet Gham: Takitimu Mountains, 4,000-5,000 ft. [D. P.].

Celmisia linearis Armstr. Mount Miromiro, Hanmer, 6,000 ft. [L. C.];
mountains flanking the Hawdon River, 6,000 ft. [L. C.]. Not previously
recorded in Canterbury except in Mount Cook district by Cheeseman.

Celmisia Hectort Hook. f. Takitimu Mountains, 5,000 ft. [D. P.].

Celmisia argentea T. Kirk. Old Man Range, 5,000 ft. [D. P.].

Raoulia Haastii Hook. f. Hurunui River [A. W.].

Raoulia Parkiw Buch. Two Thumb Range, 3,000-6,000 ft. [D. P.].

Raoulia Hectori Hook. f. Two Thumb Range, 5,000 ft. [D. P.].

Raoulia Petriensis T. Kirk. Two Thumb Range, 4,000-6,500 ft. [D. P.].

Cotula filiformis Hook. f. Balmoral scrub, North Canterbury [L. C.]. Also
found by Mr. Christensen, Hanmer Plains.

Senecio revolutus T. Kirk. Takitimu Mountains, 4,000-5,000 ft. [A. W.].
Previously recorded from more western localities only.

Phyllachne rubra Cheesem. Rock and Pillar Range, 5,000 ft. [D. P.].

Selliera radicans Cav. Saline patches by Taieri River, near Waipiata
[A. W.]. Recorded inland on margins of the larger lakes only.

Lobelia Roughii Hook. f. Two Thumb Range, 5,000-6,000 ft. [A. W.].

Pernettya nana Col. Base of Two Thumb Range, Lake Tekapo [A. W.].

Dracophyllum prostratum T. Kirk. Takitimu Mountains, 5,000 ft. [D. P-].

Dracophyllum muscoides Hook. f. Benger Range, near Roxburgh [D. P.].

Samolus repens Pers. Saline patches near Taieri River, Waipiata [A. W.].
Not recorded in the Manual from any inland station.

sane tenuifolia Petrie. Lake Pearson, North Canterbury, 2,000 ft.
[D. P.].

Myosotis pulvinaris Hook. f. Old Man Range, 5,000 ft. Des:

Gratiola peruviana Linn. Wycliffe Bay, Otago Peninsula [B. C. A.].

Veronica amabilis var. blanda Cheesem. Bluff Hill [D. P.].

Veronica Buchanani Hook. f. Rock and Pillar Range, 5,000 ft. [D. P.].

Veronica pimeleoides var. glauco-caerulea Cheesem. Base of Two Thumb
Range to 4,000 ft. [D. P.]. Apparently no definite locality for this has
been recorded.

Veronica Gilliesiana T. Kirk. Crawford Range, Lake Sumner, 5,000 ft.
[ae

Veronica quadrifaria T. Kirk. Mount Skedaddle, Mandamus River, 4,000 ft.
[L. C.]; Two Thumb Range, 6,000 ft. [D. P.]. The only Canterbury
station previously recorded is Mount Dobson. Occurs also on Mount
Peel and in its vicinity.

Veronica Hectort Hook. f. Takitimu Mountains, 3,000-5,000 ft. [D. P.];
Old Man Range, 5,000 ft.

Veronica propinqgua Cheesem. Mount Benger, near Roxburgh, 3,000 ft.
DPA

Veronica Thomsoni Cheesem. Old Man Range, 5,000 ft. [D. P.].

Ourisia glandulosa Hook. f. Old Man Range, 5,000 ft. [D. P.].

Plantago lanigera Hook. f. Upper Hurunui River [L. C.]. No definite
Canterbury station has been recorded.

Muehlenbeckia ephedrioides Hook. f. Hurunui River, ec. 2,500 ft. [A. W.].
The only Canterbury locality recorded is the Waipara River. This is
the first record for the Canterbury alpine region.

Pimelea sericeo-villosa Hook. £. Mount White, Upper Waimakariri [D. P.].
Not previously recorded in North Canterbury.

Luzula Cheesemanit Buchen. Mount St. Bernard, Craigieburn, 5,000 ft.
[D. P.]; Rock and Pillar Range, 5,000 ft. [A. W.].

428 Transactions.

Luzula leptophylla Buchen. Old Man Range, 5,000 ft. [A. W.]; Rock and
Pillar Range, 5,000 ft. [A. W.].

Luzua racemosa var. Traversii Buchen. Mount St. Bernard, 4,000 ft.
[A. W.]; Mount Hutt, 5,000 ft. [A. W.]; and many other localities in
Canterbury and Otago. Hitherto recorded from very few stations in
Canterbury.

Triglochin palustre Linn. Taieri River, Waipiata [A. W.]. The only Otago
station hitherto recorded is Ophir. ~

Scirpus basilaris C. B. Clarke. Castle Hill, Waimakariri Basin [A. W.].

Gahnia pauciflora T. Kirk. Mount Grey, near Amberley [L. C.]; appa-
rently first record in Canterbury. Also at Glentui, near Oxford [R. M.
Laing].

Uncina purpurata Petrie. Hanmer Mountains, to 5,000 ft. [D. P.].

Carex pyrenaica Wahl. Mount Miromiro, Hanmer, 6,000 ft. [L. C.].

Carex appressa R. Br. Near Godley Head, Port Hills, Christchurch [D. P.].
First record north of Otago.

Carex resectans Cheesem. Port Hills, Christchurch, and Banks Peninsula
[D. P.]. Was no doubt formerly also on Canterbury Plains, and has
been found by myself in lawn near Christchurch and in the New
Brighton dunes.

Carex Raoulii Boott. Mount Hutt, Pudding Hill Stream, 3,000 ft. [A. W.].

Carex rubicunda Petrie. Richmond Station, Lake Tekapo, margins of
ponds [D. P.]. First record for Canterbury. Previously only at Lake
Te Anau and one station in the North Island.

Carex Berggrent Petrie. Hawdon River, north branch of Waimakariri
[D. P.]; also at Arthui’s Pass [W. Martin].

Deyeuxia Petriei Hack. Mount Herbert, Banks Peninsula, 2,500—2,800 ft.
[D. P.]. First record for Canterbury The flowering-glume has no awn.
Mr. Petrie informs me that this species must be reduced to a variety of
D. Youngit.

Deschampsia Chapmani Petrie Jollie’s Pass, Hanmer [D. P.]. Not before
recorded outside Canterbury and Otago.

Trisetum subspicatum Beauv. A small form of this species grows at 7,000 ft.,
or just below that, on the Two Thumb Range [A. W.]. ‘‘ Usually to
5,500 ft.” in Manual.

Danthonia crassiuscula T. Kirk. Takitimu Mountains, 4,000 ft. [D. P.].
Hitherto chiefly recorded much farther west.

Triodia exigua T. Kirk. In the Waimakariri River bed, close to Christ-
church, at sea-level [A. W.]. From 500 ft. to 3,000 ft. in Manual.

Poa Cheesemanti Hack. Hawdon River (north branch of Waimakariri),
2,000-2,500 ft. [D. P.]. First record for Canterbury.

Poa pygmaea Buch. Old Man Range, 5,000 ft. [D. P.]; Mount Benger,
3,000 ft. [D. P.]. Both these are referred to this species by Mr. Petrie
with some reservation.

Poa Cockayniana Petrie. Mount St. Bernard, Craigieburn, 5,000 ft. [D. P.].

Asperella gracilis T. Kirk. Mount Herbert, 2,800 ft., Banks Peninsula (first
record since Raoul’s at Akaroa); Five Rivers Plains Otago; Lake
Lekapo [ALWe =D. Pai

Gymnogramme leptophylla Desvy. Akaroa Harbour [A. W.}.

INTRODUCED PLANTS.

Glyceria procumbens. Tomahawk Lagoon, Dunedin [D. P.; T. F. C.].
A new record for the Dominion.
Alisma Plantago. Lower Avon, Christchurch [A. W.].

Kirk.—Growth-periods of New Zealand Trees. 429

Arr. XLVII.—On Growth-periods of New Zealand Trees, especially
Nothofagus fusca and the Totara (Podocarpus totara).

By H. B. Kies, M.A., F.N.ZInst., Professor of Biology, Victoria
University College.

[Read before the New Zealand Science Conyress, Palmerston North, 29th January, 1921 ;
received by Editcr, 14th February, 1921; issued separately, 12th August, 1921.]

Mosr of the information available as to the diameter-increase in New
Zealand trees is expressed in terms of the diameter achieved by a tree
during its whole life, little regard being paid to its growth at different
periods of its life. Examination of several of our trees, however, shows
that there is a well-marked period of youth, during which growth is
slow; a prime, during which growth is, relatively at all events (and often
absolutely), rapid; and a period of senescence, during which growth is
slower than in youth. I was much impressed by this when marking
the section of a big totara (Podocarpus totara) in the Biology Museum of
Victoria University College. The Forestry Commission of 1913 published
a photograph of this section in its report, together with a diagram showing
the relative position of the twenty-five-year points marked on the radius,
but did not otherwise call attention to the widely varying rate of growth
at different periods. This varying rate is shown by the figures in Table A
of this article, and by the graphic representation which shows the increase
in diameter for each period of twenty-five years. It will be seen that in
the first 100 years—the youth of the tree—a diameter of only 350 mm.
(13-8 in.) was achieved. At 200 years the diameter had reached 1,180 mm.
(46-49 in.). The period of most rapid growth (of the arbitrary periods
marked) was that from 200 years to 225 years, bringing the diameter up
to 1,528 mm. (5ft.). From this time growth became slower until it was
less than during the youth of the tree. At the age of 396 years, when the
tree was felled, its diameter was 2,528 mm. (8:3 ft.). It has been assumed
that only one growth-ring was formed in each year, and I believe the
assumption is justified.

I have not examined other totara-trunks with the same attention, but
have found that the slow early growth, the rapid growth of the prime, and
the slower growth of age are constant features. The bearing of this upon the
conservation of totara that have passed their first hundred years is obvious.

In February, 1920, I was for a few days at Paradise, at the head of
Lake Wakatipu, where milling was being carried on in the beech forest,
and trees were being felled to supply material for the bridge over the
Reece. A number of trees of Nothofagus fusca had been felled, and
examination of these showed a well-marked youth and prime, and that
later growth had been at a slower rate, though the rate did not decline
uniformly. The oldest of these trees showed 213 rings, but it is probable
that none had reached full age. Standing trees of much greater diameter
were probably older, but they were generally hollow. I counted carefully
the rings on four of the sound trees, and measured the diameter-growth for
each period of five years. In Table A these results are shown for periods
of twenty-five years, to correspond with those chosen for the totara. These
figures, with the graphic representation, show the slowest growth during
the first twenty-five years, relatively rapid growth during the next seventy-
five, followed by a growth-rate slower than the maximum, but never coming
to be so slow as that of the youth period. I do not suppose that the
period of old age had been entered upon by any of these trees. The

430 Transactions.

average for these four shows the greatest growth in the third of the
twenty-five-year periods. The tree C made its greatest growth in the
second period. Although I was able to count with sufficient exactness for
tabulation the rings on only four trees, I was able to count those on seven
other trees with sufficient approximation to exactness to show that the
averages of the different periods as ascertained for the four could not be
far wrong, if wrong at all, for the whole number.

In order to see whether the growth of younger trees was proceeding at
the same rate | examined a number of saplings that had been felled. The
figures obtained are given in Table B, II. They are given for ten-year
periods, as the life o none of these saplings covered two full periods of
twenty-five years. Also, the figures are given for the longest radius only,

306

250
=
—
200
iv)
©
2
1S)
,5 150
=
i)
aed
Y
=
al
a)

22k GIs
<25 GEE
©
iy
et
w

f.

SS SS Nothetacccutaceaa
eee totara Nothofagus fus

not for the diameter. The reason for this is that growth in nearly every
young tree of N. fusca is eccentric, and sometimes the amount of eccen-
tricity is great. The total length of the opposite radius, usually the shortest,
is noted. After from fifty to seventy-five years the eccentricity becomes
corrected by the unequal later growth.

In Table B, I, the radial growth of the four big trees A, B, C, and D
is given for the first four periods of ten years. A comparison of the
Tables B, I, and B, IL, shows that the growth of the forest saplings is very
much slower than was that of the big trees. It seems likely that these old
trees were among the original members of the forest, and had a much more
abundant supply of light than they permitted their descendants to have.

The view expressed at the conclusion of the preceding paragraph gains
support from examination ot saplings grown without the competition of
older trees. Beside the road, and on the original road-clearing near the

Kirk.—Growth-periods of New Zealand Trees. 431

head of Diamond Lake, are closely-crowded young trees, often with only
a few square inches of soil-surface for each tree. In many cases they are
drawn up to a height of from 20ft. to 30ft. Table B, III, shows the
radial increase for six of these plants. For the first of the ten-year periods
these made nearly three times the radial growth made by the forest saplings,
and a greater growth than that made by the four big trees in their first ten
years. Those that had completed a second period showed greater growth
than the forest saplings in the corresponding period, but less than the big
trees had made. On the whole, they tend to show that competition with
trees of their own age has been less retarding of diameter-increase than
competition with older trees would have been.

No record was made in the case of any tree of which the fohage was
not available to make certain identification possible.

So far as I could learn, the road was made about twenty-two years ago.
As beech-seedlings lose little time in starting, it is probable that some
of those that I examined were among the first competitors on the newly
cleared site. If so, there is no reason to suppose that two growth-rings
have been formed in any one year.

The data here given are recognized as inadequate for the foundation of
a theory, but are, I think, adequate to show that in measurements of our
trees we should have regard to growth-periods, and should not be content
with a statement that a tree of a given age has a stated diameter.

TABLE A.
Nothofagus fusca, Paradise, 17th February, 1920.

2 Age, in Years.
pa E 25. | 50. | 75. | 100. | 125. | 150. | 175. | 200. | Over 200.
Mm. | Mm. | Mm. | Mm. | Mm. | Mm. | Mm. Mm. | Mm.
A 54 | 142 | 246 | 336 | 402 | 438 | 610 700 | 742 (213 yrs.)
THATStES B 32 | 102 | 218 | 368 | 462 | 562 | 628 696 | 710 (206 yrs.)
Cc 68 | 190 | 280 | 340 | 390 | 468 | 486 (158 yrs.)
[ D 64 | 176 | 356 | 486 | 576 | 636 | 694 (174 yrs.)
Average diameter .. | 54°5/|152°5 |275:0 |3877°5 |457°5 526-0 619°0 698-0
Average increase in | 54°5| 98-0/122°5 102-0 80:0) 68°5| 93-0 79-0
diameter |

Totara (Podocarpus totara) in Biology Museum of Victoria University

College.
Age, in Years.
25. | 50. 75. 100. | 125. | 150, | 175. | 200.
| |
| Mm. | Mm. | Mm. | Mm. | Mm. | Mm. | Mm. | Mm.
Diameter S| 68 | 150 | 250 350 | 520 750 | 940 1,180
Increase in diameter| 68 | 82 | 100 | 100 170 | 230 | 190 | 240
a Age, in Years.
225, 250. 275. | 300. | 325. 350. | 9375. 396.
Mm. Mm. Mm. | Mm Mm. Mm. | Mm. Mm.
Diameter .. | 1,528 | 1,838 | 2,042 | 2,188 | 2,320 | 2,384 | 2,452 | 2.528
Increase in diameter 348 310 204 146 132 64 | 68 76

452

Transactions,

TABLE B.

Nothofagus fusca: Increase in Radius shown for Periods of Ten Years.

I. Trees A, B, C, D, First Forty Years.

Age, in Years.
ao | Example. |—
10. 20. 30. | 40.
Mm Mm. | Mm. Mm.
( A 11 21 33 53
: B 8 13 19 34
EES C 9 23 44 75
D 6 23 41 67
Average radius 85 20 34:2 57°3
Average increase in radius 8°5 11°5 14°3 23-(un
II. Saplings in the Forest.
Age, in Years. | Oppo-
— Example. | = - site
10. 20. 30. 40 ae, aa
| “im. | Mm. | Mm. | 2m. Mm. | Mm.
E 5 ll 1s: P31 41 (47 yrs.) | 30
[eer 4 14 22 | 35 (39 yrs.) c | 30
Radius eames Cee tH ae 9 15-34 (40 yrs.) Zyl
|; eeelel 4 9 22 =| 27 (35 yrs.) 27
Lalo aa 4 10 23. | 27 (37 yrs.) 25
Average radius .. |) Ap 10°6 20:0 |
Increase in radius 4:2 64 | 9-4
Ill. Saplings grown in Road-clearing.
Age, in Years. .
— Bsample oe
eos 20. 30.
Mm. Mm, Mm. Mm
K 16 us 19 (21 yrs.) itl
iF 13 | 19 (12 yrs.) a; 12
M 16 | 18 (11 yrs.) 5
Eada N 1a 1916 yes) a 9
O 9 |16 17 (21 yrs.) | 10
ee 5 7 (14 yrs.) ie 5
Average radius .. 11-2

Te Raner Hrroa.—Maori Food-supplies of Lake Rotorua. 483

Art. XLVIIIl.—Maori Food-supplies of Lake Rotorua, with Methods of
obtaining them, and Usages and Customs appertaining thereto.

By Te Ranei Hrroa (P. H. Buck), D.S.0., M.D.

[ Read before the Auckland Institute, 15th December, 1920 ; received by Editor, 31st December,
1920 ; issued separately, 12th August, 1921.]

Plates LXIV, LXV.

DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT OF THE Rotorua DIstTRIctT,

Ngatoroirangi, the tohunga and navigator of the “Arawa” canoe, was
the first from that canoe to explore the Taupo district. Kahumata-momoe,
the younger son of Tama-te-kapua, also journeyed to Taupo. On his
return to Maketu he saw Lake Rotorua and named it Te Moana-nui-a-
Kahu (the Great Lake of Kahu). The real settlers were Ika, one of the
crew of the “ Arawa,” and his son Maru-punga-nui, who came via Lake
Rotoiti, and who lived at Okapua, where there is a pool named Te Koro-
koro o Maru-punga-nui. The following genealogy will help us to follow
matters :—

Bara te kapue Ika
|
Tuhoro-mata-kaka Kahu-mata-momoe Maru-punga-nui
Thenga. Tawake-moe-tahanga Tua-rotorua.
Uenuku
Rangitihi
Tuhourangi

Uenuku-kopako
Whakaue.

Ihenga, the grandson of Tama-te-kapua, to whom is given the credit of
the discovery, did not come to the lake until Maru-punga-nui and his son
Tua-rotorua were firmly established there. Ihenga had been away with
his father and grandfather at Moehau, Cape Colville, and came on to
Maketu after the death of Tama-te-kapua. There he married Kakara,
the daughter of his uncle Kahu. According to Grey’s narrative, he went
out hunting in the direction of Lake Rotoiti. His dog went farther on
and reached the lake, where it had a meal of fresh-water fish. On its
return to Maketu, fish were seen in its vomit, and hence Jhenga surmised
an inland lake or sea. It is curious, if his father-in-law Kahu had seen
the lake, that a dog should be the first to inform [henga of its existence.
Another version states that Tama-te-kapua, without seeing it, named it
after his son. However, Ihenga set off and came upon Lake Rotoiti
at a beach called Paripari-te-tai, where he saw the footprints of his dog.
He returned to Maketu, organized a party, and came on past Rotoiti to
Lake Rotorua, where he built a pa at Whakarongo-patete. His pool for

434 Transactions.

viewing himself, known as Te Wai Whakaata o Ihenga, is still to be seen.
He came across the altar-place of Tua-rotorua at Utuhina, the stream by
Ohinemutu. This he interfered with, and then ensued the bluff between
himself and Tua-rotorua. He pointed out the cliffs in the direction of
Te Ngae as his fishing-nets, hanging up in the sun to dry. To this Tua-
rotorua seems to have tamely submitted, in spite of the fact that he must
have seen those self-same cliffs daily for some considerable time. Probably
Tua-rotorua, not knowing how many men Ihenga had behind him, deemed
it advisable to acquiesce; at all events, he withdrew with his people.
Some time after, Kakara, wife of Ihenga, was killed at Owhata, and her
entrails were caught on a post, or twmu, near Waiteti. This rendered the
lake tapu to Ihenga, and he left the district. The lake is alluded to in
song as Te Roto Kite a Ihenga (the lake discovered by Ihenga). :

Taipari, of Ngati-Kea, composed the following lament for his child,
who was fatally burned through accident :—

Te kiriotetaue...

Ka ka i te ahi na Whanui na Raumati

I tahuna ai Te Arawae...

Patua te kakara ki runga o Titi-raupenga kia Makae...
Koia te hamama o Tia ki runga o Maketu,
Tika maiikonae..

Na Owhakamiti mai te ara,

Ko Paripari-te-tai,

Ko te roto kite a Ihenga,

I ariki ai Kahu.

Taku totara whakarangiurae.. .

Tena ka tere ki roto o Aorangie.. .

[TRANSLATION. ]

The skin of my loved one, alas!

Scorched by the flame,

Lighted by Whanui and Raumati,

Through which the Arawa canoe was destroyed. Ah me!
Send forth a sweet-scented savour to Maka at Titi-raupenga.
This was the call of Tia to Maketu:

““Come hither from there.”

The path led through Owhakamiti to Paripari-te-tai,

To the lake discovered by Ihenga,

Through which Kahu became high chief.

My totara that brightened the heavens

Has drifted away to Aorangi. Alas! Ah me!

The descendants of Tama-te-kapua now lived on at Maketu, until the
time of Rangitihi, when they reinvaded the lake district. Some fierce
battles were fought with the Kawaarero, descendants of Tua-rotorua, who
inhabited the island of Mokoia. Finally the Kawaarero were defeated
and driven out of the district. The island was then divided up between
Uenuku-kopako (see genealogy) and Taketake-hikuroa. Uenuku-kopako
held the Rotoiti side of the island, where there were no hot springs. Taoi,
his wife, after childbirth, desired to bathe in a hot spring known as
Waitapu, but Taketake-hikuroa objected to the trespass on his part of
the island. Rangi-te-aorere, a noted warrior, who had taken chief part
in the subjugation of the Kawaarero, took Taoi to the bath. Taketake-
hikuroa, owing to this affront, left the island, thus abandoning his share,
when the island was divided up among the three wives of Uenuku-kapako—
namely, Rangi-whakapiri, Hine-poto, and Taoi. Through the descendants
of these wives the threefold division was maintained to modern times.

Te Ranat Hiroa.—JJaori Food-supplies of Lake Rotorua. 485

With regard to Taoi, who came from Ngati-Maru, an interesting tale
is told. There is a long shoal stretching from Owhata to Kawaha. The
Maori have an idea that above this shoal there is a distinct ridge in the
water, which is calied Te Hiwi o te Toroa (the Ridge of the Albatross).
Taoi was well tattooed on the buttocks and thighs (rape and puhoro).
Uenuku, paddling over the ridge with his three wives, was desirous of
letting his other two wives see Taoi’s tattooing. He could hardly ask Taoi
to expose herself to satisfy the curiosity of the others, so he arranged a
diving match to see which of them could bring up a fresh-water mussel
from the sandbank below. Taoi had ornaments of albatross-feathers in
her ears. She stripped, uttered an incantation, and dived. First an
albatross-feather floated up from below, and then Taoi broke the surface
with a handful of sand. The purpose had been accomplished—the other
wives had seen Taoi’s tattooing. In memory of her deep dive the ridge
was named, after the albatross-feather that had floated up, Te Hiwi o te
Toroa (the Ridge of the Albatross).

FooD-VARIETIES.

In pre-trout days the lake teemed with food which to the Maori palate
was far more appetizing than the introduced trout which has displaced
so much of it. The varieties consisted of a shell-fish, a crustacean, and
three kinds of fish: kakahi, the fresh-water mussel (Unio); koura, the
fresh-water crayfish (Paranephrops) ; manga (Retropinna richardsont) ; toitot
(Gobiomorphus gobioides) ; kokopu (Galaxias fasciatus). Of these the most
famous to outside tribes was the kowra, which, though found in nearly
all fresh-water streams, could nowhere be found in such quantities as at
Rotorua. The kakahi had the greatest reputation locally.

The koura came in in October, and lasted from November to March.
They ceased to be fat in April. Inanga and kokopu were in season from
December to February, and perhaps to March; tovtot, from May to
September. Kakahi were obtained throughout the year, but were best
in the winter.

In the case of these food-supplies there was no significance in the days
of the month, but they were affected by the winds. Certain fishing-
grounds were good during certain winds, whilst others were useless.
A good wind was that known as Hau-a-uru Tipoki, which lasted about
three weeks. Then the Rauporua ground teemed with fish, and the
netting could go on for the whole time without the supply becoming
exhausted. The moment the wind changed the fish sought other grounds.
It would be fitting, perhaps, to give the nights of the month according
to the Arawa for the purpose of record :—

lst—Whiro. The moon is not seen. 15th—Rakaunui.

2nd—Hohoata or Tirao.

3rd—Oue.

4th—Okoro.

5th—Tamatea-tutahi.
6th—Tamatea-turua.
7th—Tamatea-tutoro.
8th—Tamatea-tuwha.

9th—Huna.
10th—Ari.
11th—Mawharu or Maurea.
12th—Hotu.
13th—Ohua.
14th—Atua. Moon rises at sunset, and

hence has a red appearance.

16th—Rakau-matohe.
17th—Takirau.
18th—Oika.

19th—K orekore.
20th—Pirikorekore.
21st—Tangaroa-a-mua.
22nd—Tangaroa-a-roto.
23rd—K iokio.
24th—Otane.
25th—Orongonui.
26th—Mauri.
27th—Mutu.
28th—Mutuwhenua.

436 Transactions.

FISHING-GROUNDS.

The old-time Maori, a careful and observant student of nature and all
matters connected with food-supplies, soon ascertained the parts of the
lake where the various foods were most plentiful and most easily procured.
These spots became the fishing-grounds, carefully marked and jealously
guarded by the various subtribes and families. They were given names,
and the most famous were alluded to in song and story. Such were Kaiore,
te whare o te koura, o te tortor (the home of the koura and the toitoz), and
Te Taramoa, where nets were drawn and tau were set. Patua-i-te-rangi,
in a lament for Te Ao Karewa, who was drowned in the lake, sang as
follows :—

E hine e Pare, e Pare kinokino kia au ki to kuia,

E kore korua ko to tungane e puta i Te Ponui-a-Rerenga.
E kukume ana te au o te taua ki o papa.

Na Negati-Whakaue te riri i tuku atu kia hoki,

Kia ata noho e te tangata,

Kauaka e rere ki te tau poito.

Ki ta ia tangata kupenga ra.

Piki ake ra e hine

Ki o taumata e rua ki Taupiri ki Te Rewarewa,

Kia marama koe te titiro

Ki te moana ki o whaea,

E moe ake ra Te Ao i tona whare kinokino,

I te whare kai a te tangata, ko Kaiore,

Ko Kaiore tukunga porohe ki te parenga ki Te Taramoa.
Puruatia o mawhiti, he puru whare no Te Whakarurue.. .

From the fourth line this may be translated roughly as follows :—

It was Ngati-Whakaue who turned back those seeking strife,

And (advised) that man should live in peace—

Not to meddie with the tau kept up by floats

Or with the nets of other men.

Ascend, O little maid,

The two summits, Taupiri and Te Rewarewa,

That thou mayest clearly view

The lake and your elders,

Where Te Ao sleeps in her house of death,

The house of the food of man, Kaiore—

Kaiore, where the toitoz traps are set in the direction of the shore, towards
Te Taramoa,

Te Moari was famous as Te Moenga o te Kokopu (where the kokopu
sleeps). The big drag-nets were used on this ground. Of the kakahi
grounds the most famous of all was Tahunaroa, another famous one being
Te Rau Tawa.

Landmarks.—Some of the grounds were located by sighting conspicuous
objects ashore and getting a cross-bearing between two sets. The Tahuna-
roa ground, for instance, was picked up as follows: A line was taken from
a large cabbage-tree on the lake-shore near Owhatiura to a small clump
of trees known as Te-Rau-o-te-Huia, situated on the hills at the back of
Owhata. Keeping on this line, the canoe paddled forward or back until
a certain conspicuous slip in the Arikikapakapa Reserve, near Whakarewa-
rewa, was in line over the top of some small islands, known as Motutere,
n the lake-arm at the back of the present Sanatorium. The canoe was
now on Tahunaroa, and down went the pole with the absolute certainty of
striking bottom.

Other marks were the natural objects in the water, such as rocks.
Such a one was Patuwhare, a rock off the shore of Mokoia, out from the

Te Ranort Hiroa.—Maori Food-supplies of Lake Rotorua. 487

bath of Hinemoa. It is said to have split before the fall of Mokoia to the
Ngapuhi under Hongi, thus giving ominous warning of impending disaster.

Tumu.—As, however, the grounds were not too deep, the commonest
marks were posts called tumu. They served the double purpose of marking
the ground and for the fastening of one end of the taw of aka vine which
carried the fern bundles intended to trap the shelter-seeking koura and
toitot. They also marked ownership, and hence were often named after
ancestors. The best woods to withstand the water were rewarewa (Knightia
excelsa) and kaponga (Cyathea dealbata). As most of the grounds were
marked in this manner, the number of twmu in the lake was very consider-
able, and served to mark the boundaries of the various subtribes and
families. They were especially numerous around Mokoia. The launches
and punts used for carrying sulphur up from Lake Rotoiti were responsible
for the disappearance of many. Such a plebeian fate befell Hinewhata,
famed for having given breathing-time to Hinemoa in her famous swim to
Mokoia, whither she was lured by her love for Tutanekai and guided by
the music of his koauau.

Hinearanga marked the famous Kaiore ground already alluded to.
Te Taramoa was also the name of the twmu which marked the Taramoa
ground. Others were named Morewhati, Te Kopua-a-Tamakari, Te Moari
(still standing), and Hinerimu.

Many twmw were carved, such as Te Roro o te Rangi, carved on the top
to represent a human figure. It may still be seen. Tu te Whaiwha is still
standing, but the part above water-level was knocked off. It is about
6 in. in diameter, and is surmounted by a modern sign. Rongomai was
carved, and originally stood near Mokoia, but it developed wandering
propensities (he twmu haere), and is looked upon as a taniwha.

Between Waimihia*and Ngongotaha once stood four twmu, named
Irohanga, Te Huka, Potangotango, and Te Kaea. The origin of these
names is interesting. In the genealogy given below the descendants of
Tamarangi went to Waikato, whilst those of Kaimataia remained at
Rotorua.

|

Tamarangi Kaimataia

Pukauae Te Roro-o-te-Rangi

Trohanga Te Huka Potangotango Te Kaea. Te Waha-o-Poroaki
Manawa.

Te Kaea made an eel-weir in Waikato and named the paepae (one of
the beams) after Manawa. The news reached Manawa, and, not to be
outdone, he immediately named four twmu in the lake after Te Kaea and
his three brothers.

The tumu against which the entrails of Kakara, wife of Ihenga, were
caught was called Hakaipuku. Some twmu were forked, to distinguish
them from others: such were Tapaeo and Nga-kuha-o-te-Hauwhenua.

From the above it will be seen that the twmu in the lake were used like
surveyors’ pegs in modern times: they marked off the parts of the lake
that belonged to the various families and subtribes. Undoubtedly more
of the lake was pegged off than the part in the immediate neighbourhood

438 Transactions.

of the shore, which proves how valuable it was considered as a source of
food-supply. It was far more valuable to the old-time Maori than any
equal area of land.

Ropes.

For use in the dredging operations to be described a special kind of rope
was manufactured by which to draw the canoes carrying dredge-rakes or
dredge-nets towards a driven-in pole to which an end of the rope had been
attached. This special rope was made from the leaves of the cabbage-tree,
or whanake. It was plaited in the ordinary three-ply plait, usually by old
men sitting inthe hot pools (waarikt). The hot water softened the leaves
and rendered the work easier. The butts of the leaves were allowed to
project slightly. In hauling on such ropes they were softer to the hands
than the usual ropes, and the projecting butts gave a securer hold.

METHODS OF PROCURING SUPPLIES.

There were four main methods of procuring supples. There were
probably minor methods by means of small traps and hand-nets, but the
following were the methods of procuring in quantity: (1) Tau koura, for
obtaining koura and also toitot ; (2) kupenga, or nets, for inanga and kokopu ;
(3) paepae, or dredge-nets, for koura ; (4) kapu or mangakino, or dredge-
rakes, for kakahi.

1. Tau Koura.

The taw was, and is still, the favourite method of obtaining koura.
The process depends on the fact that if bundles of fern are allowed to rest
on the lake-bottom the kowra swarm in between the leaves and rest there.
Best* quotes the Rotoiti people as stating that the kowra feeds on the nehu,
or pollen, of the fern. The Rotorua people say that when the nehu is on
the fern the koura are fat.

The fern (Pteridium esculentum) is carefully selected, bemg taken from
certain grounds near the cliffs and high lands, never from the flats. There
are famous fern-grounds, such as Kawarua, Te Tiepa, and Hauroro.
Battles have been fought in ancient times for the possession of such grounds,
thus proving the importance attached to the right kind of fern. As the
Maoris said, the characteristics of such fern were he kakara, he ngawari,
kaore e whati (it was sweet-scented, it was pliable, and would not break or
snap). The fern was carefully pulled from the ground and left near the
shores of the lake to dry—ki tatahi tahua ac—the drying process lasting
about a week.

For each bundle about twenty stalks, with leaves intact, were selected.
The stalks were all placed in the same direction, and after a long strand of
the stem of a climbing-plant (aka) had been run down the middle of the
bundle of stalks a finer piece of aka was bound round and round the stalks
near the butts to keep the bundle firmly together. The aka, or climbing-
plants, used were aka turihanga, aka puha, aka kiore (Parsonsia rosea), aka
pohue (Metrosideros florida). The aka used to bind the stalks together
was called, no matter what its botanical name, the aka tahua, from its
function. The length of thicker and stronger aka was to form the line by
which the bundle was to be fished up from the lake-bottom. It was called

* Etspon Brsst, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 35, p. 77, 1903.

Te Rane Htroa.—Maori Food-supplies of Lake Rotorua. 439

the pekapeka, and was of sufficient length to reach from the lake-
bottom to the surface, where it was fastened to the aka tauhu, or simply
tauhu.

The tauhu, or ridgepole, consisted of a stronger length of aka, about
2in. thick. One end was usually attached to a twmu, or post, marking the
crayfish-ground, the other being fastened to a povto, or float. The pekapeka
were attached along it at intervals of 10 ft. To prevent the line of the tauhu
being altered by winds or currents, a punga (anchor) was often attached
by a line to the taudu.

The complete taw is shown in the diagram (fig. 1). When set on the
koura ground the tauhu line is fastened at one end to the tumu at the water-
level, and kept on the surface, like the top rope of a net, by floats. Every
10 ft. along its length a pekapeka line hangs down to the bottom of the lake,
with a fern bundle attached to its end by an aka tahua. Into these bundles
the kowra make their way and await their fate.

Before, however, the owner of the taw can secure the trapped kowra
he must be provided with a korapa, or hand-net. The korapa is shaped
somewhat like a tennis-racquet on a large scale, without a handle. The
frame is made of toatoa wood (Phyllocladus trichomanovdes), which has a
springy, elastic fibre. The two ends are brought round in an oval, lashed
together, and strengthened by a cross-piece a few inches above this binding.
A flax net, with very little bag in it, is stretched across the frame.

4

= Rita Some G =
eigen) ORO Nee pie
Fern bundle! — * =

Fic. 1.—The tau koura.

The process of securing koura by means of the tav is known as tata koura.
If the owner of a tau invited you to accompany him to secure his catch
he would say, Ka haere taua ki te tata koura (Let us go and tata koura).
This is an idiomatic phrase that applies only to the aw. Having embarked
on his canoe, he made his way to the ground and picked up the tauhu at
the tumu, or post. He then hauled along the tauhu, hand over hand, until
he reached the first vertical line, or pekapeka. He then drew up the
pekapeka, evenly and smoothly. The koura lay in the leaves of the fern,
and the movement, if not too sudden, had no disturbing effect upon them
whilst the bundle was still in the water. Exposure to the air, however,
was a different matter—as probably many of us will remember from our
juvenile experiences in attempting to lure a fresh-water crayfish ashore
on a bent pin baited with a worm: it will come to the surface clinging
on tenaciously, but immediately it breaks the surface it lets go and kicks
for the bottom again. The old-time Maori was acquainted with this.

440 Transactions.

characteristic of the kowra, and hence the invention of the korapa. Up
came the pekapeka, hand over hand, until the butts of the stalks of the
fern bundle appeared above the surface. Then the korapa was gently
inserted between the fern bundle and the canoe. The butts of the stalks
rested against the lashed end of the korapa just out of water, whilst the
mass of the leaves of the fern bundle, still under water, rested against the
submerged broad face of the korapa. The two were drawn up together,
and just as the leaves of the fern were about to reach the surface there was
a quick pull, with leverage against the canoe-side. In the latter stage of
this pull the arms were assisted by the naked foot treading on the cross-bar
of the korapa. The fern bundle left the water in a horizontal position with
the korapa beneath it. The kouwra, kicking backwards for home, were
intercepted by the net of the korapa, and shared the fate of those that the
inner recesses of the fern bundle had lulled into false security. The korapa
and fern bundle having been brought into the canoe, the leafy end of each
_ stalk was carefully shaken until all the contents rested in the bottom of
the canoe. The bundle was then returned to the water, and the canoe
drawn hand over hand along the tauhu to the next pekapeka. In this
manner the process was repeated to the end of the tau. By this time, if
the season were good, the canoe would be laden to the gunwales.

In ancient times there were thieves, as now, and a good taw was lable
to be raided. A thief was known as a korara, and, as he was generally in
a hurry, he did not use a korapa, or net. In some cases the owner of a tau,
to save himself from the depredations of these fresh-water pirates, would
do without a tumu and floats, and thus allow the tawhw line to sink to the
bottom. This procedure left no surface marks to serve as a guide for
thieves. The owner, to ensure his picking up his tawhu, would mark the
line of his tau by selecting landmarks ashore which would lie across this line.
When he went to collect his catch he would paddle out till he picked up his
landmarks, and then dredge across the line of his taw. This necessitated
a dredge-hook, or marau, as part of his equipment.

The marau consisted of a three-pronged piece of wood, made from
the part of a tree where two branches on the same level forked out
from the trunk. A stone was lashed between two prongs, and a rope tied
to the third or upper prong. With this dragged along the bottom, across
the line of the tau, the tawhu was picked up, and ‘the usual procedure
carried out.

That the marau was necessary as a protection against thieves is proved
by the song alluding to the Kaiore and Taramoa grounds. In it the poet
states that men should live without creating trouble, and not meddle with
the tau poito, or tau kept up by floats.

On some grounds, and in the appropriate season, the taw was also used
to snare the tovtot, which took refuge in the fern bundles like the koura.
When used in this way the taw was also called a porohe. In the song quoted
above, the famous fishing-ground of Kaiore is alluded to as Kaiore tukunga
porohe (Kaiore, where the toifot traps are set). The Rev. Fletcher* records
that at Taupo the taw was used for catching kokopu as well as koura.

Best mentions the fern bundle as being called a taruke at Lake
Rotoiti. As he states, the taruke is a trap used for catching sea-crayfish.
Probably the Rotoiti people have adopted this word from their coastal
relatives.

* Rev. H. J. Fuetcuer, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 51, p. 260, 1919.

TRANG aN: Zo INST Viole lable Prate LXIV.

aS FE niin,

Fic. 1.—Tau koura. The korapa being slipped down between the canoe and the fern
bundle, still submerged.

Fie. 2.—Tau koura. The pekapeka, with the stalk end of the fern bundle, being drawn
up against the korape.

Face p. 440.)

TRANS. N.Z. INST., Wao, ILI PLATE IDOE

pita

>

Fig. 1.—Tau koura. Completely out of water by leverage against side. Note attitude
of right foot, which is pressed on bar of korapa.

2

| atahaaate otc

Fig. 2.—Tau koura. The catch from one fern bundle. Note the marau, or grappling-
hook, held by one of the men.

Te Rane Hiroa.—Maori Food-supplies of Lake Rotorua. 441

(2.) Kupenga (Nets).

Nets were used for inanga and kokopu, but tortor were also caught in them.
The same kind of net did for all. My notes are somewhat meagte, as these
old flax nets have long since passed out of date, and no sample survives
to enable a more minute description being given. The nets were several
chains long, and some are reported to have taken as long as three years to
complete. They were made in parts, different parts being often allocated
to various subtribes. When these parts or sections were completed they
were assembled and joined together.

The most important section was named the konae. This formed the
middle section of the net, and when the ends were hauled in it formed the
belly, which held the fish. It was the first section to be made, and was
started by two or three skilled men. They worked on through the night
and never slept on their work. In the dark the width of the mesh was
measured by the finger-nail. Blind men have been skilled konae weavers.
After some progress had been made, others joined in and the work went
on quickly. My informants stated that an unskilled man could not get
a strip of flax in, as the net was constantly moving.

On either side of the konae there was a section called the whakahihi.
This had a coarser mesh, and served to drive the fish back into the konae.
Anaha, the famous old carver at Rotorua, who was alive when these notes
were taken, gave different divisions to the nets. He maintained that the
sections next to the konae on either side were the wpoko roto, then came the
whakahihi, and lastly the matatu. Probably this applied to the very large
nets, which would thus be made in seven sections. The number of sections
led to the following classification :—

(1.) Kupenga nw, with all the sections described by Anaha.

(2.) Koroherohe, a smaller net used at Mokoia Island for koura, toztoz,
and inanga. This consisted of three sections, the konae and two
whakahihi.

(3.) Pahikohiko, used near the shore, as at Rauporoa. In this net there
was no matatw section at either end. A pole was fixed at each
end and the net drawn without canoes, the inanga being driven
into the net, or various shoals cut out.

The nets were, of course, furnished with pocto, or floats, made from the
whau (Entelea arborescens), and attached to the kaha runga, or top rope.
The porto over the middle of the konae was of larger size, and was usually
carved. In the large nets there were two additional carved poito, one on
either side, situated at the junction of the whakahihi and the matatu.
These carved poito often had names given to them. The central one was
famous enough to pass into a saying—Te porto whakarewa 7 te kupenga
(The float that lifts the net). Great chiefs were alluded to in these terms,
for as the carved float of the konae lifts or supports the net, so the tattooed
chieftain of old uplifted his tribe.

Karihi, or sinkers of stone, were attached to the kaha raro, or bottom
line of the net. They were tied to the back of the line so as not to be worn
by the sand.

The famous nets were named. Such a one was Tipiwhenua, which
belonged to the Ngati-Pehi Hapu. It was 300 yards long without the end
ropes. Another famous net was Te Whenuataua, belonging to Ngati-
Tunohopu.

When the canoes came ashore with a good catch of inanga the women-
folk would be waiting with their baskets to obtain their share. In those

449 Transactions.

communistic days nobody went empty away, but, at the same time, a
distinction was made in favour of the workers. One man usually doled
out the fish in double handfuls. He had to be a Just man who would not
unduly favour his own relatives. More was givento the women of those
who had got wet skins through working. The phase used was, Hngari
tena; he kirt maku (That one is right; a wet skin). On the other hand,
when the womenfolk of a non-worker approached with their baskets the
ery was, Hirangi, hirangy; he kirt maroke. Hzrangi means “ not deep,”
hence the significance of the phrase is easily understood: ‘*‘ Not deep, not
deep ; a dry skin.”

In netting tnanga the large canoe which carried the net was called
waka uta kupenga (the canoe which carries the net). This phrase was
used for people of some importance. On the other hand, there were often
small canoes towed along, into which the fish were emptied from the net.
These canoes were used for fish alone, and were called waka kaitiiti. The
name was often applied to persons of no importance.

Ubu and Waro, chiefs of the Ngati-Whakaue, were one day looking
at a good catch of wnanga where the few live fish on the surface were
jumping about on the mass of dead ones below. One of them observed
to the other, Kza pena pea taua mo te rirt (Would that we were like that in
battle). Their warlike spirit aspired to be leaping hither and thither over
the heap of dead, slain by their prowess.

(5.) Paepae, or Dredge-net.

The paepae is a net that is dredged along the bottom to catch koura.
In Bulletin No. 2 of the Dominion Museum there is one shown in fig. 64
and fig. 78. In fig. 78 Hamilton calls it a “‘ rowkoura, or dredge-net, from
Rotorua.” The Arawa people of Rotorua call this net a paepae, never
a roukoura. Rou means “ to reach or procure by means of a stick or pole”’:
there is no pole used with this net, hence the name is inapplicable.

The paepae derives its name from the lower beam of the frame which
carries the bag net. The one | saw in use was 10 ft. long and 4 in. wide
by 1din. thick. The upper edges were rounded off. The timber used
is manuka or maire. Holes are bored through to support the uprights,
to be described later. Good paepae are carved at either end and midway,
and sometimes half-way between these points.

The whitiwhitt is an arched rod of manuka inserted at each end into
holes in the ends of the paepae beam. The paepae and whitiwhiti frame
the opening of the net. To strenghten the whittwhiti a number of
uprights are let into the holes bored in the paepae and, passing behind the
whitiwhiti, are firmly lashed to it. The powwaenga, as its name implies,
is the middle upright. It is stouter and stronger than the others, as the
main rope is fastened to it when the net is being hauled. It is also
grasped when lifting the net into the canoe. The measurements of these
uprights are shown in the diagram. About 2 ft. 3} in. on either side of
the pouwaenga are the uprights named tangitang?. They are fixed in the
same way as the pouwaenga, but are not so stout. In the angle between
them and the lower beam, on the outer side, stone punga, or sinkers, are
attached to the tangitangi. Six inches from either end of the lower beam
are short uprights slanting outwards but fixed in the same manner as the
preceding. They are named punga, because stone punga are attached to
them, as shown in the diagram. Side ropes are also attached to them
and led to the main rope, to which they are tied.

Te Ranar Htroa.—Maori Food-supplies of Lake Rotorua. 443

Ropes.—The main drag-rope is tied to the powwaenga. The side ropes
tied to the punga uprights are called tangitangi, the same name as the
second set of uprights. They joim the main rope about 4 ft. from the
pouwaenga.

The net of the paepae has no special name. ‘The one I saw had a 2} in.
mesh. The opening of the net was fitted to the framework of the paepae
and whitiwhiti. From this opening the net gradually narrowed down to
a point about 10 ft. 10im. away. To this point was attached a piece of
rope 7 ft. long, which carried the punga, or koremu (the stone sinker).

feu Ge an Gi .

“PREDGE NET frome, pat pac.

deen view,

VES of Dredae nel wt eta cose

Fic. 2.—Paepae, or dredge-net.

I saw Ngati-Uenuku-Kopako at Mokoia Island with a paepae of which
the arch, or whztiwhiti, was composed of thick, plain wire. The paepae
bar was 10 ft. 8in. long, and extra uprights were inserted between the
punga and tangitangi uprights These were called whitiwhiti, the same
name as the arch.

Naming.—As in the case of other nets, good paepae, which caught large
catches, were named after ancestors or near relatives.

Method of Dredging.—When collecting these notes we went hauling on
the Moari grounds off Mokoia. The first procedure was to plant a long
pole, called a turuturu, firmly into the bottom of the lake, on one edge of
the rather shallow fishing-ground. A fairly long rope of whanake leaves
was tied near the bottom of the turuturw before it was thrust down. It
takes a skilled man to plant the twruturu. On touching bottom it is gently
twirled with one hand, and gradually insinuated more and more deeply

444 Transactions.

until it is considered that it can stand the strain of having the canoe drawn
towards it from the end of the rope. It will be noticed that the rope is
tied to the bottom of the turuturu so as to take the strain and prevent
leverage. If not skilfully and firmly planted, when a strain is put on it
the turuturu comes up. This was considered an ill omen, and was called
he take maunu (a loosened support), and in olden days the man who planted
such a turuturu would promptly be struck with a tazaha or club. If he
were man enough he would guard the stroke, leap overboard, and swim
ashore, no matter how far.

The turutwru having been securely planted, the canoe paddled away
from it. -'The whanake rope was paid out until the end was reached. As
the canoe paddled towards the end of the rope a landmark was taken to
keep the line of the canoe. The net was now put over the side. The
sinker was lowered first and allowed to tighten up before the net left the
hand. If this were not done the net would be lable to get twisted and
the arch go under, causing the paepae to be dragged along upside down.
This accident was called haritutu, and resulted in no fish being caught.
On hauling up an empty net the disappointed fishermen would say, E, a
karitutu ta taua kupenga (Alas, our net was upside down).

Enough rope was paid out to ensure the paepae resting on the bottom.
The drag-rope of the net was then tied to the canoe. The canoe was
hauled by the whanake rope towards the turuturu, and the dredge-net, tied
by its rope to the canoe, was dragged along the bottom. The man
hauling on the rope had the opportunity of “‘ putting on side ’’ by stretching
out with full-arm reaches to grasp the rope and then straightening his back
in a spectacular manner. This was the correct thing to do: Kia maro
te tuara (Straighten the back). Hither hand was used alternately, and the
bight of the rope as it came in was dropped in a figure-of-eight coil—not
in a single coil, as with Europeans. The canoe was not hauled too close
to the iurutur, lest it should be loosened. When near enough, the rope
was tied to the canoe and attention directed to the net. The experts
could always tell as they hauled in whether there was a good catch. The
weight of the crayfish caused the paepae to lift and the net to roll about.
Ka tahurihuri te kupenga, he tohu kua mou te koura (When the net rolled
about it was a sign that koura had been caught). As the net came up,
the pouwaenga was grasped and the framework lifted clear of the sides of
the canoe ; the other parts were then drawn in.

If the net was filled with koura more than the span of the two arms it
was an evil sign—he iro tangata. The tale would be whispered round the
village, Ko te ‘kupenga a mea, na te waha o te paepae 1 whakahoki te koura
(The - net of So-and- -so, it was the mouth of the net that stopped the koura).
This was a sign of death—an aitua, an tnati.

The crayfish having been emptied out of the net, the canoe was paddled
back to the end of the rope; but by carefully observing their landmark
a spot was made for a few yards to the right or left of the last drag. This
was done on each drag, so as to ensure the same ground not being gone
over twice. In the old days a couple of drags would secure a quantity
equal to the contents of a sack or two. Often there would be a dozen
canoes on the same ground competing one against another.

Sometimes a canoe was tied to the twradturu and remained stationary
whilst another canoe worked backwards and forwards to it with the
drag-net. In this case there were two ropes tied to the base of the
turuturu. One was drawn taut and tied to the bow of the stationary

Te Raner Hrroa.—-Maori Foced-supplies of Lake Rotorua. 445

canoe, and the other to the stern. The hauling-rope of the drag canoe
was paid out from the stationary canoe. This brings up an incident that
occured after the fall of Mokoia to the Ngapuhi under Hongi. The
Ngapuhi, anxious to sample the famous koura of Rotorua, ordered some
of their prisoners to accompany them to the fishing-grounds and drag for
koura. A fishing-ground near the mainland by Te Ngae was selected
by the prisoners. A large canoe contaming the captors was fastened to
the turuturu. One can imagine, in the light of what subsequently occurred,
how carefully and firmly that turuturw was thrust in by the prisoners.
The prisoners entered a small canoe with a dredge-net, and, paying off
the rope, paddled off towards a point on the mainland. There were no
Ngapuhi on this canoe, as, being unskilled, they did not wish to be in the
way of the workers. As the canoe paddled away, its speed gradually
increased, and on the end of the rope being reached, instead of pulling
up, the rope was cast overboard and the canoe driven for shore at full
speed. The Ngapuhi, with yells and threats, started to uproot the turuturu,
but before they could get going properly the fugitives had landed and made
their escape.

Dr. Newman, in his article ““ On Maori Dredges,”’* quotes Mr. L. Grace
as stating that at Lake Taupo, when using the hao, or toothless dredge,
the rope was tied to a tree on the bank and the canoe then rowed out to
the full length of a many-fathomed rope. In Lake Rotorua, where the
fishing-grounds were some distance from the shore, the twruturu took the
place of the tree.

Best mentions the paepae as being used to catch koura in the lakes by
being dragged along the bottom. But though his article deals with the
food-supplies of Tuhoeland, this remark follows after mention of fern being
used to catch koura at Lake Rotoiti, and I take it to apply to the Lakes
District and not to Tuhoeland.

(4.) Kapu, Mangakino, or Dredge-rakes.

It is curious that the kakahi, or fresh-water mussel, whilst the least
appetizing of the lake food-supplies, is the most important in story, song,
and proverb. For instance, there is an old saying—Tane moe whare, kurua
te takataka ; tane rou kakahi, aitia te ure (Man drowsing in the house,
smack his head; man skilled in dredging kakahi, marry him). ‘There is no
exhortation of a similar nature applied to men skilled in netting koura,
tortor, manga, or kokopu, and we must conclude that the prize for relish
was awarded to the kakahv.

The dredge-rake may be described in three parts—the wooden frame,
the net, and the pole or handle.

(a.) Kapu, Mangakino, or Wooden Frame.—The wooden frame carries
the teeth of the dredge-rake, and to it are attached the net and the handle.
It is called kapu or mangakino, and gives its name to the whole apparatus.
Both Hamilton and Newman call it a roukakahi. This is a misnomer, as
I shall point out later. The kapu, or mangakino, is always made of manuka
wood, so as to stand the strain. By consulting the diagram it will be seen
that it is made in two pieces and then lashed together above and below
in the mesial line. Each part consists of a horizontal bottom beam, a
bend, and an ascending upper arm.

* Trans. N.Z. Inst, vol. 37, p. 138, 1905.

446 Transactions.

The horizontal bottom beam is called the paetara (lower beam with
points). It carries the wooden teeth, or tara, which are about 6 in. long.
They are lashed to the under-surface of the beam with fine aka or with
fibre of the Phormium tenax, and then a thicker piece of aka is woven in
and out in figure-of-eight turns to finish off. The number of teeth are
usually about two dozen. The two halves of the paetara are joined on
a slant, and aka or fibre lashings passed through holes drilled on either
side. The overlap in the paetara I saw in use was 17in., and its total
length 44 in.

— hoteheta

Kaw Ac
Jom, y t
Paetara. | |

KAPU — ene Wale

D REDGE- RAKE Seame ; Kapy, . Front view,

Fic. 3.—Dredge-rake frame.

The bend at the sides is called the kauae (jaw). Besides bending
upwards, the kauae bends forwards and is continued on into the upper
limb, or peke. The two peke do not come close together in the middle
line, but are separated by a gap of from lin. to 1din. This point is
about 10 in. above the bottom beam. These ends of the peke have holes
through them for lashing purposes. From the front, the plane of the
kauae and peke forms an angle of about 45° with the plane of the paetara
and teeth.

About 7in. above the lower beam a horizontal rod, called the paepae,
is securely lashed at either end to a hole in the ascending limbs. As further
support there are two vertical rods, called kume, about 1 ft. to the inner
side of the bends. They are made of manuka, with a fork at the lower end.
The fork embraces the lower beam from behind, and the rod passes behind
the paepae and ascending arms, to each of which they are securely lashed.
The two kume and the paepae rods thus brace and strengthen the wooden
framework, or kapu.

Tr Raner Htroa.—Maori Food-supplies of Lake Rotorua. 447

(b.) Heheki, or Net.—The net is a bag net with a 1?in. mesh and about
34in. long. At the end away from the frame it is wider, if anything, than
at its attachment. It is attached to the paetara below, and the upper edge
comes up as high as the paepae above, but is not fastened to it. It has a
string attached to this upper edge, which is drawn taut and tied to the
lower end of the pole or handle. The net has a special name, the hehek.
In Museum Bulletin No. 2 Hamilton quotes Best as giving the name
of the dredge-rake used at Rotoiti as heki. The Rotorua people were
very clear that it is the actual net that is the hehekv. In fig. 76 of the
above publication a dredge-rake is shown with a punga, or sinker, attached
to the end of the net. This is incorrect, as there was no necessity for
it in this position, the kakahi weighting the net back as they were
dredged up.

(c.) Rou, or Handle.—The handle was called the row. In order to drag
the rake along the bottom the handle had to be from 28 ft. to 30 ft. long.
It was not a simple case of getting the longest pole from the adjacent
forest, as Newman* states in his article on Maori dredges. To get a pole
of the right length without being too heavy or unwieldy, and yet with
sufficient “slimness and spring without being too weak, was the problem
that faced the neolithic Maori. He solved it by joining four pieces
together, thus obtaining length without excessive thickness. Of these four
pieces the most important was the lowest, called the matamata. This was
carefully sought for in the bush. It had to be a straight piece of toro
(Myrsine salicina) or mapou (Myrsine Urveller) of the right thickness.
These woods are very springy, and will not break or snap. In the row I
saw in use the matamata was 12 ft. 4in. in length and 3}in. in circum-
ference. The thin end was downwards, and near this end a groove was
cut round, for a purpose to be detailed later.

The other three pieces were not so important, and the wood was not
so carefully selected. The ones I saw were of tawa (Beilschmiedia tawa).
The piece next to the matamata was named the whakatakapu. It was spliced
to the matamata with an overlap of 11 in. and had the thick end down, and
was 4 ft. 7in. in length. The third piece was of the same length, and was
called the whakangawari, and had an overlap of 1lin. The last piece was
the one which was grasped by the hand, and hence was called the tango-
tango (what one lays hold of). It was 9 ft. 64in. in length, and had the
thin end uppermost, being here about 1 in. in diameter. The overlap with
the whakangawart was 9? in.

The various parts of the row were joined together as shown in the
diagram, with a 9in. to 11 in. overlap, by a double tie. These ties at the
joints are called hotohoto.

When the dredge-rake was not in use the handle was untied, taken to
pieces, and put in water to preserve it until the next season. In northern
France the French farmers, after the pea crop is gathered, place the wooden
stakes or pea-props in ponds for a similar reason.

Joining the Rou to the Framework.—The rou, or handle, having been com-
pleted, the lower end of the matamata is fastened to the kapu. It is passed
down at the back of the two ascending arms (peke), and the groove already
mentioned at the lower end is fitted on to the cross-rod (paepae) and securely
lashed to it and the peke. The handle, peke, and kauae are now in the same

* A. K. Newmay, On Maori Dredges, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 37, p. 141, 19085.

448 Transactions.

plane, and, as before mentioned, form an angle of 45° with the plane of
the teeth of the rake. This insures the teeth gripping the sand or mud at
the bottom when the rake is dragged.

The punga, or sinker, is then attached, not to the end of the net, but to
the back of the matamata, between the cross-rod (paepae) and the ascending
arms (peke), where in fact it is fastened to all three. Some fern is wrapped
round the punga, before fastening, to save the woodwork. Its weight is
about 61b. Should the weight of the sinker be insufficient, smaller sinkers,
called potikt, are attached on either side of the main punga. It will be
observed that the function of the punga has nothing to do with the net,
but from its position at the lower end of the handle and directly over the
middle of the frame it weights down the lower beam and causes the teeth
to sink into the soft sand to scrape up the kakahi. The sinker described by
Dr. Newman, in his article already quoted, as being flat at the base whilst
the other side is rounded, was not so made that the broad flat surface
should lie in the lake-mud, but that the flat surface might rest evenly
against the back of the framework in the position described above.

Method of Dredging.—As foreshadowed in the proverb already quoted,
kakahi dredging required great skill, or, as the Maoris say, He tino mahi
tohunga. It was very difficult to get a good quantity, and the kuare, or
unskilled dredger, was useless. It is said that skill descended in or was
inherited by certain families. The Ngati-Pukaki were a skilled tribe. As
there was so much talk about dredging, it is natural that a good deal of
show was indulged in. The fisherman going out to the kakahi ground put on
his best dress-cloak of dogskin or fine flax. The twrutwru was driven in, and
the canoe paddled off to the end of the attached rope. The dredge-rake was
lowered over the left side of the canoe, and the end of the handle (tango-
tango) held in the left hand. After feeling that the rake was on the bottom
and that the teeth had gripped, the dredger would work towards the turu-
turu by successive pulls on the rope with the right hand. In olden days,
when conscientious objectors were not even dreamt of, if a Maori held a
stick in his hand and started moving it about his fighting-blood was speedily
aroused. It is known of many a Maori of the old school, peacefully walking
along with a walking-stick in the degenerate post-fighting days, that if he
struck once or twice at a tree-branch or a piece of bracken an association
of ideas seemed to stir the blood, and it was no uncommon sight to see him
leaping about from side to side and going through all the strokes.and parries
of the ancient pastime. This would happen even with men using the ko
in digging. So with the kakahi dredger: as he dredged along he had to
move the handle from side to side; gradually the movement would excite
him so that anon he was guarding and parrying with the handle of the
dredge-rake, quite oblivious of the kakahi below. It was considered good
training for war: hence my informants said, He karo rakau tonu te mahi
(The method was just like guarding against a weapon). Probably some
excitable warrior created a precedent and it became the fashion.

When a larger canoe was used there might be three or four dredgers
all facing the same way, and were the angles of the handles of the rakes
the same all would be well; but if one were different all would be wrong,
and the rake that was out of line would immediately be drawn up, so that
the fault might be investigated. The fault might be (a) the tying at the
joints (hotohoto) of the handle, (b) the teeth of the kapw loosened or set
wrongly, (c) more weight (potik?) needed. When the net became full the
weight caused the handle to assume a more vertical position—ka tu te rou.

Te Raner Htroa.—Maori Food-supplies of Lake Rotorua. 449

Whakaangi.—When a special demonstration was desired the method of
dredging known as whakaangi was indulged in. In this it was necessary
that a breeze should be blowing across the dredging-ground. Big canoes,
preferably war-canoes, were dragged out, and the crew of fishers dressed
in their finest array. They paddled up against the wind to the edge of the
ground, and with dredge-rakes over the side drifted across the ground with
the wind. No turuturu was needed. It was here, with their numbers
and brave cloaks, that the tw karo, or sparring with the handle of the rake,
was especially indulged in. Old men say that with several canoes vying
with one another on the same ground it was a sight to stir the blood.
Kaiore was a good fishing-ground for the whakaangi method, as also was
Puha te Reka, belonging to Ngati-Whakaue.

Carving —Good dredge-rakes are carved at the kauae and at the upper
ends of the ascending arms. In some the mid-part of the ascending arms,
where the paepae is secured, is also carved. Such a rake is shown in
Museum Bulletin No. 1, fig. Le.

Name of Dredge-rake—The name roukakahi that has been applied to
the wooden frame of the dredge-rake is wrong. The word row as a verb
means “to reach or procure by means of a pole or stick.” As a noun it
means “‘a long stick used for the purpose of reaching anything.” These are
the meanings given in Williams’s Dictionary, and these are the interpreta-
tions of the word as used with regard to the dredge-rake by the old men of
‘Rotorua. Row, as a noun, is the name of the handle of the rake. Roukakahi,
as a verb, is the process of procuring kakahi by means of a pole, to which
incidentally the rake and net are attached. Williams gives as a second
meaning to the verb rou, “ collect cockles or other shell-fish,” and gives
as his example, kei te row kakahi. ‘‘Collect” is certainly the result
obtained, but the true meaning of the example he gives is “ procuring or
collecting kakahi by means of something connected with a pole.” Pole
is involved in the word rou. The frame of the dredge-rake is not a
roukakahi, but a kapu or mangakino, as the Maori manufacturers state,
and the correction should be made in our records. From a consideration
of the meaning of the word row we see that the paepae, or dredge-net,
could never be called a rowkoura. There is not the excuse for making a
mistake as in the case of the dredge-rake, because the paepae was dragged
by a rope, and there was no pole, or row, used in connection with it. The
hao, or toothless dredge-net, that Newman mentions as used in Lake
Taupo evidently had a handle. There might have been some ground
for calling this a roukowra, but there certainly was not as regards the
paepae.

Mauri-oho-rere is the name of a rock within which Hatupatu, of ancient
fame, sought refuge. It is not now seen unless before some disaster, when
it is an ill omen, or aitua. If, whilst dredging for kakahi, pumice
(pungapunga) was displaced from the bottom and floated to the surface it
was looked upon as an ill omen. This particular genus of ill omen was
named after the rock of Hatupatu, Mauri-oho-rere.

Foop.

The supplies having been secured by the methods described, a few
remarks about them as foods are necessary.

To any one who enjoys the shell-fish of the salt water the kakahi is very
tasteless and insipid. This opinion seems to be shared by the present

15—Trans,

450 Transactions.

generation of the Arawa people, for dredging is gradually being abandoned.
In olden days, however, the kakahi was very important. It was used in
the feeding of motherless infants where a wet-nurse could not be secured.
The kakahi was cooked and the child fed with the soft paru, or visceral
mass, which, further softened with the water retained in the shell, could
be sucked like milk. Three or four kakahi formed a meal. Hence the
Maori said, Ko te kakahi te whaea o te tamaiti (The kakahi is the mother
of the child). Ka whakangotea ki te war o te kakahi (It was suckled on the
juice of the kakaha).

The kakahi was often greatly desired by patients. When the eyes took
on a deathly, unnatural white appearance it was alluded to as kua whakawai
kakahi nga kanohi (the eyes have taken on a kakahi white appearance).
Then the appropriate treatment was to feed the patient with war-kakahi—
the juice of the kakahi after it had been cooked in a hot spring. Smith*
mentions these uses of the kakahi. If the patient could take it the
prognosis was considered good. If the patient had been very ill and asked
for kakahi it was looked upon as a good sign.

Kakahi were sometimes eaten raw. The opening of a raw kakahi has
a special word, teoka. If a person desired raw kakahi for a meal he said,
Tiokatia mar he kakahi (Open me some raw kakahi). Tf the kakahi were
cooked, the word for opening was kowha. They might also be eaten under-
done—that is, they were dipped into a hot spring for a few seconds.
This just warmed the kakahi and caused the shell to open very slightly.
This process was called whakakopupu. Hence the phrase Whakakopuputia
mai he kakahi means, literally, ““ Underdo me some kakahi.”

There was, of course, the ordinary cooking, though the Maori never
cooked their shell-fish until the shell was wide open and the contents
shrivelled to the consistency of leather, as the European seems fond of doing.

The proper kinaki, or relish, to go with kakahi was the pohue, a kind
of convolvulus. The kakahi after being eaten as food was always alluded
to in the plural as nga kakahi.

The shell of the kakahti was used for cutting the hair of adults, and also
the umbilical cord of a newborn child.

In addition to the proverb already mentioned, there is another drawn
from the fact that the kakahi in moving about on the bottom of the lake
forms a trail of curves and spirals not unlike tattooing or carving: Nga
kakahi whakairo o Rotorua. This was applied to toa, or warriors, who
dashed in and out of the war-party.

The kokopu and toitot were eaten locally, and not preserved. The inanga
and koura, on the other hand, were preserved, and, besides providing for
local needs, were sent as presents and exchanges to outside tribes.

The inanga were dried by being spread out on the papa or rocky slabs
rendered hot by the natural hot steam below. When dried they were
called whakahunga, and were packed in baskets lined and covered with
fern-leaves, and were then ready for storing or export.

The koura makes delicious eating, the flavour resembling that of large
prawns. It has survived the introduction of trout better than its finny
comrades, and to this day the tau koura still obtains good catches, though
not comparable to those of times gone by. Curried kowra is often included
in the menu of the dining-room run in connection with the dances in the
carved meeting-house of Tama-te-kapua at Ohinemutu; and during the

*T. H. Smrtu, Trans. N.Z. Inst, vol. 26, p. 429, 1894.

Te Ranear Hrroa.—Maori Food-supplies of Lake Rotorua. 451

visit of the Prince of Wales to Rotorua koura, though late in the season
(April), were supplied in the Maori canteen, to the delight of the Maori
visitors. They are cooked in baskets in the steam-holes, and it is imterest-
ing to see how neatly and quickly the local people get rid of the shell and
expose the flesh. The abdomen, or tail, consists of seven segments, the
hindmost, or seventh, being biologically called the “telson.” In the large
sea-crayfish it is usual to separate this abdominal part and remove the
exoskeleton, or tergum, from each segment in turn. With the small
fresh-water koura, however, the Maori removes the tergum in one piece,
without detaching the fleshy mass from the anterior cephalothorax.
Grasping the cephalothorax with the left hand, with the right hand he
first squeezes the sides of the abdominal segments. This loosens matters
up, and, grasping the telson, or end segment, above and below, he squeezes
it firmly. This pushes the flesh forward out of the end segment, and by
now pulling backwards and slightly upwards the whole exoskeleton comes
away. The carapace, or covering of the anterior part, is then flicked
forward and upward and detached. ‘The tail part and the viscera of the
anterior part are taken in a mouthful; whilst the head, legs, and under
part of the cephalothorax are rejected. Care must, however, be taken
to avoid the bile-ducts, which show up black just behind the head. They
are usually pinched off beforehand. One has only to struggle with a koura
himself to appreciate the quickness, neatness, and ease of the above method
in the hands of the cognoscenti.

For preserving purposes the fleshy tail parts, after beimg cooked, were
threaded on a string of flax-fibre and dried. They were thus stored in long
strings, shell-fish being preserved in a similar manner; and in condition
they would keep for a year. The strings were packed in baskets. Hight
baskets were called a rohe, which was equivalent to a sack.

Feasts—At a large hui at Awahou in 1899 there were six hundred
people present from the Bay of Plenty and Hast Coast. The gathering
lasted a week, and koura was the chief food. A great present of koura
was sent to Kawana Paipai at Wanganui in 1859, but my informants had
forgotten the quantities. At the opening of Tama-te-kapua at Ohine-
mutu, in 1873, it is said that at the feast there were five hundred rohe of
dried koura and inanga. As this would mean four thousand baskets, some
idea can be formed of how the lake must have teemed with food and what
an invaluable asset it must have been to the tribes fortunate enough to
possess it.

CoNCLUSION.

The notes that form the basis of this paper were made at Rotorua some
years before the war. I have to thank Mr. H. Tai Mitchell and his
committee of old men who gave me the information for the purposes of
record, A tau was visited and demonstrations given in the manner of using
the dredge-net and the dredge-rake. My thanks are also due to Miss Preen
for some of the photographs used to illustrate the text.

Wa

452 Transactions.

Art. XLIX.— Maori Decorative Art: No. 1, House-panels (Arapaki,
Tutu, or Tukutuku).

By Tze Raner Hiroa (P. H. Buck), D.8.0., M.D.

[Read before the Auckland Institute, 20th December, 1920 ; received by Editor, 31st December,
1920 ; issued separately, 12th August, 1921.]

Plates LX VI-LXIX.

Maori decorative art, as exemplified by definite patterns and designs,
found expression in the following forms :—

(1.) Tattooing on the human figure (moko).

(2.) Carving on wood, bone, and stone (whakairo).

(3.) Painting on rafters of houses (¢whz).

(4.) Weaving of coloured threads in the borders of dress cloaks (taniko).
(5.) Plaiting of coloured elements into floor-mats and baskets (raranga).

(6.) Lattice-work in house-panels (arapaki, twitui, or tukutuku).

The last division, house-panels, whilst frequently mentioned, has never
received the detailed attention it deserves. Archdeacon H. W. Williams
has given the best description of the patterns, but, as he dealt with them
only as part of his article on “‘ The Maori Whare,”* I venture to add a
few details, in the hope that other observers may be induced to criticize
and to add still further to the material contained in this paper.

Decorated panels formed an important finish to the large meeting-houses
and the carved houses of chiefs of any standing. <A carved house without
lattice-work stitched in patterns, no matter how simple, had an air of
incompleteness, or even poverty, that the old-time Maori felt was not in
keeping with the prestige that a well-carved house should convey. In
olden days, when the houses were lined with reeds, the art of panel-
decoration was universal. With the change of building-material due to
civilization the art began rapidly to disappear. In some districts, such
as the East Coast and Hot Lakes, it survived even when wooden walls
and corrugated-iron roofs replaced the thatch of the old days; the Maori
form of the house remained. The carved woodwork and painted rafters
demanded the retention of the appropriate lattice-work panels. Owing
to European influence in providing motives, and colouring-matter in
Judson’s dyes, the panels, in many instances, became more complicated
in design, and, owing to the introduction of greens, violets, and other
colours unknown to the tattooed craftsman, more inartistic in effect. In
other parts of the country, again, fluted boards and painting superseded
the simple but more artistic panels of old. In the North Auckland
Peninsula, where the European form of wooden hall with side windows
entirely replaced the Maori type of building, the art disappeared completely.

THE PANEL-SPACE.

Before going on to the panel-decorations it is necessary to describe how
the panel-spaces are formed in the typical Maori house. To do this I
cannot do better than quote from Archdeacon Williams’s article already
mentioned : ‘‘ The framework of the sides, pakitara, consisted of upright
slabs of wood set in the ground. These slabs, powpou, were from 1 ft. to

*Rev. H. W. Wituiams, Jour. Pol. Soc., vol. 5, pp. 145-54, 1896.

Tr Raneat Hrroa.—Maort Decorative Art. 453

3ft. wide. In ordinary houses the height of the poupou above ground
was somewhat under 6it. They were, of course, set opposite one another
at even distances. The intervals were, as a rule, a little wider than the
poupou. The upper ends of the powpow were secured to a batten, kaho
paetara, placed behind the powpou and lashed to notches or holes in the
corners of each. A skirting-board, papaka, was formed by slabs placed
between the poupou. These slabs were rebated from the front at the ends
to come flush with the faces of the powpou.”

The panel-space is thus defined by the poupow on either side,’ by the
kaho paetara above, and by the papaka below. This is the nomenclature
of the Kast Coast. The Arawa people of the Hot Lakes district, and the
Whanganui on the west, call the upper cross-piece the kaho matapu. The
lower skirting-board is called the paekakaho by both tribes, whilst the
Arawa gave it an additional name, poztoito. In the best houses both cross-
pieces were often carved. In other good houses the upper piece was
ornamented by bindings of flax or kiekie, and in more modern times by
painting. The panel-space was called moana by the Whanganui people.

THE ELEMENTS OF THE PANEL.

The elements from which the decorative panel which fills up the panel-
space (moana) is formed consist of three portions—two rigid and one
flexible. These, which form the groundwork, may be called, in terms of
wickerwork—(a) vertical stakes ; (6) horizontal rods ; (c) a flexible material,
which, threaded through the above, forms the patterns and designs of the
panel. External to the lattice-work panel is the ordinary thatching of
the walls; and in some of the common type of dwellinghouse even the
vertical stakes of reeds may not be used. Hence we are justified in
regarding all the elements used in the formation of the panels as not
being essential to the construction of the wall, and thus being primarily
decorative in origin.

(a.) Vertical Stakes—The vertical elements formed the outer layer of
the panel. They are composed of the flower-stalks (kakaho) of the toetoe
(Arundo conspicua). <A single layer of kakaho was placed close together
vertically to fill up the panel-space. Hori Pukehika, of Whanganui, states
that the flower-ends and the butts were placed alternately so that an even
width might be maintained, and great care was exercised that an even
number should fill the panel. In some of the Rotorua work this has not
been followed out, and the number of stakes is often odd. Where the
cross-rods were narrow each vertical reed formed an element for thread-
ing purposes; but where the former were wider than usual two reeds
were included as a single element in threading. In the sleeping-houses
(wharepuni) the vertical lining of kakaho was considered sufficient deco-
ration. In later years Maori have in several instances had specially-cut
fluted boards made at the sawmills for lining their more modern houses.
This represents the kakaho stakes in more durable material. Hence the
conservative Maori artistic sense of his old-time decoration is appeased,
and at the same time deference is paid to the European desire for
durability. Some say that it is a labour-saving device, due to laziness.

It is in connection with the parallel arrangement of the flower-stalks,
as the sole lining of the house-walls or under the roof, that the following
proverb is used: He ta kakaho e kitea, he ia ngakau e kore e kitea (A defect
in the arrangement of kakaho is seen; a defect of the heart is not seen).
This means that deceitfulness is not apparent on the surface.

454 Transactions.

(b.) Horizontal Rods.—The horizontal elements form the inner layer of
the panel. They were placed close together so as to cover completely the
outer layer of kakaho, but leaving enough space between the rods to pass
the flexible material through to form the patterns. In old houses the
long straight stalks (kakaka) of the common fern (Pteridium esculentum)
were used. In the better houses laths of totara (Podocarpus totara) or
rimu (Dacrydium cupressinum) were adzed out for this purpose. Wood
that had lain in water for some time was sought after, as it split much
more easily. The laths were shaped to an even thickness and width. The
Whanganui people say that rimu was preferable to totara, as it did not
fracture so easily. The laths were often painted red with haematite, or
blackened by exposing to fire or rubbing with parapara, a black mud
obtained from peaty swamps. These two colours were used alternately
on an even number of laths. This held good in the East Coast and
Whanganui districts. In the beautiful carved house in the Auckland
Museum, which is of Arawa design, the number of laths of one colour is
generally odd. Colenso,* in his description of the panels of a house that
was made for him by the Hawke’s Bay people, states that the coloured
rods of black and red were in threes. One cannot help thinking that the
Maori, no matter how skilled, were careless about some details in building
for Kuropeans, as they did not have to live in the houses themselves. In
many of the good houses in existence at the present time white paint has
been added to the red and black of old. . Paint has, of course, been used
for the red and black, as it is more durable than the original material.

The rods or laths are called kaho tara by the Arawa, and kaho tarai on the
Hast Coast. The Whanganui called them arapaki, and also used the same
word for the entire panel, including the panel-patterns to be described later.

In some of the very modern houses fluted boards have been placed
horizontally across the panel-space to represent the transverse arrange-
ment of rods. A variation in the arrangement of the rods is seen in some
of the meeting-houses near Te Puke, in the Bay of Plenty. Here the
rods, instead of being horizontal, run diagonally across the panel-space.
This method is modern, and is used with some of the panels to lend variety.

(c.) The flexible material for stitching the design consisted of (1) flax
(harakeke, Phormium tenax), (2) kiekie (Freycinetia Banksii), (8) pingao
(Scirpus frondosus).

Kiekie was preferred to flax, as it had a whiter colour after preparation.
Pingao was used for its orange colour, but was only procurable in certain
localities on the sandhills near the coast. The long leaves of these plants
were shredded with the thumb-nail into strips of from a tenth to an eighth
of an inch in width. ‘The strips were placed in hot water and then
scraped (kaku) with a shell, to remove part of the outer epidermis covering
the fibre. They were then doubled over, tied into hanks, and hung up
to dry. When dry the kiekie and flax became white, whilst the pingao
retained its rich orange colour. Some of the kiekie and flax strips were
dyed black to add further colour-variety to the decoration. The method
of dyeing was the same as in the preparation of flax-fibre (muka) for dress
cloaks. The scraped material was soaked in an infusion of the bark of
the hinau (Elaeocarpus dentatus), which acted as a mordant. It was then
rubbed with, or steeped in, the black peaty mud (parapara) above referred
to. On drying, the strips assumed a permanent black colour.

* W. Cotenso, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 14, p. 50, 1882.

Te Ranat Hrroa.—Maori Decorative Art. 455

Tumatakahuki—Archdeacon Williams points out that in all weil-made
panels a vertical stake, called a tumatakahuki, passed down the middle of
the panel and was fixed to the face of the rods by a special stitch. The
Whanganui people maintain that the purpose of the stake was to keep
the transverse rods in position, the ends of the stake being fixed behind
the upper and lower cross-pieces of the panel. The stake consisted of a
rounded piece of wood, which was sometimes replaced by lengths of aka
vine where the decorative effect of bulging out the stitching was all that
was desired.

MetTHOD OF STITCHING.

The process of threading the strips of flexible material between and
around the stakes and rods has been termed “ stitching”? by Archdeacon
Williams. The Maori use the word tui, or tuitui, for the process; and,
whilst this may mean either threading or stitching, it is now generally
applied to the latter. The Whanganui call the decorative pattern a twa,
as, He aha te tui o te whare 0 mea? (What is the stitching of the house of
So-and-so ?) The Arawa apply the term tuztuc not only to the pattern
but also to the entire panel.

The stakes and rods being in position, the tohwnga, or skilled craftsman,
took up his position inside the house, whilst an assistant stood outside
with strips of material. The tohunga was responsible for the patterns,
whilst the assistant might be entirely ignorant of them. A woman could
act as an assistant outside, but she could on no account enter the house
until after its completion, and after the ceremony for removing the tapu
had been performed. The tohunga used a wooden implement, rakaw hea tur
(stick for stitching). One end was sharpened, whilst the other was rounded
and had a loop of flax through it with which to hang it on the wrist. It was
called a huki. The tohunga, having decided on his pattern, thrust the huki
through one of the interspaces between the rods and stakes, and the assistant
followed the huki with a strip of material. The tohunga returned it through
the appropriate interspace, and so the process went on. In modern times
the panels have been completed separately and then fitted into the panel-
space.

STITCHES OR STROKES.

Tt will be evident from the arrangement of stakes and rods that the
rods fill up the interior surface of the panel ; enough of the stakes (kakako)
can, however, be seen in the slight intervals between the rods to indicate
the spaces between them. The whole panel-
surface is therefore divided up into a number z
of small regular squares—or, strictly speaking, sere er
rectangles, as the stakes and rods are rarely aa
exactly the same in width. The Maori crafts- MW
man had before him a series of squares upon Stakes
which to stitch the patterns that the limita- Tet lk
tions of scope and experience allowed. It is
interesting for the Maori to know that the pakeha, in the evolution
of the individual, commenced the art of stitching at exactly this stage.
Some few years ago the first lesson that pakeha girls received in sewing
was upon a piece of canvas or material woven in a coarse plain check—
that is, in small squares. Upon this material the white child sewed
her first sampler. In Barrie’s play “‘ Peter Pan” the drop-scene was
punted to represent the little heroine’s first sampler. The white child,

456 Transactions.

with steel needle, fine cotton thread, and a series of small squares composed
of the warp and weft of some soft material, was faced with the same
problems as the tattooed tohwnga, with wooden huki and ccarse strip of
flax, standing before a panel of squares composed of rigid stakes and rods.
In each case the needle could be passed only through the intervals between
the two elements at the corners of the squares, and in each case the stitch
had to pass diagonally across the square. Experience taught Maori and
pakeha alike that the working of the crossed stitch into patterns was the
simplest way of combining utility with decorative art. In the pursuance
of art the two diverged. The white child, with the larger scope of more
squares and the suggestions of teachers, went on to cross-stitching trees
and animals. The brown adult, restricted by space and knowing no outside
influence, never ventured beyond simple geometrical designs.

The actual stitches used in panel-work may be divided into three :
(1) cross-stitch, (2) single stitch, and (3) overlapping wrapped stitch.

(1.) Cross-stitch—This stitch is the one most commonly used. The
strip, after passing diagonally across the front of the rod corresponding
to a square space, was taken round the back of the stake horizontally and,
emerging to the front, crossed over the first stroke, forming a cross-stitch
as shown in the patterns. According to Williams, this stitch was called
pukanohi aua (herring’s eyes) on the East Coast. The Arawa called it
purapura whetu (star-seeds). Both names seem to be derived from the
fancied effect of the stitch and not from the technique. The Whanganui
call it kowhiti (to cross). They also apply the term to a special pattern.
The Whanganui say that the cross-stitches in a pattern should be of an
even number, except, of course, where an angular pattern demands a single
cross-stitch at the points of the angles. The East Coast people and the
Arawa do not seem to be so wedded to even numbers. In Williams’s
diagram of the poutama pattern from the East Coast the cross-stitches
form odd numbers. The same is true of some of the Arawa patterns in the
carved house in the Auckland Museum.

(2.) Single Stitch—tin this stitch the strip crossed the squares once.
With it, continuous rows of chevrons and lozenges were formed. Willams
records that on the Hast Coast the zigzag lines formed by continuous rows
of chevrons are termed tapuae kawtuku (bittern’s footprints) and waewae
pakura (swamp-hen’s feet) according as the lines were vertical or horizontal.
The lozenges were termed whakarua kopito. The Arawa call the lozenges
waharua. With this stitch the single lines are separate and distinct, no
other stitch crossing them. So far as I know, not more than three squares
were crossed by one stitch. This was probably the result of experience,
as too long a stitch would prove an insecure binding, and where unsupported
by other crossing stitches would be apt to loosen and be dragged or snapped
by catching in other objects.

(3.) Overlapping Wrapped Stitch—This stitch was primarily used to lash
the vertical stake, twmatakahuki, to the middle of the panel. The stitch
was made as follows, with the stake in position: Following the course of a
single strip as shown in fig. 2, it will be seen that the strip, emerging from
the interspace above rod 1, round which it has been wrapped, crosses the
stake downwards and to the right. It is pushed through the interspace
between rods 3 and 4, on the right of the stake, after having crossed three
rods. It is wrapped round rod 3, and emerges to the front through the
interspace between rods 2 and 3. It now passes obliquely down to the
left, crossing itself and three rods, and passes back in the interspace between

Te Ranoar Hiroa.—Maori Decorative Art. 457

rods 5 and 6. St is wrapped round rod 5, reappears in the interspace
between 4 and 5, and again, obliquely crossing three rods, disappears
between 7 and 8. It is wrapped round rod 7, and continues in like manner
to the bottom of the panel. If we term this stzip “ sinistral a,” reference
to the figure will show that it has secured, by wrapping,
one side of the rods 1 and 5 on the left, and 3 and 7 on L. iwi

the right. A second strip, “dextral a,” commencing at ( —
rod 1 on the right, will secure the opposite sides of the

IE
a

rod already wrapped—namely, | and 5 on the right, and
3 and 7 on the left. This will render rods 1, 3, 5,
and 7 fully secured. A third strip, “sinistral b,” com-
mencing at rod 2 on the left, will wrap rods 2 and 6
on the left, and 4 and 8 on the right. A fourth
strip, “ dextral 4,” will wrap the opposite sides—namely,
2 and 6 on the right, and 4 and 8 on the left. Thus
all eight will be fully secured. On completion, these
overlapping wrapped stitches produce the effect shown in
Plate LXIX. This detail would not have been entered (°_

tA

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—— ee

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——
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———

into except for the Whanganui contention that originally a |
the stitch was not decorative, but was a lashing of aka YO
vine from the aerial roots of the krekie—not to hold Fig. 2

an ornamental stake in position, but to secure the
horizontal rods in their place in the panel. Certainly the firm nature
of the lashing would seem to prove that the contention is founded on
fact.

PATTERNS AND DESIGNS.

Patterns of the various stitches, in white, black, and yellow, were formed
into pleasing designs, especially when the background of rods was spaced
in red and black. Where every square was stitched a close design was
formed. Variety was obtained by leaving some of the squares unstitched,
thus forming an open design. ‘There can be no doubt that the number of
original Maori designs was comparatively few. This can readily be under-
stood when to the limitation of scope is added the conservatism character-
istic of Maori art. Some of the old men of Whanganui go so far as to say
that in the days of their youth they saw only four designs in the old houses,
and the majority of designs with which we are acquainted at the present
day are due to European influence. The patterns and designs may there-
fore be divided into two classes—(1) Maori, and (2) post-Huropean. These,
again, may be described according to the stitches used.

Maori Designs.

(a.) Cross-stitch.

(1.) The simplest design, requirimg no calculation, would be to fill up
the entire panel-space with cross-stitches. This has been done, and the
Whanganui maintain that it is one of the few original designs ; but owing
to its monotony it was abandoned, and its name is lost, and I was unable to
procure it. The Arawa have a similar design, shown in Plate LXVI, fig. 1,
but white and red stitches alternate. The red is modern, but the design
and name are old. The name is Te Mangoroa (the Milky Way), from the
massing of star-seeds (purapura whetu).

(2.) The Arawa pattern of alternate colours in a close design is resembled,
in effect, by an open design where alternate stitches are left out. This is

e

458 Transactions.

an old design, named kowhiti by the Whanganui. This is their name for
the cross-stitch ; but as applied to the design it conveys the idea of having
crossed or leaped over spaces or squares. It is the commonest design in
the meeting-houses of the Whanganui River. The Arawa have a more
fanciful name—rowmata (tears). In the example fig. 2, Plate LXVI, it will
be seen that the general effect is a series of lozenges, but the lozenge name
was never applied to it.

(3.) Another simple effect is vertical lines of ones or twos separated by
blank spaces of a like number. The latter is seen in fig. 3, Plate LXVI.
A variation of this is shown in fig. 4, Plate LXVI, where the lines, after
crossing twelve rods, are continued down another twelve in the line of
the blanks and then back to the original lines. These are Arawa designs,
and are known by the poetic name rovmata toroa (albatross-tears). The
Whanganui have a similar design, which they call tuturu (leaking water).

(4.) The lowering or raising of the alternate vertical lines of “ albatross-
tears ’ and the introduction of short horizontal lines to connect the vertical
ones led to an alteration of the pattern and resulted in the step-like design
shown in fig. 1, Plate LXVII. This is a widely-distributed design, known
as poutama both in the east and west. Of the meaning of the word I can
get no satisfactory explanation. It is a very common pattern plaited
in baskets and floor-mats, and also figures in the decorative borders of
Rarotongan floor-mats (moenga). The motive was obtained from plaiting.
In the example figured the design is closed by coloured stitches between the
white, but in many cases the designs are left open. Pukehika, of Whanganui,
maintained that it was not old as applied to panels.

(5.) From vertical and horizontal lines we pass to diagonal lines pro-
ducing a continuous chevron or zigzag effect. The design might be closed
or open, and the line of chevrons might run horizontally or vertically. In
either case the design was called kaokao (side of the thorax) by the Arawa
and East Coast people. The idea is derived from the bend of the ribs at
the side. Fig. 2, Plate LX VII, shows a closed horizontal design, and fig. 3,
Plate LXVII, an open vertical one. With reference to fig. 3, Plate LX VII,
viewed from either side, it will be seen that it is a continuous line of
chevrons running vertically and enchanced on either side by repetition of its
generating-lines.

(6.) Reference to fig. 3, Plate LXVII, shows that the chevrons are
enchanced on either side. The elimination of the enchancement on one side
would result in the effect being a series of continuous triangles although the
motive is chevron. Fig. 4, Plate LX VII, shows a horizontal series of con-
tinuous chevrons, the generating-lines of which are composed of lines of two
white cross-stitches and enhanced on the lower side by lines of two coloured
stitches. The height of the chevron permits of only one white cross-stitch
to represent the second line of enhancement. The effect, as stated above, is
a continuous series of triangles, but the motive is chevron. This design is
named niho taniwha by the Arawa (niho, teeth; and taniwwha, a fabulous
reptile).

(7.) Further evolution of the chevron design is shown in fig. 4,
Plate LX VIII. On a wider panel, by producing the lines of the chevrons
or making the points of the second vertical row coincide with the points of
the first, the effect produced is a series of lozenges running down the middle
of the panel. Both the lozenges and the original chevron motive forming
the sides of the lozenges are enhanced internally by repetition of their
generating-lines. The example figured is a closed design except for the small

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Te Raner Hrroa.—Maori Decorative Art. 459

enhancing lozenges, which are open. The Arawa call this design patiki
(flounder). It is probably of more recent origin ; or, supposing it to be old,
I think that it was the last of the simple combinations that the ancient
Maori produced in geometrical designs. Other geometrical forms and com-
binations of greater complexity bear the impress of European influence—
unconscious it may be, but still present.

(b.) Single Stitch.

As already pointed out, single stitching results in lozenges or continuous
chevrons as shown in fig. 3, copied from Williams. Whilst the lozenge
pattern No. 2 is common, the continuous lines of chevrons Nos. 3 and 4
are now rare. The chevrons are, however, the more simple pattern, and
it is easy to see that by moving a square to the right or left horizontally
in each succeeding row the points of the chevrons would be brought together
and a series of lozenges would result. This no doubt is the origin of the
lozenge in the single-stitch patterns.

SA ZSAZSS S

— SS SS

U.N NEN Ne
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Fie. 3. (After Williams.)

(1.) Continuous rows of chevrons, horizontal or vertical, are named on
the Hast Coast tapuae kautuku (bittern’s footprints) or waewae pakura
(swamp-hen’s feet).

= (2.) The lozenge pattern formed by single stitches crossing one square
is named whakarua kopito on the East Coast and waharua by the Arawa
(see fig. 3, Plate LXVIII). If this simple waharua design is compared with
the roimata design in fig. 2, Plate LXVI, it will be seen that the effect is
the same—namely, rows of continuous lozenges. The motive is, however,
different. In the former it is rows of continuous chevrons produced by
single stitch with each succeeding row arranged to produce the lozenge
effect ; in the latter it is rows of alternate crosses produced by cross-
stitches, and the lozenge effect is incidental.

Whilst the simple lozenge, with the sides occupying one square, may have
been incidental in origin, it no doubt supplied the motive which led to lozenges
of larger size being attempted. Fig. 2, Plate LXVIII, shows a design of
larger lozenges which are enhanced internally by smaller ones. In the outer
lozenge the stitch crosses three squares, and the inner lozenge two. It will
be noticed that lozenges formed by the single stitch and the cross-stitch
have their distinct names. This design is called waharua by the Arawa,
there being no distinction between it and the previous design. There is
a possibility of the enhanced waharua being of recent origin.

(c.) Overlapping Wrapped Stitch.

(1.) The pattern produced by this stitch over the tamatakahuki was
named pihapiha mango (shark’s gills) on the Kast Coast In addition to this
name the Arawa called it whakaiwi tuna (to make like an eel’s bones or eel’s

460 Transactions.

backbone). The Whanganui named it tukutuku, which is the name applied
to the whole panel by the Hast Coast tribes. In well-panelled houses this
pattern passed down the middle of the panel; and, though subsequently
mainly decorative, the vertical stake was retained to throw the pattern
out in relief. In some panels of the older houses this pattern, with the
coloured rods, formed the only decoration. It was usual, however, for the
full design to be the middle vertical line of pihapiha mango, with one or other
of the patterns already described fillimg up the panel-space on either side.
The panelling of the house Tama-te-kapua at Ohinemutu, Rotorua, consists
of the poutama design with the pihapiha mango down the middle of each
panel. Te Paku-o-te-rangi, a house belonging to the Takarangi Mete Kingi
family at Putiki, Whanganui, has two lines of tukutuku or pihapiha mango,
dividing each panel into three parts, in which the tutwru and kowhiti designs
alternate. A further variation, shown in Plate LXIX, was the discarding
of the stake and the use of the stitch alone for purely decorative purposes.
The resulting pattern was exactly the same, except that it was flat. Such
a design of five lines is shown in fig. 5 from the carved house Rangitihi in
the Auckland Museum.

(2.) Fig. 1, Plate LXVIII, shows an Arawa design where the stitches
cross two rods and overlap over the whole surface of the panel. It is
called kanohi aua (herring’s eyes) and is probably recent.

Post-European Designs.

It is extremely difficult to draw the line ef demarcation between original
Maori patterns and those of post-Huropean date. The Maori patterns
already described are very simple, and the same motive is used in regular
sequence throughout the field of the panel. In the case of the house Te
Paku-o-te-rangi at Whanganui, already mentioned, though there are two
motives on the one panel, “they are separated into definite areas by vertical
stakes (tumatakahuki) and an arrangement of coloured rods. The post-
Kuropean panels are more complicated, have more than one motive, and
are combined less uniformly, though they may be symmetrical in one or
more directions. From these distinctions it will be seen that the two
classes conform to J. L. Myres’s* definition of patterns and designs: “ Ifa
motive, or any combination of motives, is used in regular sequence it forms a
pattern. Motives combined less uniformly compose a design, which may be
symmetrical in one or more directions, or otherwise adapted by the balance,
rhythm, or porportion of its parts to decorate a given field, more or less
spacious, but of definite shape.’’ Though the terms may have been used
somewhat loosely in this article, for practical purposes we may say that the
old Maori work consists of patterns, and the post-Huropean of designs.

The second distinguishing feature of post-European work, in many panels,
is the introduction of non-Maori motives. By the arrangement of lines and
spaces the Maori geometric combinations went as far as chevrons, triangles,
and lozenges. The conservatism of his art prevented him from going
farther, though other geometric figures could easily have been produced.
With the advent of the European other motives were introduced, such as
squares and octagons. Once the old patterns were departed from, lines
and spaces were combined in various ways and obeyed only one rule, that of
symmetrical balance in a horizontal direction. In some panels we can see
where the craftsman, through a miscalculation, did not get his design quite

* Notes and Queries on Anthropology, p. 203. Royal Anthropological Institute. 1912.

Tr Ranear Hrroa.—Maori Decorative Art. 461

symmetrical laterally. Many of the post-European designs are rendered
still harder to distinguish by the fact that in some of our best existing carved
houses the panels were stitched by skilled Maoris, who gave them old names
and maintained that they were original Maori designs. Some of them have
old Maori patterns included in part of the panel. The application, however,
of the above two points of distinction, and careful cross-examination, shows
that the Maori craftsmen were probably unconsciously influenced by modern
conditions. Their idea of good work was to make the designs as compli-
eated as possible. The retention of some original Maori motives as part of
the design, and the application of some old Maori name, made the new design
an original Maori one in their minds.

There are several of these designs amongst the Arawa and Hast Coast
people, but they are absent from the conservative Whanganui. A few
have been selected to illustrate this class, and the names given are trans-
lated from the original manuscript written by one of the old men who
assisted in making the designs. They may be roughly classified into—

(1.) Designs with an original Maori motive forming part :—

Fig. 4, kotoretore makamaka. This is an alternative Arawa name
for waharua, the single-stitch lozenge, which is shown in the
lower third of the panel and gives its name to the whole design.

Fig. 5, whakaiwituna (eel’s bones). This is seen in the upper third.
It is the overlapping wrapped stitch withont the vertical stake
and with the original middle motive repeated twice on either
side. The rest of the design is called mangate and mangata,
from a fancied resemblance to a figure in the game of cat’s
cradle (what).

(2.) Designs with non-Maori geometrical figures :—

Fig. 6, mumu. This takes its name from the squares or chequers
in the upper or lower thirds of the panel, and will be dealt with
later.

Fig. 7, pekapeka. Amongst its many meanings, pekapeka means a
flat plait of nine strands. As there are nine vertical lines in the
top row of the panel, the design probably takes its name from
that. In the middle third the octagon appears as a motive,
but, though the outstanding feature of the design, there is no
name for it.

Fig. 8. This design, for which I have not the name, shows the
double triangle, which, though of widespread distribution, was
unknown to the Maori.

(3.) Designs with Maori motives not hitherto used :—

Fig. 9, patungarongaro (fly-flap), from the large lozenge in the lower
third. Fly-flaps were made of flax plaited in the form of a
lozenge and fixed to a handle. They were used to keep the flies
away from a corpse when it was lying in state.

Fig. 10, hereweromanu (bird-spear). The bone point of bird-spears
were usually barbed on one side, at intervals, in threes. The
motive for the name is shown in the lower third, where the three
barbs appear on both sides for the sake of symmetry.

Fig. 11, Rangitihi, the name of the carved house in the Auckland
Museum. This is shown in the middle third of the design.
The lower third of the design is called rapakaheru, the blade of
the old Maori wooden spade, and is taken from a figure in cat’s
cradle that bears the same name.

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Rie. 4.
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KE EK HH PACH KEKE K HK IE HC

462

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Fic. 9.
Patungaronyaro.

Fia. 7.
Pekapeka

463

Tre Raner Hiroa.—Maort Decorative Art.

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Fia. 14.
Aka matua.

The coil of the string of

the kite of Whakatau.

464 Transactions.

Fig. 12, Mokoia, the island in Lake Rotorua. This is shown in the
lower third, standing in Lake Rotorua. A similar figure can be
produced in cat’s cradle. The rest of the design is supposed to
represent Matariki (the Pleiades).

(4.) Designs in which the names are purely fanciful.

Fig. 13, “ The coil cf the string of the kite of Whakatau, who flew
his kite from a small hill at the time that Hine-te-iwaiwa went
to search for Whakatau to avenge the death of Tuhuruhuru.
The death was avenged. The motive of the name is seen in
the middle third of the design.” Whakatau-potoki was one of
the great heroes of the race when they were in Polynesia. He
is famous in song, story, and incantation.

Fig. 14: “Aka matua (the firm root) is the name of this design.
It is the firm root by which Tawhaki climbed upwards to the
heavens to get his daughter Arahuta, who was born of his
heavenly wife.”

Another design, with very slight modification, is described as
follows: ‘‘ Aka taepa (the loose root), is the name of this design.
This is the way by which Karihi, younger brother of Tawhaki,
attempted to climb to the heavens and nearly lost his life.”
The story of the two brothers is told in detail in Grey’s Poly-
nesian Mythology.

An excellent picture of post-European designs, taken from Porourangi,
on the Kast Coast, is shown in Hamilton’s Maori Art, part 2, plate xiii,
fig. 2.

DECORATIVE TRANSFORMATION.

The decorative transformation of artificial and natural objects to wood,
stone, and other material has led to a complete classification of patterns
and designs according to what the craftsman tried to express. Although
I hold that in the original Maori designs the patterns came first and the
names after, it may be interesting to classify our panels according to the
accepted system.

(1.) Skewomorphs.

These have been defined as forms of ornament demonstrably due to
structure. The markings on the handles of Tongan clubs have been
shown to represent bindings of sinnet. Under this heading, the cross-
stitch, no matter what the subsequent pattern developed, and the over-
lapping wrapped stitch are undoubtedly skeuomorphs. They were bindings
originally to fasten the rods to the stakes and keep them in position.
Hven the single stitch in the simple chevron patterns comes under this
heading. As they were named after various things, however, they will be
classified accordingly.

(2). Physicomorphs.

Under this heading comes any representation of an object or operation
in the physical world. Here we get the first three patterns done with
the cross-stitch : Purapura whetu (star-seeds) ; Mangoroa (the Milky Way)
(fig. 1, Plate LXVI); tuturu (leaking water) (fig. 3, Plate LXVI).

(3.) Biomorphs.
Biomorphs are divided inte—

(a.) Zoomorphs—tepresentations from the animal kingdom. The only
example in this group that has the whole figure represented was the patiki

Tre Ranot Hrroa.—Aaorr Decorative Art. 465

(flounder) (fig. 4, Plate LXVIII). Some of the other designs represent
part of the animal, as waewae pakura (swamp-hen’s feet) (fig. 3 in text) ;
pthapiha mango (shark’s gills) (fig. 5 in text); whakaiwi tuna (eel’s bones)
(fig. 5 in text); nzho tanvwha (dragon’s teeth) (fig. 4, Plate LXV); kanohi
aua (herring’s eyes) (fig. 1, Plate LX VIII).

(b.) Phyllomorphs—trepresentations from plant-life. In this group there
are no examples. Doubtless owing to the impossibility of forming curves
in the limited number of squares contained in a panel, that great motive
in carving and rafter-painting, the curling shoot of the tree-fern, fails to
appear.

aes Anthropomorphs, representing the human figure, should come under

zoomorphs ; but man, with his usual egotism, has placed himself in a class
apart. In the old patterns the nbs are represented in the kaokao design
(figs. 2 and 3, Plate LXVII).

The post-European designs I have left out of this classification. There
are, however, most excellent examples of anthropomorphs in the great
East Coast meeting-house, Porourangi, at Wai-o-mata-tini. Full-length
portraits of ancestors are worked in the lattice-work of the panel, and duly
labelled with the name neatly worked in cross-stitches.

THE EVOLUTION OF THE PANEL.

The evolution of the decorative patterns is so bound up with the
construction of the panel that we must deal with all the elements that
compose it. There can be no doubt that the first attempt at decoration
was the vertical arrangement of the flower-stalks of the kakaho in the
panel-space. The vertical thatched bundles of rawpo (Typha anqustifolia)
as seen in the ordinary sleeping-houses (wharepuni) formed the basis of the
house-wall and was complete in itself. Im the Cook Islands, where the
Maori ancestors sojourned ere embarking on the voyage to New Zealand,
the house-walls are lined with thin vertical poles of the puraw tree.
These are peeled of their bark, and the thin white stakes lend a decorative
effect to the walls. They are called kaka’o by the Rarotongans, who do
not aspirate the h. The thin stakes of purauw not being available in New
Zealand, the Maor: builder soon seized upon the long, thin, white fiower-
stalks of the Arundo as a substitute. or even improvement. Using them
as a decorative lining, he applied to them the ancient name of kakaho.
This type of decoration was carried on up under the sloping roof. Owing
to the difficulty of working, it here remains stationary, whilst the easily
accessible panel went on increasing in complexity of decoration. A few
energetic spirits have, however, broken through the labour difficulty, for
Te Wai Herehere, at Koriniti, on the Wanganui River, has cross-stitch
decorations under the roof.

The next stage in evolution was the addition of horizontal rods. It
seems probable that fern-stalks (kakaka), being easily procurable and requir-
ing no special preparation, were the first material used. Variation of
design seems to have demanded variation of material; and, whilst infor-
mation can be obtained of house-panels decorated with kakaka rods with
hardly any decorative stitching, I can gather no acccount of kakaho rods
being used even as a foundation for elaborate stitching. To fix the rods
to the stakes, ties or lashings were used. The lashings would natural y
be of the same material as that used in the ordinary construction—namely,
strips of flax. The simplest method would be to tie the ends of each rod

466 Transactions.

to the stake behind. The simplest secure lashing would be a figure-of-
eight turn round the rod and stake, and then tied. As the usual thing is
to conceal knots, both from an artistic sense and to prevent their being
rubbed loose, the knot in this case would be tied behind the stake and
would result in the crossing of the figure-of-eight being in front of the rod.
This is the origin of the cross-stitch in Maori panel-decoration. The cross-
stitch—or, rather, the figure-of-eight lashmg—is used by many people.
The fishermen of the Murray islands, in the Torres Straits, use it to lash
the horizontal strips of cane and palm-leaf midribs to the cane rings in
their were, or scoops used in tup fishing. A good illustration of this is seen
in the Report of the Cambridge Expedition to the Torres Straits, vol. iv,
fig. 170. The modern medical man uses a continuous overlapping form of
this lashing to bandage a dressing to an arm or Jeg. The single stitch was
also used as a lashing, and, whilst not so secure as the cross-lashing, when
restricted to crossing one rod it served its purpose. A better class of rod
was desired for the more elaborate houses, and the wood of the rumw and
totara were split into laths, delicately adzed to even shape, these sup-
planting the more humble fern-stalk. The painting of these rods with
the favourite red haematite of the Maori followed as a matter of course,
and the artistic desire for contrast and variety demanded that others
should be blackened. The Jaw of even numbers that applies to rods and
stitches in some districts may have followed from one of their systems of
counting—the counting by twos. The value of the single and cross lashings
of flax as a decoration did not long elude the keen eye of the old-time
builder. In the many hours spent in the meeting-houses, with no books
or other civilized methods of filling up the leisure hours, he had ample
opportunity for studying the house-panels. Even whilst listening to
speech, gossip, song, or story, his eyes could dwell on the stitches lashing
the rods to the stakes. lrregular or sparsely scattered stitches offended
his sense of symmetry and awoke the idea of more orderly arrangement.
The surface of the rods became covered with ornamental stitches in
addition to those necessary for binding. Lines, chevrons, and lozenges,
that developed incidentally, were seized upon as motives and developed
into definite patterns. These were named and handed on by the crafts-
man to his pupils.

The strip of flax, which at first was an ordinary binding, for decorative
purposes was specially prepared to give it a whiter appearance. The
kiekie, which is whiter than flax, was introduced. The contrast between
the white stitched portions of the field and the darker unstitched portions
in the open patterns suggested the possibilities of colour arrangement.
Strips were dyed black, and the yellow of the pingao added to the
scheme.

There must always have been some slight difficulty in keeping the cross-
rods in position. The stakes at the back, in the course of time, are liable
to slip down, perhaps at one side, and the rods become tilted. This is
frequently seen in old houses. This led to the introduction of the vertical
stake down the middle of the panel, and the overlapping wrapped stitch.
Tn its useful stage the stake was braced against the upper and lower cross-
boards, and, according to the Whanganui, entirely supported the rods.
The stakes (kakaho), they held, were then of no functional use in supporting
the rods, but were included in the decorative stitches to keep the lines of
the patterns straight. This was followed by a stage where other arrange-
ments, such as nailing, were made for fixing the panel; and the stake

Te Ranear Hrroa.—Maort Decorative Art. 467

(tumatakahuki), now no longer braced above and below, became, with its
lashing, purely decorative. A further recent development was the dis-
carding of the stake and the retention of the lashing, either down the
middle of another pattern or having the panel to itself with two or four
repetitions. A very modern variation in the other direction is seen in the
meeting-house Te Puru o Tuhua, at Taumarunui, on the upper Wanganui.
There the stake is retained and the lashing represented by oblique bands
of red, white, and black paint.

The further influence of Kuropean ideas and materials we have seen
in the development of the post-EKuropean designs and the introduction of
fluted boards to represent the kakaho. The limit is reached in the house
at Taumarunui mentioned above. Fluted boards are run horizontally
across the panel-spaces to represent the rods. They are painted red,
whilst black and white cross-stitches are painted upon them in the form
of designs.

A few years ago old houses in various parts of the country could be
seen with panels completed in the various ways described. They served
as links with the past, and marked the stages through which the house-
panel had passed in the evolution of decorative art.

NAMES AND MoTIVEs.

Professor Haddon* has pointed out that the investigations of Professors
-Ehrenreich and Karl von den Steinen in Brazil, and Mr. H. Vaughan
Stevens in the Malay Peninsula, have, through oral information gathered
from the natives, led to startling results as to the origin of simple geo-
metrical figures in the decorative art of those regions. Links have been
found establishing a connection between a recognizable though conventional
representation of a motive and a geometrical figure that is unrecognizable.
In these cases the geometrical figures were carved or painted. By these
methods the craftsman had a wider scope for displaying his skill, and
could produce a recognizable representation of his motive before the evolu-
tion into geometrical figures occurred. In Maori panel-decoration the
craftsman was from the beginning confined by his field of small squares
to geometrical figures. These, with the exception of the step and the large
chevron, we have tried to argue were produced incidentally in the old
patterns. The most important clue to the origin of the motives to be
obtained by oral information is the name, with its meaning. Even with a
good working knowledge of a language it is sometimes extremely difficult
to say whether a geometrical figure developed incidentally and had a name
applied to it subsequently, or whether the motive named really gave rise
to the geometrical figure. In the old panel patterns, with the two exceptions
named, the pattern came first and the name after.

The Maori has always been apt at naming places or objects from
incidents that actually happened in his new home or were told of the old
home in Polynesia, or from resemblances actually seen or attributed by his
mythopoetic imagination. He could always find a name. According as
the thought struck the tribal craftsman on the completion of his work, so
he named his handiwork. The name was adopted by his assistants and
became the tribal name. Thus we have a variety of names for the same
motives amongst different tribes.

* A.C. Happon, The Evolution of Art, 1905.

468 Transactions.

The cross-stitch, used decoratively, remained simply kowhiti (crossed)
with the Whanganui. Other tribes, if they had lashing names, abandoned
them. The Hast Coast artist likened it to the eyes of a herring (pukanohi
aua), whilst the Arawa, combining visional effect with imaginative speech,
called it “the seed of a star” (purapura whetu). When the panel was
completely covered without colour-patterns the Arawa saw a massing of
star-seeds, and the pattern became the Milky Way (Mangoroa). With
simple vertical lines, the Whanganui craftsman saw in each separate stitch
a resemblance to the distinct drops of water falling from a leak in the
roof, and the name tutwru (leaking water) was applied. A similar idea
occurred to the Arawa, in that the leaking or dripping water of the
Whanganui became, with them, falling tears, and, as metaphor and poetic
simile were in everyday use, the pattern was named rovmata toroa (the
tears of the albatross).

With the two diagonal lines forming a chevron, the Maori had to seek
for a name amongst the natural objects of his environment. For the
smaller chevrons, formed by the single stitch, it was hard to find. However,
the East Coast people found it in the feet or footprints of a bird. Any
of the larger birds would have done, but the early artists settled on the
bittern (kautukw) and the swamp-hen (pakura). The small-chevron effect
became “‘ bittern’s footprints ” (tapuae kautuku) and “swamp-hen’s feet ”
(waewae pakura). With the larger-chevron pattern, made with the cross-
stitch, the naming was much easier. The commonest name for this pattern
is kaokao (side or bend of the ribs). Another common name is maihi (the
facing-boards of the gable of a house). Both names convey the idea of an
angle or chevron on a larger scale than the small single-stitch pattern
mentioned above. Though attention has been drawn to the fact that
this pattern could easily be evolved on the panel, many Maori say that
the motive was derived from the similar pattern on floor-mats, belts, and
baskets. The floor-mat must be given priority, for plaiting was brought
from Polynesia, whereas the panel patterns developed in New Zealand.
Koki means “‘an angle,” and whakakokikoki, ‘to bend into angles,”’ was the
name applied to the large chevron pattern plaited in floor-mats and baskets.
Whakakaokao is also applied to it. Both these names are used for the
panel pattern. It seems probable, therefore, that this pattern was derived
from an existing motive furnished by the sister art of plaiting. The other
motive and name derived from a similar source, the poutama, or step pattern,
has already been mentioned. Of the exact meaning of poutama and its
bearing to this figure I can offer no suggestion.

The triangle required some triangular object to supply a name. This
was found in the triangular tooth of the shark. Triangles in the carving
of some of the New Guinea people are named after it. The ceremonial
peace-axes of Mangaia, besides the K pattern, or tikitiki tangata, have small
triangles carved on the handle. They are named ni’o mango (shark’s teeth).
The shark was a favourite food with the Maori, and the triangular teeth
were set in wooden handles as a knife, the mira tuatini. No doubt sharks’
teeth gave the name to the triangle amongst the Maoris, but his more
figurative language expressed it in larger terms. Hence the Arawa name
of niho taniwha (dragon’s teeth). The Urewera call the triangle on the
decorative borders of cloaks niho pakake (whale’s teeth).

The lozenge motive leads to further complications in naming. The
Arawa and Urewera call the lozenge waharua, whether in weaving or in
lattice-work. An Urewera woman tried to explain that, in weaving, the

Te Raneart Hrroa.—Maori Decorative Art. 469

base of a triangle was the waha (mouth), and the lozenge, consisting as it
did of two triangles, had two mouths (waharua). The East Coast and the
Whanganni call it whakaruakopito. When I tried to get further particulars
of the meaning of the word from an old man of Whanganui he smiled
compassionately at my ignorance and placed his thumb upon his navel.
Williams’s Dictionary gives pito as “ navel,” and kopito as “a pain in the
abdomen.” In the large lozenge, formed of cross-stitches, called patiki
(flounder) by the Arawa, we can follow the connection.

Passing on to post-Huropean work we stand on different ground.
A roultitude of motives were introduced into the country through the
Kuropean invasion. Many of them were decorative, and the Maori began
to introduce them into his work. In doing so he opened up new ground,
and began also to introduce motives from his own environment that had
hitherto not been attempted. The old simple patterns were now much
too simple, and in many cases were only retained as part of a compli-
cated design. With complicated designs the difficulty of naming becomes
apparent. Where part of the design consisted of a known motive its
name was usually applied to the whole panel. This is seen in the first
three groupings of the designs illustrating this period.

In the second group pure European motives are introduced. Fig. 6
shows a design of small squares or chequers. Such a motive is very easy
to produce, and might easily be Maori. The design is named mumu.
Williams’s Dictionary gives mumu as “a pattern in decorative lattice-work.”’
In spite of mumu being an old Maori werd, had any other name been applied
to the design we might have been led into believing that a series of small
squares was an original pattern. The name, however, reveals its origin. The
Maori are very fond of the game of draughts, which, having been introduced
by Europeans, had to have a Maori name coined for it. The Maori named
it from a word that is constantly used in the game. When a player said
‘““ Nawai te mu?” or “Nau te mu” he meant “ Whose move is it?” or
“Tt is your move.” Thus the word mu, which was as near as he could
get to the English word “ move,” was, according to Williams, adopted into
the language, for draughts. Hence we get the name mumw applied to
a chequer pattern, the motive of which is derived from the European
draught-board. Fig. 7 shows a motive of octagonal figures. This is derived
from linoleum. Many modern houses were decorated by a dado of linoleum
nailed round the wall, so that it was an easv transition to reproduce it
in modern lattice-work. Even the Maori, with all his stoutness of heart,
hesitated at translating linoleum into Maori and applying it to a design.
He fell back on pekapeka, the flat nine-strand plait at the top of the design,
as a name.

The third group, with the Maori motives of a fly-flap, bird-spear, front
of a house, and Mokoia Island, are sufficiently obvious to present no
difficulty in naming. In the same group we come across a new source
for decorative motives—namely, the game of cat’s cradle (what). Mokoia
(fig. 12) and mangati and mangata (lower parts of fig. 5) are not very clear,
but rapakaheru (lower third of fig. 11) bears a distinct resemblance to the
blade of the old wooden spades (kaheru) that have been found in swamps.
In each case the name of the cat’s-cradle figure has been applied to the
panel design. Another source of motives has been the decorative borders
of dress cloaks. In these cases the name of the garment has been applied
to the design.

In the fourth group, fig. 13 shows a combination of lines and angles
that bear no resemblance to any motive. In the middle third of the

470 Transactions.

design, however, it will be seen that the cross-stitches are closer together.
This is due to the fact that they are stitched round one kakaho stake at
the back of the rods, whereas in the other parts, two kakaho are treated
as a single element in stitching. The cross-stitches, therefore, in the
middle third, whilst just as long as the others, are only half as wide.
With this fanciful data the naming craftsman named the groupings of
narrow stitches “the coil of string of the kite of Whakatau.” It is left
to the imagination to see a kite in the upper third of the panel, and the
hillock (tawmata), from which Whakatau flew the kite, in the triangles in
the lower third. In fig. 14 there are very obvious crosses in the upper
and middle thirds, the lower one being mounted on a stepped base, as in
a cemetery. This motive was obviously EKuropean ; but the name applied
was the aka matua—the firm root by which Tawhaki climbed to the
heavens in search of his daughter. Since the advent of Christianity the
cross is regarded as the way to heaven. ‘Thus we see a modern motive,
as far as the Maoris are concerned, with the ideas it suggests, being
referred back to a similar idea in Maori mythology, and the Maori name
being adopted for the panel design. A lesser imaginative artist might
have chosen a ordinary name, but not so the Maori; and the Maori is not
the only artist who has named a picture where the application of the title
is hard to follow.

CONCLUSION.

I have to thank the Rev. F. A. Bennet and Mr. J. McDonald for the
photographs and Mr. Elsdon Best for the drawings used in this article. If
there is too much of theory it is due to the material carefully weighed and
thought over, and not to any preconceived ideas. After all, theories,
having been given, are meant to be criticized, that more information may
be gathered.

AFTERWORD.

Since the above was written I find that the waharua pattern
(Plate LXVII, fig. 3) is called papaka (crab) by the Whanganui.

With regard to the present-day existence of the art, it has disappeared
amongst the tribes of Waikato, Maniapoto, and Taranaki. There is a
modified survival in the carved house at Te Kuiti, where the designs are
painted on the woodwork in the same manner as those at Taumarunul.

ne or Seven ieee
Lop wll. a eee NI, Cs
‘lay Pep ad > i ste
: - q : iis
cae

7 Sin ~ |
ee, ten
7 ba x de
:

>

%
4
aes

Trans, N.Z. Inst., Vou. LIIT. Pratt LXX.

Three views of supposed sharpening-stone, showing grooves.

[Face p. 471.

Futton.—An Account of a (supposed Maori) Sharpening-stone. 471

Art. L—An Account of a (supposed Maori) Sharpening-stone.

By Rosert Futron, M.D.

[Read before the Otago Institute, 9th November, 1920 ; received by Editor, 31st December,
1920 ; issued separately, 12th August, 1921.]

Plate LXX.

In 1917, when travelling from Tauranga to Whakatane, I was informed of
a Maori sharpening-stone near the Mimiha crossing, near Matata, and I
seized the opportunity of examining an object of such great interest. At
that time the railway was not constructed, and the stone was near the
coach-road, half under a wire fence bordering a piece of swampy land. It
was almost embedded in very damp ground, and was partly covered with
rank vegetation. From memory I should say it was about 4 ft. or 5 ft.
long, and 2 ft. wide—a hard, volcanic-looking rock, possibly a meteorite,
and so far as I could judge there was no sign of any stone in the neighbour-
hood the least approaching to it in character. The roads were not metalled,
and there did not seem to be any of the usual andesite blue road-metal
one sees in so many places in the South. Rarely did one see a pebble or
a pebbly stream, but all along the coast there was an abundance of soft
sandstone, and cliffs of sandstone and clay, so soft as to be curiously cut
and channelled by the sand-laden wind, and also by the extraordinarily
heavy downpours of rain occasional in that locality. The only hard rock
{I saw for many miles was Pohaturoa, the famous sacred rock at Whaka-
tane; but even that appeared to me to be quite different in character.
I had no chance of taking photos or even of making a careful description,
with measurements, &c., being on the spot for only # few minutes; but what
I saw of the stone was sufficient to make me anxious to learn something of
its history, and, if possible, to secure photos. No one in Tauranga, where
I made many inquiries on the three occasions of my visiting that town,
could tell me much about it. People had vaguely heard of it; I could find
no one who had actually seen it. The motor-driver, who often passed near
it, had been told where it was, and said he thought he could find it for me.
He had heard it said that the Maori of old came from far and near to
sharpen their stones upon it; but he seemed to have remembered the mere
facts, without the name of a single informant. No one in Whakatane
seemed even to have heard about it, and I could find no reference to it
in any book, nor could I learn anything from the leading authorities on
Maori matters in New Zealand. After three years’ endeavour I have,
through the good offices of Mr. Arnold Woodward, surveyor, of Whakatane,
secured some photographs, and he has also been kind enough to unearth
what he could about its local history. The stone is in a spot about three miles
north of Matata, and Mr. Fred Burt, who has lived there for thirty-five
years, states that on his coming there the stone was covered with high
manuka, and had not been used for many years. It was uncovered by
Mr. Burt’s father, but until the railway was built it was periodically
covered with water dammed up by sandbanks after storms, and again left
dry on the water breaking through the sandbanks.

472 Transactions.

Mr. Elsdon Best has referred me to a description, made by W. Best,
of Otaki, about thirty-four years ago, of a hoanga, or Maori sharpening-
stone, in the Mimiha Creek at practically the same spot. The description
appears in the Dominion Museum Bulletin No. 4, p. 90, and in the Monthly
Review, 1890, p. 481; but, whilst the locality is the same, there are several
differences that make it fairly evident that two different stones are in
question. Best’s is described as an enormous rock which had fallen from
the cliff above, and was of sandstone, 20 ft. by 10 ft., and projecting 7 ft.
or 8 ft. out of the water. Burt’s stone is not half that size, is flush with
the ground, and not near the stream, which, however, may have changed
its course in thirty years. Best’s rock was later on entirely covered up
and disappeared, while Burt’s has been uncovered and known for many
years. It must be noted, however, that Best’s stone was sometimes
uncovered, sometimes covered with silt. In Best’s the grooves were 3 ft.
long, and 10 in. to 12 in. in depth; while in Burt’s I should say from
memory they were no more than 3 in. to 6in. long, and 1 in. to 2 in. deep.
Best’s stone was sandstone; Burt’s seemed to me to be hard like andeaite,
or ike a meteorite. The sandstone cliffs appeared to me to be very soft
and not at all suitable for grinding. Captain Mair, in referring to this
hoanga, said that the Maori asserted that they knew nothing about it,
and that the grooves were the work of pre-Maori days.

The stone now les almost on the road-line, and it is desirable that it
should be carefully fenced in and made into a little reserve; or, better
still, the whoie stone should be lifted bodily, if possible, and removed to the
Dominion Museum, Wellington, for it is certain that when the railway is
opened and the stone cleared from surrounding vegetation it will very soon
be chipped and broken by tourists and others endeavouring to remove
portions as curios, and eventually destroyed.

As this stone has not heretofore been described, I felt the matter was of
sufficient importunce to bring forward, so that steps might be taken to
have the stone carefully examined by geologists and ethnologists after it
has been placed in a position of security.

Art. LI.—The Food Values of New Zealand Fish: Part II.

By (Mrs.) Dorotuy E. JouHnson, B.Sc. in Home Science.
Communicated by Professor J. Malcolm.

[Read before the Otago Institute, 7th December, 1920 ; received by Editor, 31st December,
1920 ; issued separately, 12th August, 1921.]

THE investigations described in Part I (Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 52, p. 20,
1920) have been continued along similar lines and by use of the same
methods of analysis. An attempt was made to follow the seasonal varia-
tion of composition in groper and kinefish; some new varicties were
examined (whitebait, red cod, &c.); and some further analyses were made
of fish already reported cn in Part I. The results are shown in the
following tables.

473

Jounson.—lood Values of New Zealand Fish.

SP:66
LT-66
L686
£966
86-96
66°L6
FP-001
91°66
10°66
gS:-66
00-001
10-66
9F-66

“TeIO.L

“USV

|

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“GHSATIVNV HSIY FO NOILISOdWO(T) AOVINAOUAG ONIMOHS WIV], TVAANAY)—'] AIaAV YT,

474

Transactions.

TABLE II.
ice. Veight. : ste.
Name of Fish, &c. | Sane: | (ene | (Geta | (Percentage. (Dean
| {
Silver-fish i ts | Slice 9 | 540 86°30 13°70
Ling 1 ans 3 6 680 70°58 | 29°42
ra 2 Ay eee 9 750 76°51 | 23°49
Red cod 1 ; 4 595 69°42 | 30°58
sn 2 * 10 654 80°58 19°42
Blue cod 1 < 21 744 47°44. 52°56
a 2 | Whole 36 15368) |) = 50:00 50:00
Roe of groper 1 Wee ce Es oe 808 | 94:19 581
ee 2 A 12 822 | 93:31 | 6°69
Flounder 1 te 24 509 | 54°81 | 45:19
Roe of flounder 1 a ats 24. 47 100-00
Whitebait 1 Large num- 24 160 100-00
ber
as 2 Ditto | 54 | 423 100-00
TABLE III.
Calories per Cost of 100 t
Name of Fish, &c. Tor arantmeeiet Grammes Protein. LN Re
Material (Pence.) (Pence.)
Silver-fish 1 103°18 8:12 18°72
Ling 1 73°69 7°10 16°96
4 2 73:10 8-92 21-45
Red cod 1 69°81 6:06 13°91
A 2 76°16 10°85 24°92
Blue cod 1 85°40 31:70 69°70
4 2 eyez 28°51 39°66
Roe of groper 1 199-99 8:23 9°86
a 2 188-02 6:35 8-32
Flounder 1 91-22
Roe of flounder 1 142-86 i eels Des
Whitebait 1 83°31 92-19 | 180-06
» 2 83-85 78-24 152-23

JoHNnson.—Fo00d Values of New Zealand Fish. 475

In compiling Tables IV, V, and VI the results of analyses given in

Part I have been included.

Roe of groper

Tarakihi
Mullet

Roe of groper

Blue cod

Roe of flounder

Kingfish
Sea-bream
Kingfish
Groper
Trumpeter
Moki
Tarakihi
Groper

Baby groper

Flounder
Groper
Whitebait

Roe of groper

Mullet
Tarakihi

Roe of flounder

Blue cod
Sea-bream
Kingfish

Tarakihi
Groper
Trumpeter
Moki
Crayfish
Silver-fish
Groper

Baby groper

Crayfish

Taste [V.—SHowinG FisH IN ORDER OF Fat ConTENT.

moe RF WN RR RENN eee

2
2

Bee WON RF WN RNR NR ee be

TaBLE VI.—SHowinG FisH In ORDER

Red cod

Roe of groper

Ling
Groper
Silver-fish

Roe of groper

Ling
Mullet
Groper
Red cod
Groper
Crayfish
Snapper
Crayfish
Snapper
Tarakihi

3°
Sea-bream

Per Per
Cent. Cent.
10-94 Whitebait 1 1:79
10-30 Crayfish 3 1-30
10-09 Moki 1 1:63
9-35 Blue cod 1 0-90
6-13 Crayfish 1 0-72
4-39 Silver-fish 1 0-61
4-32 Snapper 1 0-60
4-25 Crayfish 2 0-52
4-10 Red cod 2 0-48
3-40 = 1 0:46
3:31 Snapper We 0-42
3-21 Ling 1 0-16
3-05 - 2 0-11
2-93
Dae,
1-97 Eggs : 10-50
1:90 Meat (beef) . 5:50
1-82 | Milk 4-00
TaBLeE V.—SHOWING FISH IN ORDER OF CALORIC VALUES.
Calories. Calories.
200-00 Groper 3 96-39
188-02 Moki il 93-56
172-89 Flounder 1 91-22
167-45 Snapper 1 90-38
142-86 Crayfish 2 85-96
132-71 Blue cod ] 85:40
119-51 Whitebait 2 83:85
119-47 Bs 1 83:31
116-93 Snapper 2 81-51
111-64 Red cod 2 76-16
110-92 Ling 1 73:69
110-20 - 2 73-10
104°96 | Red cod 1 69-81
103-73 |
103-18
102:78 | Eggs 158-33
102-56 | Beef 137-25
100-59 | Milk 70-00
oF Cost oF 100 GramMES PROTEIN.
Pence. Pence.
6:06 Moki 1 16-21
6:35 Kingfish 1 17-22
7-10 a 2 17-56
7-31 Moki 2 18-27
8-12 Groper 4 19-78
8-23 Trumpeter 1 20-11
8-92 Crayfish 2 22-98
8:96 Blue cod 2 28-51
10-45 ie 1 31-70
10-85 Flounder 1] 39-16
11-80 Whitebait 2 78-24
11-49 a 1 92:19
12-35
12-66
14-64 Beef 12-60
15-61 Milk 14-62
15-95 Eggs 32.94

el Sl oO OO ed Oo ol ot)

15-99

476 Transactions.

Discussion.

The deductions of Part I are true for the further twelve samples
analysed this year, though it may be noted that in the two samples of
red cod the fat-percentage is practically the same (0-47), and the sample
with 82 per cent. water has 16 per cent. protein, while the other with
80 per cent. water has 18 per cent. protein.

The following points are worthy of notice :—

1. The analyses of two samples of whitebait are almost identical.

Sample. | Water. | Solids. Fat. | Protein. Ash.
| | | | |
| |
1 Sea 20-3 1-8 16:3 1-4
2 TERT 20:3 1-8 16-3 1-6

In these analyses a large number of the fish was used, giving as a result
the average composition of that particular species. This eliminates to a
large extent the variations noticeable in different samples of the same
species of fish even when bought at short intervals. It indicates that in
order to obtain the average analysis of any species a sample should be
taken from the well-mixed muscle of as many fish as possible. That
method would eliminate (1) the difference due to the different metabolism
of the specimens taken, and (2), to some extent, the difference due to
varying richness of feeding-grounds.

2. The analyses of the roes of groper and flounder show differences from
the general analyses of fish-roe given in various books: e.g.—

— Water. Protein, | Fat. Ash.
| |

Other
Nitrogenous
Matter.

4-60

=
oy
S

({1.) Caviare and approximately | 38:10 | 30-00 19-70
all fish-roe (Hutchison) | |
(2.) Garfish-roe(Germanautho- | 55:00 | 15 to 28 16 to 28 | 1-50 0-36

rity) |
(3.) Groper-roe ei -. | 59°80 | 23-95 1.04) ee 3°26
(4.) Flounder-roe.. ee 67-24 | 24-88 ARS Op oS Wee 1-76

J

The figures 23-95 and 24-88 in (3) and (4) include all nitrogenous
matter. In the case of the roe, the method of extracting the fat with
ether alone is not entirely satisfactory, and in future analysis of this class
of material it is intended to use Rosenfeldt’s method (alternate extraction
with boiling absolute alcohol and chloroform).

SomE EXPERIMENTS ON THE SEASONAL VARIATION OF COMPOSITION OF
GROPER AND KINGFISH.

In Part I of this paper reference was made to the variation in fat
content in different samples of the same variety of fish. It was suggested
that it was a matter, say, of metabolism or of seasonal variation. Further
work was done in this connection with the object of ascertaining what

Jounson.—Food Values of New Zealand Fish. 477

variation there was to the consumer in the food value of groper and king-
fish at different times of the year. Eleven samples of groper and seven of
kingfish were analysed. Tabie VII gives the results both of the variation
in the composition and also in the price.

The graph shows the seasonal variation of the fat content of the
two varieties of fish.

Bi.

6%

x4 5

oh

Ww

sa)

e

a 0%

2

2

~ 8%,
6h Ven = Se
4%, | V i ngs
o%, _W a ee

Feb. Mar . May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov.

TaBLE VII.—GENERAL ANALYSES SHOWING SEASONAL VARIATION OF GROPER AND

KINGFISH.
eh a | =) = >

: © ON ae Seat Wi ato. o | 2 | Calories per | Market

Z Date g eS ee Se se as eS 100 Grammes Price ee
S| received. | 8 | FS | SE [#2 ) S38 | 238 | Material |Pouna.| Calories.
& a s | aS 9 | AS s | (calculated). |(Pence.)| ‘Pence-)

Groper

1 23/2/20 | 15-91! 76-86) 23-14 | 3-17{ 18-37) 1-08 95-08 8 22-14
2 24/2/20 | 24-52| 76-38) 23-62 | 3-58} 18-70] 1:09) 109-95 8 16-43
3 17/3/20 | 16-48} 73-89] 26-11 | 6-16] 18-91] 1-10) 134-87 8 13-16
4. 17/6/20 | 14-84, 74:36} 25-64 | 5-07] 19-10} 1-20} 125-45 15 23°35
5 6/7/20 | 23-88 74:99; 25-01 | 4-88] 18-94] 0-98] 123-06 | 12 19-86
6 10/7/20 | 4-16) 75-57] 24:13 | 5-26} 17-98] 1:03) 122-66 15 23-12
7 30/7/19 | 5:38; 76:00! 24-00 | 1:90) 19-20] 1-27 96-39 6 20-80
8 11/8/19 | 2-95| 76-10} 23-90 | 3-40} 19-34] 1-08] 110-92 6 20-60
9 28/8/19 | 12-68); 77-03| 22-97 | 2-93) 18-42] 1-08} 102-78 9 34-40
10 11/9/19 | 60-69) 76-41| 23-59 | 2-32] 19-75] 1-10} 102-56 ae fe

11 1/11/20 ! 13-08' 72-14! 27-86 | 7-63) 19-84} 1-09} 152-30 15 23-03

478 Transactions.

TaBLE VII.—GENERAL ANALYSES SHOWING SEASONAL VARIATION OF GROPER AND
KINGFISH—continued.

Calories per | Market

|
|

| — — — — —
: | o o | aS © 2 o
2 Date g é | s 2 © sl ee a a 2 eo s 100 Grammes| Price Gostior
‘6 | received. | So | 89 oH es | 88 | 48 ee Des Calories
Ey | 28 Se =e SS dete S | Material | Pound. | (Penk)
& | 2 g as a 2 & | (calculated). |(Penee:)) .)|
Kingfish.
1 3/3/20 | 27-84| 78-25| 21-75 1-31 | 18-52| 1-19 SS ie 37-05
2 8/3/20 | 20-23 80-04 19-96 | 0:54 17: 49, 1-22 76:75 LO oiel2
3 12/5/20 | 21-57] 73-20; 26-80 | 6- 79 | 19-49 | 1:19} 159-44 12 14-99
4) 17/6/20 | 24:07) 72-63 | 27°37 || 5°57 | 19-54) 1:26) 131-92 15 24-34
5 1/11/20 | 22-20) 74:99) 25-01 18-46} 1-02 3 1S Nee Sa
6 | 3/11/19 | 26-70] 75-65) 24-35 | 4- 32, 18:72] 0-93} 116-93 12 28-10
TE | AEM ALIAS) | aikeicss || 7c be B37/ | 25-63 | 4-10| 19-84 | 1-14} 119-47 15 28-60
| | |

Discussion.

It will be seen that the fat content of groper varies during the year
from 1-90 to 7-63 per cent., while that of kingfish varies from 0-54 to 6-79,
so there is considerable variation in the nutritive value. This is well
shown by comparing the total calories per 100 grammes of fresh material :—

Fish. Fat. Calories.
(Percentage.)| (Percentage.)
|
Groper 1-90 96°39
. a a repel 7:63 152-30
Kingfish .. is of 0-54 | 76-75
af Goes a 159-44

The nutritive value of a fish at its best is double that of-the fish in poor
condition. When the high nutritive value of the roe is considered (calories
per cent. of roe = 200), the low food value of fish after spawning is not
remarkable.

Groper came into the market heavy with roe in July and August, but
kingfish was hardly procurable in those months. The analyses give point
to the probability of the spawning season for kingfish being in February
or March.

The variations noted may be due to differences in age, sex, metabolism,
richness of feeding-ground, or other causes, so that more must be known
before the differences can be taken to represent seasonal variation alone.
Were a sample taken from the mixed muscle of a number of fish, as in
the case of whitebait, discussed above, some of these variations would be
eliminated. The market, too, presents difficulties. The fish are not pro-
curable at definite stated intervals. The results, however, embody the
variation in the value that the consumer is obtaining when buying the
same variety of fish at different seasons of the year.

All the expenses incurred in these investigations have been defrayed
by a grant from the New Zealand Government, through the New Zealand
Institute, and [ have to thank the University of Otago for the use of
laboratory-space and apparatus.

Wricut, Brevis, AND Netson.—Chemistry of Flesh Foods. 479

Art, LIT.— The Chemistry of Flesh Foods——(5) The Nitrogenous
Constituents of Meat-extracts.

By A. M. Wricut, A.I.C., F.C.S.; (Miss) J. F. Bevis, B.Sc.; and the late
P. 8. Netson, M.Se.*

[Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, Ist December, 1920 ; received by
Editor, 31st December, 1920; issued separately, 12th August, 1921.]

THIS paper is a continuation of the investigations of flesh foods which
are being carried out in the laboratory of the New Zealand Refrigerating
Company (Limited) (1, 2), and covers a number of investigations dealing
with the composition of meat-extracts. These have been carried out since
the publication of a former contribution on the subject (3).

MANUFACTURE.

in general, commercial meat-extracts are manufactured from finely
chopped lean meat (the muscular tissues of flesh), which is placed in
tanks containing cold water; steam is admitted, and the material is heated
for about half an hour. The lquor obtained from meat which is parboiled
in the process of preparing certain canned meats is also utilized. The
liquors while hot are pumped into a large tank and there settled in order
to separate out in part the particles of meat-fibre which are present; the
supernatant liquor is then filtered to remove any solids in suspension, the
fat present is skimmed off, and the clear liquid is concentrated in steam-
heated pans, either under vacuum or at ordinary atmospheric pressure,
the partially concentrated liquor being finally transferred to a finishing-
pan and heated until the water content approximates 20 per cent. and
the material is of a syrupy consistency.

It is obvious, therefore, that meat-extract can contain only a small
part of the nutriment of meat, for there is practically no albumen or fat
present, and very little gelatine ; the extract consists of salts and extractives
of the meat. It is the nitrogenous extractives which give meat-extracts
their chief value, and these have been classed under the somewhat loose
term of “meat-bases”’ (3). The meat-bases are products of the breaking-
down of proteins in the vital processes of the body, and are excreted for
the most part unchanged, and have little or no value as builders of tissue ;
they cannot be strictly regarded as foods, but possess certain stimulating
properties, and apparently furnish relief to fatigued muscle and are powerful
excitants of gastric secretion.

The results of an examination and identification of the various nitro-
genous constituents of a number of meat-extracts have already been
published by one of us (A. M. W.) (3), so that it is unnecessary to record
the data covering the work then published.

* The late P. 8S. Nelson was killed in action during June, 1917.

480 Transactions.

COMMERCIAL VALUATION.

The commercial valuation of meat-extracts, however, is not based upon
the results of an extensive and detailed identification of the various
nitrogenous constituents which give the value to an extract, but upon a
consideration of the colour, flavour, and the proportion of the extract
soluble in 80 per cent. alcohol ; it is the amount of the latter which to a
large extent determines the value to the manufacturer of the meat-extract.

The method has been criticized adversely from time to time as being
unsound in principle from a scientific pomt of view; in commercial
practice, however, this determination showed results which were in general
accord with the demand of the purchaser, although the underlying reason
was not apparent.

NITROGENOUS CONSTITUENTS.

It is only recently, however, that methods of analyses have been
developed which enable the study of nitrogenous constituents to be carried
out with a reasonable degree of accuracy and detail.

In the results to be described the following methods were used. For
the determination of the moisture, mineral salts, chlorine, nitrogen, meat-
bases, the methods outlined by one of us (A. M. W.) (8) were used. The
“meat-base ” nitrogen is that of the tannin-salt filtrate after deducting
the ammoniacal nitrogen determined by the magnesium-oxide distillation
method. This probably gives results lower than the actual for the ‘‘ meat-
base” nitrogen, for the reason that the magnesium-oxide distillation method
for the determination of the ammoniacal nitrogen probably gives results
which are too high. The results of a comparative study of the magnesium-
oxide distillation method, and the Folim aeration method applied to the
determination of ammoniacal nitrogen in meat-extracts, will be discussed
later. As, however, in most of the recent work upon flesh products the
magnesium-oxide method has been used, the results will be comparable
with those of other workers. For the determination of the 80 per cent.
alcoholic precipitate and the soluble extract the method described by
Thorpe (4) was used.

Calculated to Moisture-free Basis.

(1.) (2.) (3.) (4.) (5.) (6.)
Organic matter 3 tee A044 9289 78°85 78:04 78:25 77°84
Mineral salts .. oe oo ARSE OPIN — Palgilsss ARIBYa) | MOTs BRIG
Chlorine : a: Be 2°16 2°36 2°46 2°36 2°32 2°60
Nitrogen, total - 2 10:26, 10748, = 10:3 10:05 10°07 1017
Nitrogen, meat-base one : 4°42 4°53 5°19 SIL 4°36 4°66
Soluble in 80 per cent. aleohol—
Organic matter os -. 47:95 49:35 49°23 47:47 50:57 50:00
Mineral salts Ba jo AISI IPI) IG) IRS} ISOS) BE
Chlorine Ars is Sc 2°04 2°34 2°40 2°33 2°29 2°55
Nitrogen... se as 5°71 6°28 6°31 6:18 6°70 6°54
Nitrogen, meat-base .. 3°99 4°60 5-01 4°32 4°44 4:40
Insoluble in 80 per cent. alcohol—
Organic matter ae so aula) 30°54 29°62 30°57 27°68 27°84
Mineral salts ae re 9-42 8-01 9°59 9:28 8°70 8-93
Chlorine i: Ps ss 0:12 0-02 0:06 0:03 0-03 0-05
Nitrogen ae a Brie) 80155) 4:20 4:02 3°87 3°37 3°63 |
Nitrogen, meat-base .. a 0-43 — 0:07 0:18 0-46 — 0:08 0:26

It is thus found that 62-4 per cent. of the organic extractives are
soluble in 80 per cent. alcohol, 61-4 per cent. of the “total solids, 57-7 per
cent. of the total mineral salts, and 63-1 per cent. of the total nitrogen,

Wricut, Brevis, anp NeLson.—Chemistry of Flesh Foods. 481

while 94:3 per cent. of the meat-bases and 99 per cent. of the chlorides
are thus soluble.

From a consideration, therefore, of the results it is seen that the meat-
bases, to which is due the principal physiological value of a meat-extract,
are nearly completely soluble in 80 per cent. alcohol ; consequently the
results obtained by the commercial method of valuation are in agreement
with the physiological.

The nitrogenous constituents insoluble in 80 per cent. alcohol aze
principally compounds similar to gelatine; and, while gelatine has a physio-
logical value as a sparer of protein in metabolism, it has but little value
as a food.

NON-PUTRESCENCE OF SOLID MEAT-EXTRACTS.

It has been a matter of common knowledge that solid meat-extracts
do not undergo bacterial decomposition. While this fact has been noted
in connection with the report of the Commission appointed to investigate
the methods of manufacture of meat-extracts (8), the question has arisen
as to whether in the absence of special precautions solid meat-extract
remains free from bacterial growth and decomposition. Commercially it
is known that even after a period of several years solid meat-extract has
been found to be undeteriorated. In order, however, to ascertain whether
there is any evidence of bacterial or other decomposition we have made a
number of determinations covering extracts which have been held in jars
with loosely fitted tops after exposure to the atmosphere; these extracts
have in some cases been held for as long as six months.

As is well known, ammonia is one of the decomposition products of
nitrogenous foods, and the determination of the loosely bound nitrogen
as ammonia which occurs in the nitrogenous constituents of meat-products
has proved to be cone of the most reliable methods for indicating the
decomposition or otherwise of such substances; it has been shown that
a marked rise in the amount of ammoniacal nitrogen occurs in meat pro-
ducts before the senses can detect any decomposition (11, 12. 13, 14, 15).

The methods used in the determination of the ammoniacal nitrogen
were (a) the magnesium-oxide distillation method (9), and (b) Folin’s
aeration method (10, 16).

(a.) The magnesium-oxide method used was as follows: 1 gramme of
the extract (or an aliquot portion of a solution of the extract equal to
1 gramme of extract) was placed in a distillation-flask with 300c.c. of
water and 5 grammes of magnesium oxide free from carbon dioxide ; after
connecting the flask with a condenser, 100c.c. of the liquid was distilled into
N/50 acid, and titrated as usual, using congo-red as an indicator.

(6.) The Folin aeration method used was as follows: An aliquot portion
of a solution of the extract equal to 1 gramme of extract was placed
in a large tube; 0-5¢.c. saturated solution of potassium carbonate and
lc.c. saturated solution of potassium oxalate with 2c.c. kerosene (to mini-
mize frothing) were added. The mixture was aerated from a water-blower
with water-injector pump, the air being passed through 30 per cent. sulphuric
acid in order to remove any traces of ammonia before passing through
the aeration-tube. The period of aeration was four hours, at the rate of
80 litres of air per hour; the ammonia from the extract was collected
in N/50 acid through which the air from the aeration-tube was passed ;
congo-red was used as an indicator.

16—Trans.

482 Transactions.

The results are shown as follows :—

Ammoniacal Nitrogen expressed as Percentage of Total Nitrogen.
% Magnesium-oxide —_ Folin’s Aeration

Distillation Method. Method.

Per Cent. Per Cent.
(1.) 6:95 4-86
(2.) 6:94 4:37
(3.) 7-05 4-73
(4.) 6:82 5:36
(5.) 6:10 4:27
(6.) 6:21 4-17
(7.) 5-71 3°81
(8.) aa £23 6°81 4-77
Average 2 6:57 4-03

In a former paper (3) the ammoniacal nitrogen in freshly prepared
extracts was shown to average 7-06 per cent. of the total nitrogen, using
the magnesium-oxide method.

It will thus be seen that even after six months’ storage and after
ordinary atmospheric exposure no decomposition is found by either method.

AMMONIA TEST FOR SPOILAGE OF SOLUTIONS OF MEAT-EXTRACTS.

{n a former paper it was shown that the ammoniacal nitrogen deter-
mined by the magnesium-oxide method increases markedly in known cases
of decomposition of meats, and it was established that this method was
capable of demonstrating incipient decomposition (1). As, however, the
magnesium-oxide distillation method is somewhat empirical—because if a
further quantity of water is added to the solution in the distillation-flask,
and another 100c.c. are distilled, it will be found that the distillate con-
tains a further amount of ammonia—it has been customary to determine
the ammonia in the first 100c¢.c. of the distillate only. It is apparent
that, in addition to liberating the loosely bound ammoniacal nitrogen, the
magnesium oxide is capable of producing hydrolysis, with the result that
ammonia is being continuously split off from the nitrogenous compounds.
Our experiments confirm those of others, that after four hours’ continuous
aeration at a rate of 80 litres of air per hour little, if any, ammoniacal
nitrogen is liberated by continuing the aeration.

In order to determine whether the aeration method is applicable to
the determination of ammoniacal nitrogen in known cases of decomposition
of aqueous solutions of meat-extract, solutions of various duutions were
prepared and contaminated by exposure to the ordinary bacteria of decom-
position present in the air. The results of the determinations of the
ammoniacal nitrogen by the aeration method are as follows :—

Ammoniacal Nitrogen expressed as Percentage of Total Nitrogen.
0:5-per-cent. 1-per-cent. 4-per-cent.

Solution. Solution. Solution.
After 9 days oe 5:13
After 10 days alO-40 6-28 Ac
After 11 days = me keeDG 8-74 7:99

It is thus seen that the method is capable of detecting decomposition
of dilute solutions of meat-extract, and it is therefore applicable in the

Wricut, Bevis, AnD Netson.—Chemistry of Flesh Foods. 483

examination of the solid meat-extracts. It can therefore be assumed that
had the solid meat-extracts been even incipiently decomposed the method
would have revealed the fact. Further work on the point is being carried
out in order to determine the factors which inhibit the decomposition.

CoppER IN LIVER-EXTRACT.

Our work in connection with meat-extracts from various sources has
led to the examination of extracts manufactured from edible portions of
the carcase other than true muscle-tissue, and it has been found that the
mineral salts of an extract manufactured from liver invariably contain
copper. Of course, if copper utensils were used in the preparation of these
extracts the presence of copper might be expected, but we have been able
to detect this metal in liver-extracts manufactured under conditions which
exclude the possibility of casual contamination from copper utensils ;
moreover, in extracts manufactured from true muscle-tissue no copper has
been found in the mineral salts. The presence of copper m liver has,
however, been recorded, notably by Aston (5) in his investigations upon
bush sickness, and its presence as a normal liver-constituent is also noted
by Hammerstein (6) and Emery and Henley (7); it is thus not surprising
to find it a normal constituent of extracts manufactured from liver.

The presence of up to 10 per cent. of glucose is also recorded by us as
a normal constituent of liver-extract.

SUMMARY.

1. The commercial valuation of a meat-extract based upon the per-
centage of the material soluble in 80 per cent. alcohol is in accord with the
physiological value, which depends upon the “ meat-bases ” present.

2. The incipient decomposition of nitrogenous foods can be detected by
the determination of the percentage of ammoniacal nitrogen before such
decomposition is evident to the senses.

3. A comparative study of two methods of determing ammoniacal
nitrogen 1s given.

4. Solid extract of meat is a non-putrescible substance.

5. In extracts manufactured from liver both copper and glucose are
found to be present.

LITERATURE CITED.

1. A. M. Wriaut, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 45, pp. 1-17, 1918.

2 ibid., vol. 47, pp. 569-72, 1915.

3 ibid., vol. 43, pp. 1-6, 1911.

4. T. E. Toorpn, Dict. App. Chem., vol. 3, p. 428, 1912.

5. B. C. Aston, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 44, pp. 288-98, 1912.

6. O. HamMeErsSTEIN, T'ext-book Physiol. Chem., p. 367, 1911. i
7. J. A. Emery and R. R. Henry, Jour. Agric. Res., vol. 17, p. 16, 1919.
8. Report Extract-of-Meat Commission, Lancet, Oct. 24, 1908, p. 1241.

Be Method of Analysis, Buli. 107 (rev.) U.S. Dep. Agric., pp. 9-10, 1912.

0

11

12

13

14

. Method of Analysis, J.A.O.A.C., 2, pp. 274-75, 1916.
. N. Henrikson and G. C. Swan, Jour. I. Eng. Chem., vol. 10, p. 614, 1918.
2. M. PennincToN and H. 8. GreEnues, Jour. Am. Chem. Soc., vol. 33, p. 561, 1911.
. E. D. CuarxK and L. H. Atmy, Jour. Biol. Chem., vol. 33, pp. 483-98, 1918.
Hl Faux, E. I. Bauman, and G. McGutre, Jour. Biol. Chem., vol. 37, p. 525.
19.
15. K. G. Fatk and G. McGuire, Jour. Biol. Chem., vol. 37, p. 547, 1919.
16. O. Forty, Jour. Biol. Chem., vel. 8, p. 497, 1910.

16*

484 Transactions.

Arr. LITI.— The Anticomplementary Properties observed in certain
Serum Reactions.

By A. M. Wrieut, Captain N.Z.M.C., Bacteriologist N.Z.H.F.

[Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, Ist December, 1920; received by
Editor, 5th December, 1920 ; issued separately, 12i:h August, 1921.]

THE notes put on record in this paper have been made in connection with
the determination of nearly ten thousand Wassermann reactions carried out
for the New Zealand Expeditionary Force during the author’s overseas
service.

In general the Wassermann reaction was determined in conformity
with the recommendations of the Medical Research Committee, using the
method elaborated by Colonel L. W. Harrison, K.H.P., D.S.O.,* the
measurement of the reagents being carried out by the method adopted by
Donald.t

When care is exercised in standardizing the pipettes used, Donald’s
dropping method was found by comparison to give complete concordance
with methods using hand-pipettes. The principle involved in Donald’s
method is that “‘at constant temperature and pressure, and at a constant
delivery-rate which does not exceed one drop per second, the size of a
drop of any given liquid which is delivered by a vertically held nozzle
is constant, and depends on the circumference of the delivery-nozzle at
its outlet.”

When large numbers of tests have to be carried out the monotony and
eye-strain involved in using the hand-pipettes are considerable ; with the
dropping-pipettes, after a standardization is made, the determination is
almost automatic, and accuracy is independent of fatigue. This principle
is also applicable to many determinations involved in ordinary chemical
analyses, as well as those carried out in connection with bio-chemical
reactions.

ANTIGEN,

An important consideration in the Wassermann reaction, as well as
in other serum tests, is the nature of the antigen used. While, doubtless,
individual workers obtain concordant results with various antigens, it has
been the writer’s experience that the human-heart extract, with chole-
sterin, as reeommended by the Medical Research Committee, gives the most:
satisfactory and concordant results, if prepared in strict conformity with
the instructions laid down by Fildes and MeIntosht and from fresh heart-
muscle, the extract-heart-cholesterin being diluted 1 in 15 with normal
physiological saline (0-85 per cent. NaCl).

* Medical Research Committee’s Report, Path. Methods, No. 1, pp. 13-27, 1918.
+ R. Donaxp, Proc. Royal Soc., vol. 86, pp. 198-202, 1913.
t P. Fizpzs and J. McIntosu, Brain, vol. 36, p. 193, 1913.

Wricut.—Anticomplementary Properties in Serum Reactions. 485

This antigen, if accurately and carefully prepared, shows little inhibitory
action upon the complement used: it is immaterial whether the heart is
diseased or not; it should not, however, be decomposed, otherwise certain
substances soluble in alcohol may be extracted which are in action inhibitory
to complement.

One such antigen was prepared from a human heart removed at
autopsy thirty-six hours after death and while not obviously decom<
posed. The resulting preparation deviated 0-75 minimum haemolytic doses
(M.H.D.) of complement. The use of antigen prepared from guinea-pig
heart was not found to be satisfactory, owing to a similar marked anti-
complementary action.

ANTICOMPLEMENTARY REACTION OF HuMAN SERA.

Normal human-blood sera show, in the majority of cases, certain anti-
complementary properties. In a series of tests carried out to determine
the inhibitory power towards complement it was found that with a number
of normal sera the average deviation of complement was 0-5 M.H.D. In
conjunction with these tests the sera were also quantitatively examined to
ascertain what, if any, complement-deviation occurred in the presence of
the antigen prepared as noted above, such antigens having been found
to be non-inhibitory ; it was found that the average deviation of comple-
ment towards such negative sera was 0-75 M.H.D.

It is thus evident that the normal subject contains in the blood small
amounts of antibodies, similar to, and having complementary deviation-
properties identical with, the antibody upon which the Wassermann
reaction depends for its specificity.

Of course, in the actual determination of the Wassermann reaction
the controls adequately secure the true interpretation of the reaction, and
allow for the small amounts of inhibitory antibody, as well as the anti-
complementary properties of the patient’s serum. The specificity of the
Wassermann reaction depends upon its quantitative and not its qualitative
determination.

Browning’s* observation that the blood-serum of the normal rabbit
gives a positive Wassermann reaction is confirmed by the writer’s experi-
ments ; and, whatever interpretation may be placed upon this, it is never-
theless established that there are present in rabbit-sera sufficient antibodies
similar to the Wassermann substance in complement-deviation power to
produce a positive quantitative reaction. Controls demonstrated that the
inhibitory properties were not of themselves merely anticomplementary,
but depended upon the presence of the specific antigen in addition to
bring about the reaction, which amounted to the deviation of as much
as 3 M.H.D. of complement in one ease.

In the course of the work one serum was encountered which showed
very strongly marked anticomplementary power, deviating by itself nearly
7:00 M.H.D. of complement; later the serum from this patient showed
but 4:00 M.H.D. of complement-deviation ; and some months later the
serum was normal in complement-deviation power. This serum was so
abnormal that its properties were examined at the Bland Sutton Institute
of Pathology, Middlesex Hospital, and the results of the investigation
published in a separate paper.t

*C. H. Brownine, Applied Bacteriology.
t E. L. Kennaway and A. M. Wriaext, Jour. Hygiene, vol. 18, pp. 255-59, 1919.

486 Transactions.

An interesting point in connection with this serum showed that the
first specimens were frozen and examined two months later, when it was
found that the anticomplementary properties had disappeared.

SPECIFICITY OF THE WASSERMANN REACTION.*

In connection with the routine determination of the Wassermann
reaction, the blood-sera from fifty-nine patients suffering from malaria were
examined for the evidence of specific reaction to the Wassermann test.
It has been recorded by various observers that malarial subjects have
given a positive reaction.

While a number of the fifty-nine patients from whom the blood-sera
was taken had either just had a rigor or were in the midst of one, and so
should, if malarial antibodies influenced the Wassermann reaction, have
been expected to show a positive test, yet the whole fifty-nine patients were
found to give a negative reaction.

The influence of chloroform anaesthesia was also determined in a number
of cases, the blood being taken before, and at twelve and also at twenty-
four hours after, anaesthesia : in all cases the reactions were negative.

* J. W. Marcuipon, “* Wassermann Reaction.”

ey OO Ori ISIN GS.

489

Peeve Heh t)bIN G'S

OF THE

NEW ZHKALAND INSTITUTE.

MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL MEETING OF THE
BOARD OF GOVENORS.

WELLINGTON, 22ND JANUARY, AND PaLmERSTON NortH, 24TH JANUARY
1921.

THE annual meeting of the Board was held in the Dominion Museum
Library on Saturday, the 22nd January, 1921, at 10 a.m.

Present : Professor T. H. Easterfield, President (in the chair); Mr. B. C.
Aston, Professor Charles Chilton, Dr. L. Cockayne, Dr. F. W. Hilgendorf,
Professor H. B. Kirk, Dr. P. Marshall, Professor H. W. Segar, Professor
A. P. W. Thomas, Dr. J. Allan Thomson, Ven. Archdeacon H. W. Williams,
and Mr. A. M. Wright.

The Hon. Secretary called the roll, which—the Government nominees,
Messrs. Chilton and Ewen, having been reappoimted—was the same as at
last year’s meeting.

Apologies for non-attendance were received from Mr. C. A. Ewen on
account of illness, and from Professor J. Malcolm and Mr. H. Hill.

Qn the motion of Dr. Chilton, it was resolved to send a letter o
sympathy to Mr. C. A. Ewen, Hon. Treasurer, hoping for his speedy
restoration to health.

Incorporaied Societies’ Reports and Balance-sheets, except those of Hawke’s
Bay, Poverty Bay, and Wanganui, were laid on the table. Professor
Marshall mentioned that the Wanganui report had been sent to the Editor
in error.

Address of the Hon. the Minister of Internal Affairs —At this stage the
Hon. G. J. Anderson, Minister of Internal Affairs, entered the room and
was received by the President. The Hon. Minister addressed the meeting
and welcomed the Governors to Wellington. He spoke briefly on the
subject of the importance of scientific and industrial research, but stated
that, after consulting his colleagues, he would deal with the intention
of the Government in the matter when he addressed the Congress at
Palmerston North.

Standing Committee’s Report—The annual report of the Standing Com-
mittee was read, and adopted as amended,

REPORT OF THE STANDING COMMITTEE FOR YEAR ENDING 3lst DECEMBER, 1920.

Meetings.—Sixteen meetings of the Standing Committee were held during the year,
the attendance being as follows: Professor Easterfield (President), 15; Professor
Kirk, 8; Dr. Cockayne, 5; Hon. G. M. Thomson, 6; Mr. C. A. Ewen, 5; Dr. J. Allan
Thomson, 12; Mr. A. M. Wright, 1; Mr. M. A. Eliott, 1; Mr. B. C. Aston (Hon.
Secretary), 15.

490 Proceedings.

Hutton Award.—The award for 1919 was made to Rev. Dr. J. Holloway; ana
at a meeting of the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury held on the 2nd June, 1920,
Dr. Chilton, in the absence of Professor Easterfield, President, presented to Dr.
Holloway the Hutton Memorial Medal, and stated that the award was made in recog-
nition of his researches in connection with New Zealand botany. Dr. Chilton said that
the recipient’s work in this direction had made his name well known throughout New
Zealand, and his works were also read in England and elsewhere.

Hector Award.—The award for 1920 was made to Mr. 8. Percy Smith, F.R.G.S.,
of New Plymouth, for research in Polynesian ethnology. On the 19th June, 1920,
there was a large and representative gathering of citizens in the New Plymouth
Carnegie Library, when the presentation of the Hector Medal was made by the Mayor
of New Plymouth, the late Mr. James Clarke, who, together with Mr. W. T.
Jennings, M.P., and Mr. W. H. Skinner, eulogistically referred to Mr. Smith’s valuable
work in connection with Polynesian research.

Transactions of the New Zealand Institute, volume 52, was issued to the societies
in bulk in September, 1920, and to the exchanges in October. Copies of volumes 51
and 52 were laid on the tables of the Legislative Council and the House of Repre-
sentatives on the 24th August, 1920.

Publications.—The following have been placed on the mailing-list by the Standing
Committee, and will in future receive the Transactions as published :—

Forestry Department, Wellington.

Geological Survey Office, Dublin.

The Library, Advisory Research Council, Ottawa.
Consulate-General of the Czecho-Slovak Republic, Sydney.
National Herbarium of Victoria.

The Director, Brooklyn Botanical Gardens, New York.
University of Illinois.

The Director, Museo Nacional de Historia Natural de Buenos Aires.
The Director, Voleano Observatory, Hawaii Islands.

Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University, Jamaica Plains, U.S.A.
Natal Museum, Africa.

Director, Royal Gardens, Kew, England.

Resolutions of the Standing Committee adopted during the year and not other-
wise mentioned in the report :-—

1. On the 27th May it was resolved to circularize all late enemy exchanges to
ascertain those which desired to continue receiving the publications of the Institute.
Several societies have since signified their desire to resume relations.

2. On the 27th May it was resolved to leave the appointment of an assistant
secretary in the hands of the President, with power to act. In August, Miss M. Wood,
of Wellington, was appointed to this position.

3. On the 27th May it was resolved to combine with the Board of Agriculture
and other interested bodies and Departments in forming a deputation to the Hon.
Minister with reference to the establishment of a technological library, to include the
books of the Institute under suitable safeguards so as to ensure that members should
have access to them. It has not yet been possible to take action in this matter.

4. On the 27th May it was resolved to remind the Agricultural Department of the
necessity for some work on New Zealand grasses, and suggest that the Department,
with Mr. Petrie, again take up the matter, which had been interrupted by the war.
This was done, and the Committee was informed on the Ist October that it was
proposed to refer the matter to the Science and Art Board for action.

5. On the 27th May it was resolved that the President should write inviting the
Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science to meet in Wellington in
1923, the organization of the meeting to be left with the Wellington Philosophical
Society. According to newspaper reports this invitation has been accepted.

6. On the 24th June it was resolved to appoint Professor Charles Chilton and
Dr. J. Allan Thomson as delegates to the Pan-Pacific Science Congress, to be held in
Honolulu in August, 1920.

7. On the 18th August it was resolved that it be a recommendation to the annual
meeting that in future the description of each nominee for the Fellowship of the New
Zealand Institute shall not exceed twenty lines of typewritten matter, and that the
best method of obtaining this-information be considered by the annual meeting.

8. On the 4th October it was resolved to thank Major Wilson for his offer to
report on the wapiti of George Sound, and to accept same.

Annual Meeting. 49]

9. On the 4th October it was resolved to appoint Professor H. B. Kirk as repre-
sentative of the New Zealand Institute at the meeting of the Australasian Association
for the Advancement of Science te be held in Hobart in 1921. On the 29th October
Dr. Cotton was appointed in place of Professor Kirk, who reported that he was unable
to attend the meeting.

10. On the 4th October it was resolved that it be a recommendation to the
annual meeting that the separate publication of the proceedings of the annual meeting
be discontinued.

11. That it be a recommendation to the annual meeting to affirm the principle
of the Standing Committee that when refusing to recommend a grant for research no
reasons for doing so be given.

Amendment of New Zealand Institute Act.—On the 29th March the President wrote
to the Hon. Minister of Internal Affairs laying before him the facts of the New Zealand
Institute’s financial position, and asking that the Government amend the New
Zealand Institute Act to enable £1,000 to be paid annually, instead of £500. On the
28th July a copy of the Bill amending this Act was received, and, it having been passed
and become law, the £1,000 has since been paid in to the credit of the Institute’s
account at the Bank of New Zealand.

Annual Reports and Balance-sheets.—The annual reports and balance-sheets of the
following societies have been received, and are now laid on the table :—

Wellington Philosophical Society, for year ending 30th September, 1920.
Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, for year ending 31st October, 1920.
Otago Institute, for year ending 31st December, 1920.

Manawatu Philosophical! Society, for year ending 3lst October, 1920.
Auckland Institute, for year ending 20th February, 1920.

Nelson Institute, for year ending 31st December, 1920.

Donation of Partial Sets of Transactions has been made to the following :—
Library of Hillside Railway Workshops.
Library of United States Department of Agriculture, Washington.
Forestry Department, Wellington.
Director, Brooklyn Botanical Gardens, New York.
Director, Volcano Observatory, Hawaii Islands.

Fellowship of the New Zealand Institute—A committee consisting of Dr. Thomson
(convener), Professor Hasterfield, Professor Segar, Dr. Adams, and Mr. C. A. Ewen
was appointed to draw up rules for the election of Fellows of the New Zealand Institute.
The original recommendations of this committee did not meet with the approval of
the Standing Committee. Professor Sommerville was added to the committee, and
the following rules were subsequently agreed upon, and it is suggested that these
should now be gazetted as regulations for conducting future elections of Fellows :—

1. Each voter arranges all the candidates’ names in order of preference.

2. The voter may bracket any number of names in any place.

3. If the voter omit the names of any of the candidates from his list these names
shall be added by the returning officer, and bracketed in the last place on the voter’s

aper.

oe 4. On receipt of the ballot-papers the returning officer enumerates all the prefer-
ences. In the case of a small electorate this may be done conveniently in the following
way: Aschedule is prepared for each candidate on computing-paper, containing in the
top row the names of the candidates, or the letters representing them, and in the left
margin the numbers denoting the different ballot-papers. The spaces are then filled,
entering “2” for a preference as against the candidate whose name stands at the
top of the column, and “‘! ”’ in the case of a bracket (Table I1).* The columns are then
summed, and the numbers transferred to another schedule (Table III), in which the names
of the candidate are placed both in the top row and in the left margin. Table Lil
then gives for each pair of candidates—e.g., A and B—the number of times A is pre-
ferred to B and B to A, each multiplied by 2. It is most convenient to arrange the
table so that A’s preferences are in a column. The numbers may be checked by noting
that A’s preferences against B plus B’s preferences against A are always equal to the
number of voters multiplied by 2.

5. The columns in Table III are then summed. The sums are checked by summing
the sums, the total of which should be equal to np (pl), where p is the number of
candidates and ” the number of voters.

* It is more usual to enter ‘‘1’’ for a preference and ‘‘ 4”? for a bracket, but by taking the numbers
2 and 1 the awkward fractions are eliminated, and the final results are the same.

492 Proceedings.

6. The candidate with the lowest total is then rejected and his row ig struck out.
The columns are again summed, or, more conveniently, the numbers in the cancelled
row are subtracted from the previous sums. The results are checked again by
summing to the total n (pl) (p2).

7. The candidate who now has the lowest total is rejected, and the process is
continued until the number left is equal to the number of vacancies.

8. If at any stage two or more candidates are eyual with the smallest totals they
must be rejected together, provided that the number of candidates left is not less than
the number of vacancies. In the latter case the candidate or candidates for the last
place should be decided by drawing lots.*

Professor Sommerville has worked out a hypothetical election, and has supplied
an example of the calculations (to be exhibited at the meeting).

The following references may be consulted: E. J. Nanson, “‘ Methods of Election,”
Trans. Roy. Soc. Victoria, 1882; G. Hogben, “ Preferential Voting in Single-member
Constituencies, with Special Reference to the Counting of Votes,” Trans. N.Z. Inst.,
vol. 46, p. 304, 1914; D. M. Y. Sommerville, ““A Problem in Voting,” Proc. Math.
Soc. Edinburgh, 1910, p. 23.

The Standing Committee suggest, in addition to these rules, one making it cbli-
gatory on the society which forwards nominations to certify that it has obtained the
consent of every nominee.

All the incorporated societies were circularized on the 12th April, 1920, to send
in nominations, to be accompanied by a statement of the candidates’ qualifications.
Wellington, Auckland, Canterbury, and Otago Societies sent in twenty nominations,
which were issued to the Fellows for them to make a selection of eight. On the 18th
August Professor Segar was appointed by the Standing Committee to act as honorary
returning officer, and on the 23rd October he forwarded the results of the selection,
which was communicated to every Governor on the 27th October, 1920. It now
remains for the Board of Governors to elect from these the number of Fellows it is
decided to elect, up to four Fellows, to accord with Regulation 23 of the regulations
governing the Fellowship of the New Zealand Institute.

Catalogue of New Zealand Fishes—The Hon. G. M. Thomson and Dr. J. Allan
Thomson were appointed a committee to compile an estimate of the cost of such a
catalogue. Their estimate of £1,725 was forwarded to the Hon. Minister of Internal
Affairs, who replied on the 22nd October, 1920, that the matter was being dealt with
by the Marine Department, and the Minister of Marine had directed that it was to be
held over for consideration with next year’s estimates.

Resolutions of the Science Congress, Christchurch, 1919.—Some further information
in regard to these had come to hand :—

1. (a.) The Hon. Minister of Lands replied on the 15th November, 1920, that his
Department fully recognized the importance of establishing bench-marks and _ tide-
gauges. In 1908 permanent bench-marks connected to tide gauges were established at
Auckland, Wellington, Lyttelton, Port Chalmers, Nelson, and Westport. In 1918 two
additional bench-marks connected to mean sea-level were established at New Plymouth
and Dunedin, and other bench-marks and tide-gauges will be erected at various places
on the coast from time to time when the importance of the records obtained from them
for useful or scientific purposes warrants their establishment. Precise levelling con-
necting the bench-marks is contemplated in the near future.

(b.) An electrograph recording the variations of the electrical state of the atmo-
sphere had been suggested by Dr. Chree, F.R.S., of Kew Observatory, and had been
ordered from England.

2. The Hon. Minister of Mines had reported on the 2nd November, 1920, that
Mr. J. Marwick, M.A., with first-class honours in geology, had been appointed to the
position of Assistant Geologist, to specialize in palaeontology.

3. (a.) The Hon. Minister of Internal Affairs replied on the 13th November, 1920,
that legislation was introduced this session to give effect to the recommendation to
alter the standard time from eleven hours and a half to twelve hours in advance of
Greenwich mean time, but it was not possible to place it upon the statute-book.

(6.) The matter of introducing fresh legislation to preserve the native fauna, and
also of taking measures to promote education on the subject in the schools, will be
considered during the recess.

(c.) Regarding the offer of Yale Observatory, it has been decided that Dr. Adams,
Government Astronomer, should visit Otago and report on suitable sites for the
establishment of an observatory.

* The alternative to this is to take a fresh ballot with these candidates alone; but, as it is evident
that in this case the preferences of the voters as a whole must be very indifferent as regards these candi-
dates, it is quite fair that it should be decided by lot and thus avoid the vexation of a second ballot.

Annual Meeting. 493

Collection of New Zealand Coleoptera.—On learning of the desire of the New Zealand
Institute to have Major Broun’s collection of coleoptera retained in New Zealand for
a time in order to give entomologists an opportunity to refer to it and determine
authentic specimens of as many species as possible, the British Museum authorities
wrote, on the 17th March, 1920, agreeing that the collection should be housed in the
Dominion Museum for a period of two years. A copy of their letter was forwarded
to the Hon. Minister of Internal Affairs, who replied on the 23rd June, 1920, that if the
British Museum authorities would agree to extend the period of deposit from two to
five years he would agree to find fireproof storage and skilled attention for the collection,
and give a permit to export the collection at the end of that period.

Index to Last Ten Volumes.—The index to the last ten volumes of the T’ransactions,
which had been compiled by a returned soldier paid to do the work by Major R. A.
Wilson, D.S.O., had been approved by the Standing Committee after referring it to
Professor Kirk and Dr. Cotton, and is in course of publication.

Dixon's Bulletin of Mosses.—It was resolved that the Publications Committee be
authorized to proceed with the publication of Dixon’s bulletin on the mosses of New
Zealand, the cost not to exceed £60.

Scheme of Scientific and Industrial Research.—A proposal of the Science and Art
Board for a Board of Trustees to control the Dominion Museum, Turnbull Library,
Scientific and Technological Library, Dominion Art Gallery, and the publication of
scientific and historical papers, including also the control by the same Board of the
organization of scientific and industrial research, was considered by the Standing
Committee. The committee could not support the association of the organization of
scientific and industrial research with the control of the Dominion Museum, &c., and
agreed that in case the Government could not see its way to expend the sum recom-
mended by the Efficiency Commissioners the followmg scheme should be approved :—

1. That the annual sum to be appropriated for scientific and industrial research
be £6,000, to be divided as follows: (a) £1,000 should be distributed in small grants to
investigators working in the Dominion who were unable to devote their whole time to
research; (4) £4,000 to £5,000 should be distributed in salaries and travelling and
other expenses to those who are able to devote their whole time to carrying out
research under approved supervision.

2. That the distribution of the £6,000 be effected by the New Zealand Institute,
subject to such safeguards as the Minister thought best. The salaries paid to investi-
gators to be of sufficient amount to enable them to live.

3. That the scheme of local advisory committees described on page 57 of Mr. Hogben’s
scheme (National Efficiency Board’s Report, Schedule IL) should be given effect to.

. That the President should make it clear to the Minister that only the smallness
of the amount available had necessitated the modification of the original scheme of
the Institute as set forth in the National Efficiency Board’s report.

It was left with the President to put the above matter before the Hon. Minister.

Contoured Topographical Map.—A resolution passed at the last annual meeting
urging the necessity of a contoured topographical map was forwarded to the Hon.
Minister of Lands, who replied on the 25th October, 1920, that he regretted that owing
to interruptions and delays occasioned by the war it had not been possible to organize
a staff or to obtain the necessary equipment to undertake this pressing work.

Catalogue of Scientific Literature.—The resolution of the last annual meeting
expressing the view that the catalogue would be of little value without the subject-
index, and offering to urge the Government to subsidize a subscription for three further
copies of the catalogue, was forwarded to the Royal Society. The society held a
conference in September, 1920, to discuss the future of the International Catalogue of
Scientific Literature, and the Standing Committee asked Professor Dendy to represent
the New Zealand Institute at that conference. Unfortunately, Professor Dendy was
able to attend only the opening meeting of the conference, but he forwarded the agenda
paper, reports, and balance-sheets which were presented at the conference, and since
then the report of the conference has come to hand.

Regulations to be gazetted—A committee consisting of Professor Easterfield, Dr.
J. Allan Thomson, Mr. C. A. Ewen, and Mr. B. C. Aston was appointed to formulate
resolutions of the Institute which have the force of regulations, in order that where
advisable they might be gazetted.

Yellow-leaf Disease in Flax.—A resolution from the last annual meeting urging
the Government to take steps to investigate the yellow-leaf in flax, and suggesting that
this could best be done by assisting the Cawthron Institute to obtain a plant patho-
logist, was forwarded to the Hon. Minister of Agriculture, who replied on the 14th July

494 Proceedings.

that officers of the Department of Agriculture had carried out extensive investigations
into the cause and treatment of yellow-leaf disease in New Zealand flax, and some
experimental work initiated by them was still in progress ; and that, as it was intended
to continue the investigations, it was not considered necessary to provide funds for the
Cawthron Institute to deal with the matter.

Thermal Regions of New Zealand.—A resolution passed on the 31st January, 1914,
at the twelth annual meeting, to the effect that the Government be urged to undertake
the preparation of a complete scientific report on the thermal regions of the North
Island, and that the matter of choosing a time for approaching the Government be
left in the hands of the Standing Committee, with power to act, has not yet been put
into effect, as the Standing Committee has not considered the time opportune for
approaching the Government on the matter.

Kapiti Island.—A committee was last year set up by the Hon. Minister of Lands,
who asked that a member to act on that committee be appointed by the Standing
Committee to represent the Institute. Professor Kirk was accordingly appointed by
the Standing Committee to represent the New Zealand Institute. It is to be regretted
that the clause in the ‘‘ washing-up”’ Bill empowering the Government to purchase the
native interests in this island was thrown out by the Native Committee.

Science Congress, Palmerston North.—The invitation of the Manawatu Philosophical
Society to hold a Science Congress in Palmerston North in 1921 having been accepted,
it was decided to place the Manawatu Society on the same footing as the Philosophical
Institute of Canterbury had been placed when the Congress was held in Christchurch,
with the exception that certain officers were appointed by the Standing Committee
to be Presidents and Secretaries of the various sections, and on these officers devolved
the responsibility of carrying out the arrangements and work of their particular
sections. Dr. J. Allan Thomson was also appointed Hon. Secretary of the Scientific
Programme. It was resolved, too, that twenty guests, to be entertained by the
Manawatu Philosophical Society, should be invited by the Institute.

Hamilton Prize.—Negotiations between the Standing Committee and representa-
tives of the Wellington Philosophical Society had been entered into with-a view to
formulate the rules and regulations which should govern the yearly award of the
Hamilton Prize. A draft of the rules which have been drawn up by the President in
consultation with Mr. Von Haast is as follows :—

** Rules and Regulations made by the Governors of the New Zealand Institute in relation
to the Hamilton Memorial Fund.

“*], The fund placed in the hands of the Board by the Wellington Philosophical
Society shall be called ‘The Hamilton Memorial Fund,” in memory of the late
Augustus Hamilton, Esq. Such fund shall consist of the moneys subscribed and
granted for the purpose of the memorial and all other funds which may be given or
granted for the same purpose.

‘‘2. The fund shall be vested in the Institute. The Board of Governors of the
Institute shall have the control thereof, and shall invest the same in the Common
Fund of the Public Trust Office.

“*3. The memorial shall be a prize to be called ‘The Hamilton Memorial Prize,’
the object of which shall be the encouragement of beginners in scientific research in
New Zealand.

“4. The prize shall be awarded at intervals of not less than three years by the
Governors assembled in annual meeting, but in no case shall an award be made unless
in the opinion of the Governors some contribution deserving of the honour has been
made. The first award shall be made at the annual meeting of the Governors in 1922.

‘5. The prize shall be awarded for scientific research work carried out in New
Zealand or in the islands of the South Pacific Ocean, which has been published within
the five years preceding the lst day of July prior to the annual meeting at which the
award is made. Such publication may consist of one or more papers and shall include
the first investigation published by the author. No candidate shall be eligible for the
prize who prior to such period of five years has published the result of any scientific
investigation.

‘6. The prize shall consist of money. Until the principal of the fund amounts
to £100, one-half of the interest shall be added annually to the principal and the other
half shall be applied towards the payment of the prize. So soon as the said principal
amounts to £100, the whole of the interest thereon shall be applied in payment of
the prize, in each case after the payment of all expenses necessarily incurred by the
Governors in the investment and administration of the said fund and the award of
the said prize.

Annual Meeting. 495

““7, A candidate for the prize shall send to the Secretary of the New Zealand
Institute, on or before the 30th day of June preceding the date of the annual meeting
at which the award is to be made, an intimation of his candidature, together with at
least two copies of each publication on which his application is based.

‘8. Whenever possible the prize shall be presented in some public manner.”

Samoan Observatory Committee—A committee consisting of Professors T. H.
Easterfield, C. Coleridge Farr, E. Marsden, D. M. Y. Sommerville, and Mr. G. Hogben
was set up to confer with the Government Astronomer and the Hon. Minister of
External Affairs as to the best means to be adopted for the maintenance of the
Samoan Observatory. On the 12th February this committee consulted with the Hon.
Minister and the Government Astronomer. At a meeting of the Standing Committee
held on the 25th June it was resolved that Dr. C. A. Cotton, Dr. C. E. Adams, and
Mr. A. C. Gifford be added to the committee ; that the scope of the committee be enlarged
to allow it to make representations on all matters relating to earth physics and
astronomy in New Zealand and dependencies, the committee to act strictly through
the Standing Committee of the Board of Governors of the New Zealand Institute. It
was resolved to ask the Observatory Committee to concentrate at present upon the
following lines of work :—

(1.) Investigation of the most suitable site for a central astronomical observatory.

(2.) Consideration of the means of acceptance of the Yale offer.

(3.) Reliable estimates of costs to be framed on all matters in connection with

the above.

(4.) Any report to take into consideration the desirability of retaining in their

present sites any seismographs.

(5.) To report on the desirability of instituting a vulcanological observatory in

New Zealand.

The following resolutions of the Observatory Committee were forwarded to the
Hon. Minister of Internal Affairs, who replied that the fullest consideration would be
given to the report and recommendations :—

“That the Committee, having heard of the munificent offer of the Yale Observatory
of astronomical instruments of the highest grade, strongly urges the acceptance of the
offer by the Government. The committee is of the opinion that most advantageous
use can be made of the offer by combining at one central spot the equipment of
the Hector Observatory and the Christchurch Magnetic Observatory with the Yale
instruments. The committee considers that some site in the highlands of Central
Otago could be found offering astronomical and geophysical conditions that would
be unique in the Southern Hemisphere. Further, the combination of the observatories
in one locality would be a distinct economy compared with the present separate
establishments. The increased facilities which would thus be offered to the scientific
staffs for mutual discussion and co-ordination of work would of necessity tend to
greater efficiency. If these suggestions meet with the approval of the Government
the committee will be glad to aid by giving further advice as to the scope of the
proposed single observatory and its cost.

“That this committee, having heard and considered Professor Marsden’s report on
the Samoan Observatory, cordially endorses the opinions and recommendations contained
therein. The committee is of the opinion that the work being carried on in Samoa is of
the very greatest scientific and economic importance, and strongly urges that an
immediate decision be made to carry on the work of the observatory.

“That the committee, having considered Dr. Adams’s letter to the President of the
New Zealand Institute, is of opinion that the scope of the committee should be enlarged
to cover matters relating to New Zealand’s observatories, and that the committee should
be empowered to make recommendations in the name of the Institute for unifying the
work and control of such observatories. That in order to carry out such larger
functions the committee be given power to co-opt other suitable scientific gentlemen
to aid in their deliberations. That the permanency of such a committee be considered
at the next annual meeting of the Board.” 3

The following is a report of the Observatory Committee, held on the 25th June :—

“A. Samoan Observatory.—The committee, having heard of Professor Angenheister’s
early retirement from the post of Director of Apia Observatory, deputes Drs.
C. Coleridge Farr and C. E. Adams to approach the President of the Institute with a
view of urging upon the Minister of External Affairs the urgent necessity of appointing
a successor. The committee recommends that a committee of selection be set up,
consisting of Sir A. Schuster, Dr. Chree, and G. W. Walker, F.R.S., such selection
committee to consider the claims of Messrs. Kidson and Johnston. The committee
further suggests that an Assistant Director is urgently required at Samoa, and that this
assistant could probably be obtained in New Zealand.

“ B. Yale Offer—The committee reiterates its original proposals of the 9th April,
and is of the opinion that the acceptance of this offer, together with the concentration

496 Proceedings.

of the astronomical and geophysical activities in New Zealand, will not cost more than
£1,000 per annum in addition to what is already spent. The committee desires the
Institute to request the Hon. Minister of Internal Affairs to give leave of absence to
Dr. C. E. Adams, so that he may undertake an investigation of suitable sites for
an observatory, the investigation to commence with Central Otago. The committee
suggests that, other things being equal, the farther south the proposed site is situated
the better.

“C. Vulcanological Observatory.—The committe considers that, although the matter
of a vulcanological observatory is not as immediately urgent as the co-operation with
Yale, it is in entire sympathy with its proposed establishment. Although this observatory
would naturally not be situated at the same place as the proposed central observatory,
it might come under the guidance of the same committee of visitors to be appointed
by the Institute. The committee understands that there is a report from Dr. Jaggar,
and after seeing that report it hopes to give further deliberation to the subject.”

The above report was forwarded to the Hon. Ministers of External and Internal
Affairs, and the following reply was received from the latter :—

“Yale offer: The representations of your committee thereon are noted.
Dr. Schlesinger was written to some little time ago and asked to supply further details
in regard to the offer of telescopes, &c., and it had been decided that until a reply is
received the question of the Government Astronomer proceeding to Central Otago or
elsewhere to investigate the most suitable site for a Government Observatory has to stand
over.” (The Minister subsequently stated that Dr. Adams was to visit Otago at once
for the purpose of investigation as above.) “‘It is noted that the committee is in
entire sympathy with the proposal to establish a vulcanological observatory in New
Zealand. The Director of the Dominion Museum on his recent visit to Honolulu was
instructed to report on the vulcanological observatory work being done there, and to
make a recommendation on his return as to whether it is desirable or otherwise to
establish an observatory on similar lines in this Dominion. In the meantime I have
pleasure in forwarding herewith a copy of Dr. Jaggar’s report.”

Dr. Jaggar’s report has since been published in the Journal of Science and Technology
(vol. 3, pp. 162-67, 1920).

Method of electing Fellows —It was resolved, on the motion of Dr.
Cockayne, seconded by Professor Segar, that a committee be appointed to
draw up rules for a simple method of voting.

It was resolved, on the motion of Dr. Cockayne, seconded by Professor
Segar, that Professor H. W. Segar, Professor D. M. Y. Sommerville,
Dr. J. Allan Thomson, and the President be a committee to draw up the
simple rules for election.

It was resolved, on the motion of Archdeacon Williams, seconded by
Mr. Wright, that the question as to whether in any one year the Governors
shall be obliged to fill all the vacancies be submitted to the committee on
voting, and that if necessary they recommend a method of procedure to
meet the case.

Index to Last Ten Volumes.—On the motion of Professor Kirk, seconded
by Dr. Thomson, it was resolved, That the Institute express its apprecia-
tion of Major Wilson’s action in having a manuscript index of the last ten
volumes of the Transactions of the New Zealand Institute prepared and
handing over the index to the Institute for publication.

Scientific and Industrial Research—The President read a copy of his
letter of the 27th July to the Minister. On the motion of Dr. Chilton,
seconded by Dr. Hilgendorf, the action of the President was approved.

Hamilton Prize—The President made a statement as to the corre-
spondence and conference with the Wellington Philosophical Society. The
draft regulations for administering the prize as drawn up by Mr. Von
Haast were read and approved. On the motion of the President it was
resolved, That application be made forthwith to the Wellington Philo-
sophical Society to hand over the moneys of the Hamilton Memorial Fund
for administration by the New Zealand Institute, in conformity with the
above rules.

Annual Meeting. 497

Circulation of Proceedings of this Meeting.—On the motion of Dr. Hilgen-
dorf, seconded by Mr. Wright, it was resolved, That the issue of separate
copies of the minutes of the annual meeting of the Board of Governors
be discontinued, but that copies of an abstract of the minutes be sent to
each incorporated society as soon as possible.

Finance-—On the motion of Professor Kirk, seconded by the Ven.
Archdeacon Williams, it was resolved, That the Institute express to the
Hon. Minister of Internal Affairs its appreciation of the action of the
Government in forwarding the passing of the New Zealand Institute
Amendment Act, 1920.

Election of Fellows—Correspondence between the Standing Committee
and Professor Park in connection with the election of Fellows was read
and discussed. Professor Segar was appointed honorary returning officer,
and it was decided that voting-papers could be handed im either at this
meeting or in Palmerston North.

Hector Award.—The report of the Hector Award Committee, recom-
mending that the award for 1921 be awarded to Mr. R. Speight, of
Canterbury Museum, was read and adopted.

Report oF Hector MemoriaL AWARD COMMITTEE.

The committee that was appointed to make the award of the Hector Medal for
1921 have unanimously decided to recommend to the Institute the name of Mr. R.
Speight, M.A., M.Se., F.G.S., F.N.Z. Inst.

The committee considers that there is no lack of geologists in New Zealand who
are fully qualified by their ability and work to be recipients of the medal. We are
unanimously of opinion that Mr. Speight has special claims to the honour in virtue of
his valuable work in petrology, physiography, and stratigraphy, which has been carried
on continuously with energy and zeal since 1892.

P. MARSHALL.

Annual Meeting—tIt was resolved .that the next annual meeting be
held on Tuesday, 3lst January, 1922.

The meeting at 3.30 p.m. adjourned to Palmerston North, to sit again
on Monday, 24th instant, at 9 a.m.

The adjourned meeting was held in the High School, Palmerston North,
at 9 a.m. on Monday, 24th January, 1921.

Present: Professor Easterfield (President), Mr. B. C. Aston, Dr. L.
Cockayne, Professor Charles Chilton, Mr. M. A. Eliott, Hon. G. M. Thomson,
Dr. J. Allan Thomson, Mr. A. M. Wright, and Ven. Archdeacon H. W.
Williams.

Financial Statements—Hon. Treasurer’s reports: The statements of
receipts and expenditure, and liabilities and assets, duly audited by the
Auditor-General, were read and approved.

On the motion of Dr. J. Allan Thomson, seconded by Ven. Archdeacon
Willams, it was resolved, That each year, unless otherwise provided for
by resolution of the Board of Governors, the annual interest on the
Endowment Fund be added to the capital of the fund,

On the motion of the Ven. Archdeacon Williams, seconded by Mr. M. A.
Eliott, it was resolved, That for every copy of Volume 53 of the Transactions
received by the incorporated societies a contribution of 2s. 6d. towards the
cost of printing shall be made during the current year by such society.

498

Proceedings.

New ZEALAND INSTITUTE.—STATEMENT OF RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURE FOR THE
YEAR ENDING 31st DecEmBeER, 1920.

Receipts. £

Balance at 3lst December,
UNG) 3c 1,818
Jovernment statutory grant 1,000
Publications sold 108
Affiliated societies’ levy 116

Government grants for re-
search 800
£3,842

Balance in—

Samae
4 8
0 0
ae)
0 O
0 0
8 5

Bank of New Zealand
Post Office Savings-bank

Made up as follows—
Endowment Fund

Balance Government research grants
Institute’s General Purposes Account

Library Fund .

Hex penditure. 22
Government Printer Z 83
Whitcombe and Tombs--
stationery 1
Travelling-expenses of Go-
vernors 37
Petty cash, postages, and
clerical 53
Assistant secretary—salary 69
Fire-insurance premium 5
Bank charge - 0
Travelling - expenses, Pro-
fessor Farr, Samoan Com-
mittee 7
Subantarctic Report pur-
chased 2
Whitcombe and “Tombs—
binding 4
Research grants, | as per list 1 041
Balance, as under 2,536
£3, 842
Soe s.G.
479 17 9
056 4 8

2 Qo &

Cuas. A.

Ewen, Hon. Treasurer.

s. d.
19 O
2° 9
16 0
(oh
6 O
0 0
10 0
1G:
cs
is)
Tf lal
yy 5}

The Audit Office, having examined the balance-sheet and accompanying accounts
required by law to be audited, hereby certifies the same ted be correct.

R. J. CoLiins,

(Gontrotlee and Auditor-General.

New ZEALAND INStrITUTH.—STATEMENT OF LIABILITIES AND ASSETS, AT 31ST DECEMBER,

Liabilities.

To Hector Memorial Fund
Hutton Memorial Fund
Carter Bequest
Balance Governmeni re-

search grants
Balance Endow ment
Fund oe
Government Printer’s

Accounts—
Vols525) Se c8700"0
Extracts, &c. 33 4 5

Unpaid accounts
Library Fund
Balance in hand

5
1,062

898
4,780

1,268
56

903
43
245
31

£9,290

1

Oucs S24

15
15

1920.

d. Assets. ne,

0 | By Balance in Public Trus-

5 tee’s hands—

9 Hector Memorial Fund 1,062

Hutton Memorial Fund 898

1 Carter Bequest . 4,780
Outstanding accounts .. 13

8 Bank of New Zealand 479
Post Office Savings-bank 2,056

5

0

0

0

2 £9,290

s.

1

_—
rm 1O Oo ©

ipa)

d.

DMO105 NO

Annual Meewng.

New ZBALAND INSTITUTE.—GOVERNMENT RESEARCH GRANTS.

1920.
Jan. 1. By Balance on hand

May 14. Government grant

July 7. Government grant

July 28. Government grant

July 28. Government grant

July 28. Government grant

Dec. 3. Government grant

Dec. 3. Government grant

Jan. 20. To Grant to Pancisicr and ieomes
dining 24E Grant to Dr. Allan Thomson
Jan. 2s Grant to Mr. W. G. Morrison
Jan. 29. Grant to Professor Marsden
Feb. 12. Grant to Professor Easterfield
Feb. 13. Grant to Dr. Thomson ..
Feb. 19. trant to Professor C. C. Farr
Feb. 24. Grant to Professor Malcolm
Mar. 8. Grant to Professor Farr

Mar. 30 Grant to Dr. Adams

April 30 Grant to Professor Malcolm
May 28 Grant to Professor Evans
June 22 Grant to Professor Easterfield
July 19 Grant to Professor Malcolm
July 19 Grant to Mr. H. D. Skinner
July 28 Grant to Sir D. E. Hutchins
Aug. 12 Grant to Mr. H. D. Skinner
Sept. 3 Grant to Professor Malcolm
Sept. 6 Grant to Mr. H. D. Skinner
Oct. 6 Grant to Professor Evans
Oct. 15 Grant to Miss K. M. Curtis
Nov. 5 Grant to Mr. H. D. Skinner
Nov. 15 Grant to Mr. G. 8. Thomson
Nov. 15 Grant to Mr. H. D. Skinner
Dec. 3 Grant to Professor Marsden
Dec. 3 Grant to Professor Marsden

Balance

499
Dr. Cr.

£ Sade ag Rh le

; 1509 Ri SaO

200 Q O

150 0 0

200 0 0

50M LOMO

50) (0)70

100 0 O

50 0 O
Se ORO
DSi on 1G
40 0 0
a0) HC) 0)
455 10) 50)
SOs O
955 On -0)
Sys) = (Oy (0)
sys 0) (0)
D0 OO
20° 00
120 0 0
60 O O
ONO RO
Pat aly
Zo OREO
43ers O
250 0
41 10 O
60 0 O
ab 83, x0)
69 0 O
HN 0. O
2110 Q
20) 0550
Ay
LOE RE 7 a)
1268 sed) el

seropeN ys) 18}, (0) eens) J183 (0)

Hutrron Memorial RESEARCH FUND.—STATEMENT OF ACCOUNT FOR THE YEAR ENDING

3lst DECEMBER, 1920.

By Balance a: é
Public Trust Office—
Interest to 3lst December, 1920, at 43 £€ s. d.
per cent. :
Bonus to 3ist March, 1920 .

To Balance

Dr. Cy
a5 ASS (ol an Rb Gl
856 14 5
Si 42 50
898 19 5 ae

£898) 119" 5 £898 19 5

500 Proceedings.

Hector Memoria Funp.—STATEMENT OF ACCOUNT FOR THE YEAR ENDING 31ST
DECEMBER, 1920.

Dr. Cr.
£ s. d. £ s. d.
By Balance ae ! = ae a ae IAD ss7/ Sie ii!
Public Trust Office—
Interest to 3lst December, 1920, at 43 £ s. d.
per cent. ian, ca De Ag mL
Bonus interest to 31st March, 192032 4N2E(
49 16 1}
To New Zealand Institute Account—
S. Percy Smith: Hector Prize for 1920 Be 45 0 0
Balance : a 1,062 0 0
STO se OO me cole On Om
By Balance ae sie is s6 ae 5S £1,062 0 0
CaRTER BEQUEST.—STATEMENT OF ACCOUNT FOR THE YEAR ENDING 31st DECEMBER,
1920.
Dr. Cr.
5% Shade ig Es cle
By Balance ee : si 4c oe a 4,555 11 6
Public Trust Offices]
Interest to 31st December, 1920, at 44 £ s. d.
per cent. 205 0 3
Bonus on interest a 31st March, 1920 19 14 O
oo Ne 224 14 3
To Balance a te ee BA bi 4,780 5 9
1) AS78045 0290) £4780 Bao
By Balance oe 28 he a 5% Of £4,780 5 9
Assets. 18 s. d.
Balance as per accounts .. sc ac Be a8 SA,780 5 9
Liabilities. £ Sgt
Legacy—Museum and New Zealand Institute Ae aS 50 0 0
Public Trustee’s commission a ae ae nr At scale rates.

Public Trustee’s reports on (a) Carter Bequest, (b) Hutton Memorial
Fund, (c) Hector Memorial Fund, were received.

Hutton Research Grant Fund.—A report from Miss Mestayer was received.

REPorRT OF GRANT FROM Hutton RESEARCH FUND.

Miss Mestayer, who was granted £10 from the Hutton Fund, reports that during the
year she received the drawings of three new species of Amphineurs from Miss J. K.
Allan, and of an established species needed for the purpose of comparison, the account
for which was £4 5s. Miss Mestayer has been able to finish and hand in to the Hon.
Secretary of the Wellington Philosophical Society the paper relating to them. Another
short paper, for which no drawings were required, was also handed to him. There is
a balance of £5 on hand.

Government Research Grant Fund—The report of the Research Grant
Committee was received and considered. On the motion of Ven. Arch-
deacon Williams, seconded by Mr. Eliott, it was resolved, That all
unexpended balances of research grants made prior to January, 1919, be
refunded on or before 31st March in the present year, the grantee in each
case being left free to apply for a renewal of the grant.

Annual Meeting. 5O1

The administration of the grants made to Dr. Adams and the question
of the unexpended balance of the vote to the late Sir David Hutchins
were left in the hands of the Standing Committee to deal with.

With regard to the grant to Mr. Morrison, on the motion of Dr. Cockayne,
seconded by Dr. Thomson, it was resolved, That the Standing Committee
be instructed to ascertain from the Forestry Department whether they are
prepared to give Mr. Morrison facilities for carrying out his research and
so relieve the Research Fund of this expense.

Report oF RESEARCH GRANT COMMITTER, 1920.
(Dr. J. Allan Thomson, Mr. Furkert, and Mr. Aston.)

(For previous reports see Trans. N.Z. inst., vol. 50, p. 333; vol. 51, p. 462; and
vol. 52, p. 479.)

Professor J. Malcolm, who in 1919 was granted £275, and in 1920 £150, through the
Otago Institute, for a research on the chemical composition and food value of New
Zealand fishes, reported on the 3rd December, 1920, that Mrs. D. E. Johnson, B.Sc.,
had, under his supervision, continued this research throughout the year. Samples of
groper and kingfish were analysed at fairly regular intervals from February to September
to give some idea of the seasonal variations. Some new varieties were analysed—e.g.,
whitebait—and a detailed qualitative analysis of the edible parts of the groper had been
commenced, and the results would be published in vol. 58, Trans. N.Z. Inst., as Part IT
of the series of papers on the subject. About £220 had been expended, and liability
for apparatus ordered but not come to hand had been incurred up to about £50, leaving
a balance of about £150. Professor Malcolm desires to continue the research next year.

Professor /. Malcolm, who in 1918 was granted £30 through the Otago Institute
for a research on New Zealand plant poisons, reported on the 3rd December, 1920, that
owing to the claims of University work and the research of the food values of fish he
had been unable to complete the work, and, as there still remained about £14 unexpended,
he would like to have the time extended for another year.

Dr. C. Chilton, who in 1918 was granted £50 through the Philosophical Institute
of Canterbury for investigation on the New Zealand flax (phormium), reported on the
22nd November, 1920, that owing to Mrs. Dr. B. D. McCallum being still in Edinburgh,
and it being impossible to find any one to continue the work, no progress had been made
with this research. He hoped that one of the students now finishing their honours
course would be able to take up the work; if not, the balance of the grant would be
refunded.

Mr. H. D. Skinner, who in 1920 was granted £200 through the Otago Institute
for work among the South Island Maoris, reported on the 15th November, 1920, that
Mr. Beattie, his assistant, had been working in the field between the Bluff and Kaiapoi,
and had secured a large amount of entirely new material relating to Maori life in Otago,
Canterbury, Westland, and Nelson. In view of the scantiness of the material previously
recorded from the South Island, Mr. Beattie’s results are of very great importance.
An amount of £3 10s. is still unexpended.

Messrs. R. Speight and L. J. Wild, who in 1916 were granted £50 through the
Philosophical Institute of Canterbury for a research on the phosphatic limestones of
Canterbury, reported on the 21st October, 1920, that it had not been possible to do any
work in connection with this grant during the current year, and no further sum had been
expended, so that the amount of £7 remaining from last year is still left over, and the
grantees would be glad if the Board would consent to its being available for the
ensuing year, when it is confidently expected that the investigation will be completed.
It is still possible, though not probable, that one or two outlying masses of limestone
not yet examined may furnish material in commercial amount, and their possibilities
should be thoroughly determined before the research is discontinued.

Mr. R. Speight, who in 1919 was granted £225 through the Philosophical Institute
of Canterbury for a geological survey of Malvern Hills, reported on the 21st October,
1920, that the work had been carried out during the year, and a complete examination
had been made of Cordys Flat and the country adjoining it. This work had been
facilitated by. the recommencement of prospecting in the neighbourhood of Hill’s old
mine, and the results encourage the hope that payable coal may be located in the flat,
but further prospecting, either by shafts or by boring, on some plan, will have to be
resorted to before the existence of a payable field can be established. An investigation
of other parts of the district is in progress, and may yet disclose the presence of large

502 Proceedings.

and payable deposits. The investigations carried on up to the present are of the nature
of field-work, and it is hoped that during the ensuing year arrangements may be
possible with the Chemical Laboratory at Canterbury College which will allow the
chemical and physical properties of the sands and clays to be determined with accuracy.
The work involved an expenditure of £15 3s. 6d.

Mr. L. J. Wild, who in 1918 was granted £30 through the Philosophical Institute
of Canterbury for a research on soils, reported on the 10th December, 1920, that some
of the material collected in connection with this grant had been used in a paper ‘‘ On
the Calcium-carbonate Content of some Canterbury Soils,’’ which had been published
in the N.Z. Journal of Science and Technology, vol. 3, No. 2. The sum of 18s. only had
been expended.

Messrs. Lancaster and Cornes, who in 1919 were granted £50 through the Auckland
Institute for a research on the growth of New Zealand timber-trees, reported on the
30th October, 1920, that owing to Mr. Cornes’s removal to Nelson and to a heavy
University College session very little headway had been made with this research.
Mr. Lancaster trusted, however, that he would soon be able to devote a considerable time
to the growth of kauri, and he was engaged in making a careful analysis of microscope
sections of the stems of young kauri to determine whether the kauri, particularly when
young, produced one ring of wood per year. None of the grant had been expended.

The late Sir David Hutchins, who in 1920 was granted £60 through the Wellington
Philosophical Society for research in forestry, reported on the lst November 1920, that
he had made journeys to Napier, to the Taupo Totara Timber Company, and to the
King-country, making daily journeys into the bush with the bushmen and examining
the trees as they were felled. At the same time collections of young planted +rees of
known ages were examined and measured up as opportunities offered. He had obtained
sufficient figures to complete his growth-data for white-pine, rimu, and totara (kauri
being already completed). He required only data for celery-top and a few minor timbers.
Expenses amounting to £53 11s. had been incurred. A further application for a grant of
£25 to Sir David had been approved by the Standing Committee, but his lamentable
death rendered this grant unnecessary. Your committee learns with satisfaction that
the whole of the notes and the manuscripts left by the late gentleman have been handed
over unconditionally to the Forestry Department, the chiefs of which are anxious to
have some use made of the material. It is suggested that a grant from the research
vote should be made to some competent person working under the direction of the
Secretary of the Forestry Department to collate the material left by Sir D. Hutchins
in order that what is suitable should be finally edited by Mr. E. Phillips Turner and
published.

Professor W. P. Evans, who in 1920 was granted a further £200 through the
Philosophical Institute of Canterbury for a research on New Zealand coals, reported
on the 10th December, 1920, that an analysis had been made of Avoca, Taratu, Coal
Creek Flat, Puponga, and Charleston coals; distillation tests, producer runs, and
extractions had been made of a number of coals; and calorific values had been taken of
Homebush, Mossbank, Mount Somers, Inangahua, Taratu, Kaitangata, Coal Creek
Flat, Puponga, and Charleston coals. An analysis of gas from Charleston coals, an
estimation of sulphuretted hydrogen in producer-gas, and experiments with residues
from oils in Kaitangata, Avoca, and Charleston coals had also been completed.
Experiments with coaldust had been postponed pending further more detailed reports
of work in the United States of America. Mr. Gilling had been most assiduous in
carrying on the experimental portion of the work. Professor Evans applied for a further
grant of £200, as there remains only about £60 of the old grant. £150 is for the salary
of an assistant and the remainder for the apparatus. This grant has been approved
subject to the Hon. Minister’s approval.

Mr. G. Brittin, who in 1919 was granted £100 through the Philosophical Institute
of Canterbury for a research in fruit-diseases, reported on the 7th December that the
work for the past twelve months had been very satisfactory in regard to the experimental
portion, but, owing to the instruments and books indented not having arrived, very
little could be done microscopically. Pruning had again been carried out on the same
lines, and had again proved beneficial in regard to die-back of the fruit-trees. Spraying
had also been conducted experimentally, and had proved very satisfactory in preventing
bud-dropping. A paper on the research was now ready for publication, and is to be
forwarded to the Journal of Agriculture. Experimental work had also been done in
regard to Venturia inequalis (black spot) and Sclerotinia fructigena (brown rot). There
remained a balance of about £97.

Professor C. Coleridge Farr, who in 1919 was granted £100, and in 1920 an addi-
tional £30, through the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, for a research on the

Annual Meeting. 503

porosity of high-voltage insulators, reported on the 19th November, 1920, that £110
had been expended in constructing a testing-vessel and the mechanical appliances
necessary for manipulating the heavy masses of iron which were required in the con-
struction of a vessel to stand such high pressure. The tests were entirely satisfactory.
The testing-vessel stood a pressure of 2,000 lb. to the square inch for several days
without serious leakage. The tests for porosity were made on complete unbroken
insulators. These tests proved that the breakdowns upon the Lake Coleridge system were
in a very large measure due to porous insulators, and a test was devised which was
imposed upon recent tenderers for insulators for the Dominion by the Public Works
Department. It is hoped shortly to publish a detailed account of the tests and the
results arrived at from them. An application from Dr. Farr for a further grant of
£75 for a research into the physical properties of gas-free sulphur has been approved
subject to the Hon. Minister’s consent.

Miss K. M. Curtis, who in 1920 was granted £100 through the Nelson Institute
for a research in parasitic mycology, and in particular with reference to fruit-tree disease
in New Zealand, reported on the 13th December, 1920, that the question being con-
sidered in connection with the black spot of apple and the brown rot of stone-fruits
is that of immunity to disease. The experiments are being run conjointly for the two
diseases, and those so far carried out concern the determination of the optimum
physical conditions for spore-germination, the selection of the most suitable media
to secure the rapidity, the greatest percentage, and the virility of cultures following
spore-germination, and the determination of the age-limits of the cultures within which
infection of the host can be relied upon to take place. The sum of £21 has been
received, and will cover the cost of certain books ordered.

Mr. George Gray, who in 1920 was granted £50 through the Philosophical Institute
of Canterbury for an investigation on the waters of Canterbury, reported on the
14th December, 1920, that owing to delay caused by having to fit up a laboratory for
the work, and the difficulty in obtaining suitable apparatus, the investigation had been
in abeyance, and requested that the grant, of which no portion had been expended,
should be available for next year.

Dr. C. E, Adams, who in 1919 was granted £55 through the Wellington Philosophical
Society, reported on the 15th December that this amount had been forwarded to the
British Astronomical Association, and out of it a micrometer eye-piece had been
purchased and had been received here. The eye-piece had been adapted to the
Wellington Philosophical Society’s equatorial telescope at Wellington, and has been
partly tested, but so far the weather has not permitted a systematic use of the micro-
meter. It is, however, available and ready for measurement of any comets, &c., that
may be discovered. The British Association reports that owing to the high cost of
the other apparatus it is desirable to postpone purchase at present, with which view
Dr. Adams concurs; and the association has been asked to make inquiries for suitable
second-hand apparatus. There is a balance of £36 12s. 2d.

Dr. C. EZ. Adams, who was further granted £159 through the Wellington Philosophical
Society for a research on astronomical and geophysical sites, reported on the 16th
December, 1920, that preliminary investigations had been carried out in parts of Central
and North Otago, and arrangements have been made with a number of voluntary
workers to report on the weather conditions at various places in Otago. Part of the
grant has been spent in obtaining thermometers, &c., for this work. Of this grant
there is still an unexpended balance of £134 14s.

Mr. W. G. Morrison, who in 1919 was granted £100 through the Philosophical
Institute of Canterbury, reported on the 12th December, 1920, that owing to limited
leave comparatively small progress had been made in the gathering of data. Without
extended leave he could not visit exotic plantations and native forests other than those
situated within easy reach of Hanmer, and in consequence his research work had been
confined to the North Canterbury district only. Nevertheless, some useful data had
been collected, and numerous photographs illustrative of natural seeding in various
stages of development had been supplied to the Director of Forestry, who had described
them as being “ wonderful” and of superlative interest. A preliminary report on the
native forests of the Hanmer district was compiled and forwarded to the Director of
Forestry, who has acknowledged the work done as of great value. There is still an
unexpended amount of £30.

Dr. J. Allan Thomson, who was granted £100 through the Wellington Philosophical
Society for a research into the chemical characters of igneous rocks, reported on the
5th January, 1921, that in his original application he stated that there was reason to
believe the superior analysis of igneous rocks, conforming to the standards selected,
would number about three thousand, of which he had previously calculated one

504 Proceedings.

thousand. On receipt of Washington’s second edition of Superior Analysis of Igneous
Rocks it was found that the number greatly exceeded the three thousand estimated,
and that the grant of £100 would not suffice to pay assistants to calculate them all.
He therefore restricted the employment of the assistants to plotting the chief constituents
against silica, and this has been completed for Al,O3, Fe2O3, FeO, MgO, CaO, K,O,
and Na,O. Owing to his absence from New Zealand during the latter part of 1920,
Dr. Thomson has been unable to study the plots in detail and decide whether it is
advisable to apply for a further grant for completing the calculations, or to publish the
results deducible from the work already carried out. This he hoped to do during 1921.
An amount, £15 12s. 6d., of the grant is unexpended, and Dr. Thomson applies for a
renewal of this, in case it is found desirable to prepare the plots for publication.

Hon. G. M. and G. S. Thomson, who were in 1919 granted £50 through the Otago
Institute for a research on the economic value of whale-feed, reported on the
11th November that owing to delay in obtaining apparatus required it had not been
possible to make much progress as yet with the research. A considerable amount of
material had been collected and observations made on the occurrence of the whale-
feed, but no actual analytical work had yet been done. Advice had been received
that the apparatus ordered had arrived in New Zealand, and £50 would be required
on account, which would in all probability, owing to the increased prices, be considerably
over £80, making it necessary to apply later for an increased grant.

Professor T. H. Easterfield, who in 1919 was granted £250 through the Wellington
Philosophical Society for an investigation of New Zealand oils, waxes, and resins,
reported on the 6th January, 1921, that £98 19s. had last year been spent in salaries
of assistants, and a further £98 in the year following, leaving a balance of £52 Is.
A paper embodying the results of the investigation will be read at the Palmerston North
Science Congress. The research is being continued.

Publication Commuttee’s Report—The report of the Publication Com-
mittee was read and received.

REPORT OF PUBLICATION COMMITTEE.

Thirty-seven papers, by twenty-six authors, were accepted for publication in
volume 52 of the Transactions of the New Zealand Institute, and the volume was issued
on the 9th August, 1920. It is practically the same size as the previous year’s volume,
and contains xxx plus 544 pages (of which 78 are devoted to the Proceedings and
Appendix), 30 plates (one coloured), and a large number of text-figures.

No extra publications were issued during the year, but two bulletins—viz., Dixon’s
Mosses and Broun’s Coleoptera—and also the Index to volumes 41-51, are now in the
printer’s hands. For the Committee.

JOHANNES CO. ANDERSEN, Hon. Editor.

Library Report—The report of the Library Committee was read and
received, and, on the motion of Ven. Archdeacon Williams, seconded by
Mr. Wright, it was resolved, That the Board of Governors of the New
Zealand Institute desires to urge once more upon the Cabinet the para-
mount necessity for the erection, with the least possible delay, of a
suitable building for the accommodation of the Museum and the library
of the Institute, and in doing this would point out once more that the
continued neglect of the Government in this respect is involving the risk
of the irreparable loss of many unique and priceless specimens and volumes
which are still housed in an unsuitable wooden building.

On the motion of Dr. Cockayne, seconded by Mr. Eliott, it was resolved,
That the Board of Governors are of the opinion that the Dominion
Museum would be greatly benefited by being placed under the control of
a National Board of Trustees ; and that this resolution be forwarded to the
Government.

Report OF LIBRARY COMMITTEE.

No favourable change in the condition of the library during 1920 can be reported.
The accommodation available is too small to house all the books of the library, and a
large proportion of the older books are packed away in boxes in the Museum store-
shed. During the coming year it will be necessary to store a further proportion to

Annual Meeting. 505

make room for the incoming exchanges, unless further shelf accommodation can be
provided. This is not possible in the present room.

Owing to the absence of the Honorary Librarian during the latter months of
1920, no steps have been taken to secure fresh quotations for binding. With the
prospect of falling prices this may be found expedient in 1921. The greater part of
the £250 voted for this purpose by the Government in 1919 is still unexpended.

A list of the publications received during 1919 was published in the annual volume
for 1920.

J. ALLAN THomson, Hon. Librarian.
Regulations Committee Report—The report of the Regulations Committee
was read and received, and the committee was appointed for another year.

REPORT OF REGULATIONS COMMITTEE.
(Hon. Librarian, Hon. Editor, Hon. Treasurer, and Hon. Secretary.)

The committee reports that the minute-book and published reports have been
carefully searched for matter which has the force of regulations, and the results have
been classified in a schedule which has been prepared and which it is hoped to go into
fully during the coming year. The committee therefore suggests that its term of office
should be extended for another year.

Honorary Members’ Roll—There was no response to the President’s
invitation for any Governor to notify any vacancy in the roll of honorary
members through death.

Hlection of Fellows—The ballot for the election of Fellows resulted in
the election of the following, as reported by the hon. returning officer :
Dr. C. A. Cotton, Dr F. W. Hilgendorf, Rev. Dr. Holloway, “Professor
James Park.

Correspondence.—It was resolved to refer the International Catalogue
of Scientific Literature Report to the Standing Committee to deal with
Applications for publications were referred to the Standing Committee.

It was resolved, in connection with certain proposals brought before
the Board by Mr. G. V. Hudson, That, as Mr. Hudson’s proposals would
involve altering the constitution of the Institute, with a corresponding
amendment of the Act, no action be taken.

With reference to a letter dated 7th November, 1920, from the Philo-
sophical Institute of Canterbury, regarding the Carter library, permission
was given the Standing Committee to house the Carter collection in the
Turnbull Library if suitable arrangements for doing so could be made

In reference to a letter dated 23rd December, 1920, from the Philo-
sophical Institute of Canterbury, it was resolved, on the motion of
Dr. Thomson seconded by Hon. G. M. Thomson, That a committee
consisting of Professor D. M. Y. Sommerville and Mr. G. EK. Archey be set
up to frame a practicable scheme for a printed catalogue of scientific serials
in the various libraries of the Domimion, and report to the Standing
Committee.

Tn reference to a letter from Mr. Henry Woods, who wrote to say he
had not received his certificate of membership, it was resolved to issue a
plain honorary membership certificate, the supply of parchment forms being
exhausted.

Election of Officers. — President, Professor T. H. Easterfield; Hon.
Treasurer, Mr. M. A. Eliott; Hon. Editor, Mr. Johannes C. Andersen ;
Hon. Librarian, Dr. J. Allan Thomson ; Hon. Secretary, Mr. B. C. Aston.

On the motion of Ven. Archdeacon Williams, seconded by Dr. Chilton,
it was resolved, That the Board desires to place on record its appreciation
of the valuable services rendered to the Institute by Mr. C. A. Ewen during
the many years in which he has acted as Hon. Treasurer of the Institute.

506 Proceedings.

Election of Committees —Library Committee : Dr. Thomson (convener),
Dr. Cotton, Mr. Andersen, and Professor Sommerville.

Publications Committee : Professor Kirk, Dr. Cotton, Mr. J. C. Andersen,
Dr. Thomson, and Mr. Aston (reappointed).

Research Grants Committee : Standing Committee and Mr. Furkert.

Hector Award Committee: Professor Easterfield (convener), Professor
F. D. Brown, and Sir EK. Rutherford.

Regulations Committee: Mr. Andersen, Dr. Thomson, Mr. Eliott, and
Mr. Aston.

Observatory Committee: Professors Easterfield, Farr, Marsden, Dr.
Cotton, Dr. Adams, and Mr. Gifford (reappointed).

Travelling-eapenses.—It was-tesolved to pay travelling-expenses of the
members of the Board of Governors.

Minutes Authority was granted to the Standing Committee to confirm
the minutes.

Votes of Thanks were passed to the Palmerston North High School
Board for the use of the school for this meeting, and to the honorary
officers of the Institute for their work during the year.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE
SCIENCE CONGRESS.

PaLtMERSTON Nortu, JANUARY, 1921.

The second Science Congress of the New Zealand Institute was held at
Palmerston North from the 25th to the 29th January. The attendance
was smaller than that of the former Congress, but the standard of papers
and discussions was equally high, and the general expression of opinion
of the members participating was that the Congress was a great success.

A very attractive booklet for the meeting was issued by the Borough
Council, in the form of an illustrated Municipal Year-book, with a full
statement of the situation, population, early history, waterworks, public
reserves, and municipal enterprises of the borough, and an appendix giving
the programme of the Science Congress, including articles on the plants
of the Manawatu, by Dr. L. Cockayne; the geology of the Palmerston
district, by Dr. P. Marshall; notes on the Manawatu swamps and district,
by Mr. R. Edwards ; and notes on the botany of the Esplanade, by Mr. R.
Black. This booklet will always form a useful handbook for visitors to
Palmerston North.

The programme of the Congress was similar in general outlines to that
of the Christchurch meeting in 1919. The sectional and general meetings
were held in the Boys’ High School buildings, the public addresses in the
Municipal Hall. The afternoons were devoted to excursions to the water-
works at Tiritea, the ‘‘ Glaxo” factory at Bunnythorpe, and to a garden
party at the Esplanade. On Saturday a full-day excursion was made, first
to the Miranui flax-swamp and Messrs. A. and L. Seifert’s flax-mills, and
later to the Mangahao hydro-electric works. The evenings were occupied
by the opening meeting, two public lectures, and a conversazione.

New Zealand Institute Science Congress. 507

OFFICERS OF THE CONGRESS.

PRESIDENT OF THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTH.
Professor T. H. Easterfield, M.A., Ph.D., F.N.Z.Inst., Cawthron Institute, Nelson.

Hon. GENERAL SECRETARY.
Mr. C. T. Salmon, P.O. Box 293, Palmerston North.

LocaL ExEcutTIve COMMITTER.

Chairman, Mr. M. A. Eliott ; Vice-Chairman, Mr. J. Murray; Hon. Treasurer, Mr. J. R.
Hardie ; and the Mayor (Mr. J. A. Nash, M.P.), Dr. H. D. Bett, Messrs. W. F. Dur-
ward, E. H. Crabb, A. Whitaker, H. Seifert, J. B. Gerrand, W. Park, C. N. Clausen,
E. Larcomb, C. A. Hertzell, R. Edwards, R. F. G. Grace, A. J. Colquhoun,
J. J. Stevenson.

GENERAL EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.

Professors T. H. Easterfield and C. Chilton, Drs. L. Cockayne and J. Allan Thomson,
Hon. G. M. Thomson, and Mr. M. A. Eliott, representing the Board of Governors ;
Sir James Wilson, Professor J. Park, Messrs. E. Miller, and L. Birks, as Chairmen
of sections; and Dr. D. H. Bett and Messrs. J. Murray and C. T. Salmon, representing
the local executive. Hon. Secretary, Dr. J. Allan Thomson.

OFFICERS OF THE SECTIONS.

Agriculture.—President, Sir James Wilson, Bulls; Secretary, Mr. J. J. Stevenson,
44 Grey Street, Palmerston North.

Biology.—President, Dr. C. Chilton, M.A., F.N.Z.Inst., F.L.8., Biological Laboratory,
Canterbury College, Christchurch; Secretary, Mr. W. R. B. Oliver, Dominion
Museum, Wellington.

General Section.—President, Mr. E. V. Miller, 71 Upland Road, Remuera, Auckland ;
Secretary, Mr. E. KX. Lomas, Training College, Wellington.

Physics, Chemistry, and Engineering.—President, Mr. Laurence Birks, B.Sc., M.tst.C.E.,
M.1.E.E., M.I.M.E., Public Works Department, Wellington; Secretary, Mr. J. A.
Colquhoun, M.Se., 18 Bryant Street, Palmerston North.

Geology. — President, Professor J. Park, F.G.S., University of Otago; Secretary,
Dr. J. Allan Thomson, M.A., F.G.S., F.N.Z.Inst., Dominion Museum, Wellington.

OPENING MEETING.

The opening meeting of the Congress was held in the Town Hall on
Tuesday night, 25th January, and was well attended not only by members
of the Congress, but also by residents. Mr. J. A. Nash, M.P., Mayor of
Palmerston North, welcomed the visitors in the name of the Borough
Council, and outlined the progressive policy they had pursued in regard
to municipal enterprises, and especially in the matter of reserves. He
hoped that when the next Congress was held there, which he trusted would
be only a few years hence, further great improvements now in train
would be visible.

The Hon. G. J. Anderson (Minister of Internal Affairs), in declaring
the Congress open, stated that during the last year he had given a good
deal of attention to three matters dear to the heart of the Institute. He
mentioned as desirable the acceptance of the gift of telescopes offered by
the Yale University. Inquiries had shown, however, that, instead of cost-
ing only £7,000 for installation, the preliminary cost would be £16,000,
and in the present serious condition of the world’s money-market and the
country’s finances, desirable as it was, he could not recommend so large
an expenditure to Cabinet. Otago, with its proverbial patriotism, had
offered to raise by subscription the sum of £7,000, and he regretted to
damp their enthusiasm by telling them how much more would be necessary.
As very desirable the Minister characterized the proposal to found in the

508 Proceedings.

volcanic district a vulcanological observatory. Dr. Jaggar, of the Hawaiian
Volcano Observatory, had presented him with a very able report on the
subject, and had convinced him that such an observatory in New Zealand,
by issuing warnings of eruptions, might be the means of saving life. No
sum of money was too great to expend in saving valuable lives, and as the
sum needed for an observatory was modest he intended to ask Cabinet
for it. The Minister said he had intended to do something last session in
the matter of encouraging scientific and industrial research, and his colleague
the Hon. Mr. Parr and himself were made a committee by Cabinet to deal
with the matter. He referred to the complexity of the scheme prepared by
the New Zealand Institute and National Efficiency Board, and to the large
amount, £20,000 for a period of five years, which that scheme demanded.
He had not yet made up his mind just what form the Government assistance
would take, but emphasized the need for all the scientific bodies co-operating
fully with one another and preventing all overlapping of effort and
expenditure.

The President of the New Zealand Institute, Professor T. H. Easterfield,
referred to the loss by death of two members whom all had looked forward
to seeing at this Congress—Mr. K. Wilson and Sir David Hutchins. At
his invitation the meeting stood in silence in their memory. He then
delivered his presidential address (see page xxv of the present volume).

Pustic LECTURES.

Public lectures were given on Wednesday and Thursday evenings in the
Town Hall, and were well attended by the citizens and visitors. On
Wednesday Dr. Tillyard gave an illustrated address on ‘“‘ Modern Methods
of Scientific Control of Insect Pests.’ American practice, he said, was
far above British in these matters, and he must “ take off his hat ”’ to the
Americans. Time permitted of a selection only of cases illustrating the
general principles involved. The first was quarantine and fumigation at the
ports of entry. In Honolulu the sugar-planters had thought it worth while
to supplement the salary of the Government officers in order to secure
fully qualified men, and the museum of the pests that had deen detected
and kept out was a most educative one. Various mechanical devices for
catching or trapping insects were described, and spraying was also illus-
trated by a picture which looked like a fire brigade at work, throwing
spray over a high forest-tree. It was found that the important thing in
spraying was the pressure, and large quantities of weak solutions of the
sprays were used. Injections of chemicals into the sap of trees was at
one time believed to be of little use, but recently the Italian Government
had had great success by this method, though it was being kept a close
secret at present. The most successful methods of control were biological.
These were of two kinds—the selection of strains immune from disease,
often the only possible and sometimes a very successful method of meeting
the ravages, and control of insects by their own insect enemies. Predatory
insects often served to keep pests under control, and many such could
be advantageously introduced into New Zealand. ‘‘ Big fleas have little
fleas upon their backs,” and very many insects could be controlled by their
own parasites. In introducing useful insects to a country it was all-
important to see that their own parasites were not introduced at the same
time. The lecturer concluded with an account of his own work in bringing
to New Zealand an enemy of the woolly aphis.

New Zealand Institute Science Congress. 509

On Thursday Mr. J. H. Edmundson, of Napier, gave a lecture on
* Liquid Air.”’ It was illustrated by lantern-slides of famous investigators
in the science of liquefaction, and by diagrams. Following upon the
explanations, the lecturer carried out some very remarkable and spectacular
experiments showing the results of extremely low temperatures. These
included the liquefaction on the stage of atmospheric air and pure oxygen.

Discussion ON THE FLax INDUSTRY.

The problems of the New Zealand flax industry were discussed at a
general session of the Congress on the morning of Thursday, 27th January.

The subject was introduced by Mr. A. Seifert, who gave an account
of the dimensions of the industry, and mentioned the ravages of the
yellow-leaf disease, which had caused during the last year the abandon-
ment of 5,000 acres of flax swamp. He compared the return per acre of
land under flax with that of land grazed for dairy-produce, and concluded
that the growing of flax was a much more profitable method of utilizing
the land. Compared with the difficulties confronting other types of fibre,
New Zealand flax was in a favourable position, but it was necessary to
obtain immunity from the yellow-leaf disease. His firm had made some
experiments with fertilizers, and, though it was too early to give definite
results, they were so far in favour of the use of fertilizers, especially super-
phosphate.

Dr. J. W. Mcllraith spoke on the economics of the flax industry. The
price of flax had steadily risen, and at a greater rate (136 per cent. in the
last twenty years) than other agricultural products (104 per cent. during
the same time). In the “nineties ” flax formed only 4 per cent. of our
exports ; now it formed 3 per cent. He concluded that it would have been
profitable to grow more flax in the past, and mentioned the existence of
large swamp areas which he thought should be utilized.

Mr. A. H. Cockayne mentioned the improvement of the Manawatu swamps
by draining, after which pure stands of flax automatically sprang up. The
district now possessed 23,000 out of the 50,000 acres of flax in New
Zealand. The gross returns per acre were greater than for any other form
of agriculture except orcharding. Diseases were now the limiting factors
of production; of these the yellow-leaf disease was the most serious,
rendering 6,000 acres unproductive. He exhibited specimens of diseased
plants, showing how the outer leaves of the fans assume a yellow colour and
ultimately shrivel up, while the next inner leaves are attacked, and so on,
The problem his department had to solve was whether the disease was
caused by bacteria, fungi, insects, or other pests. They had isolated six
species of bacteria infecting the roots, none of which had developed under
experimental conditions any pathogenic symptoms. A nemotode worm
had also been investigated—one of these worms is the cause of a disease
called “ yellow stripe” in the similar monocotyledonus daflodils—but the
numbers found were not sufficient to account for yellow-leaf disease.
Insects also failed to account for the disease, though they caused trouble
of another sort. Finally a fungus had been isclated, Ramularia phormii,
and was held to be the cause of the disease. The delay in its isolation
was the difficulty of sterilizing the surface of the roots, owing to their great
porosity. Field experiments showed that only that portion of the root
which absorbs water could be infected; this was not the primary root,
but the secondary or tertiary branches. Once these are infected, the
fungus spreads and reaches the primary roots. As it destroys the water-
absorbing roots, the fungus prevents the absorption of water. When

510 Proceedings.

the swamps get very dry the disease spreads very rapidly. Unless the
disease can be eliminated the industry is doomed. The fungus had been
isolated, developed in pure cultures, reintroduced into healthy plants, and
had produced yellow-leaf disease. Three methods of combating soil-
diseases were known: (1.) Soil-treatment, of which well-known cases were
the use of lime for club-root in cabbages, and sulphur for onion-smut.
On the whole, few diseases could be controlled by this method. (2.) Crop-
rotation, 2 method used successfully with a large number of diseases, such
as ‘‘take-ali’’ in wheat. AlJl such cases were diseases attacking annuals,
and the method was not possible with flax, which was a perennial. (3.) The
use of disease-resistant strains. Wonderful success had been secured by this
method in a great variety of diseases, including some caused by other
species of Ramuiaria—e.g., Irish-fax wilt, tomato-wilt, cotton-wilt, &c.
Healthy platits growing in diseased areas had been selected for breeding,
and the diseases had been combated. The control of yellow-leaf disease
must be found along this line.

Mr. R. Waters, who had conducted the isolation of the fungus under the
direction of Mr. Cockayne, mentioned the difficulty of sterilizing the exterior
of so porous a root. In the end slightly infected roots were selected, a jelly
was infected, and a growth obtained, of which he exhibited specimens.
The results of infection of healthy plants was at first negative until
seedlings were tried, when the disease quickly appeared. In answer to
Professor Easterfield, who asked whether disease-resisting plants showed any
root-infection, Mr. Waters stated that no work on disease-resistant strains
had yet been done, but root-infection was absent from healthy plants.

Dr. L. Cockayne stated that flax grew under almost all conditions—-
dry areas, wet areas, sweet soils, sour soils, recky slopes, wet clay, dry
clay, &c. No one could say yet under what circumstances we get the
best flax, and so an accurate survey of the plant as it grew in nature was
needed. The question to be settled was whether flax would not be a
profitable crop on poor lands. In his opinion, quite possibly the sand-
dune areas might be turned into flax-fields. He briefly alluded to his
previous work on the flax,* and stated that he did not at first believe it
to be a disease, but merely an effect of a non-correct system of swamp-
management.

Dr. ©. Chilton asked whether Koch’s conditions as to proof of patho-
genicity had been fulfilled, whether spores of the fungus had been obtained,
and whether treatment of the soils might not aiso help.

In reply, Mr. Waters stated that all of Koch’s conditions had not yet
been fulfilled, owing to the short time since the discovery. Spores of two
kinds had been obtained, hoth from the cultivated fungus and from diseased
plants.

Dr. Tillyard referred briefly to the insects found on or in the flax-
plants, and mentioned the work of Mr. Miller on the Xanthorhoe grub.
A noctuid grub, a species of Melanchra, also bit out the sides of leaves.
but did not do serious damage. Syrphid grubs were found in the rotting
jelly inside the leaves, and a mealy bug at the leaf-bases. Mr. Miller
was ably investigating these insects. A scale insect, Pseudococcus, had
been described many years ago from New Zealand flax by the late Mr.
Maskell, but his type specimen was in very bad condition and practically
indeterminable. A similar scale was found on sugar in Honolulu, and

* NZ. Jour. Sci. & Tech., vol. 3, No. 4, pp. 190-96, 1920.

New Zealand Institute Science Congress. 511

the Americans were very anxious to learn all they could about all the
scales on New Zealand flax. Specimens shall be collected and sent to
America for determination. {ft had been shown that the work on flax
demanded expert mycologists, entomologists, chemists, agriculturists,
horticulturists, &c., and this was only possible in a central station. He
described briefly what had been done for the sugar industry in Hawaii
by the sugar-planters’ experimental station, and advocated the formation
of a similar station by the flax-planters.

Dr. J. A. Thomson, in supporting Dr. Tillyard’s recommendations,
expressed disappointment with what he had heard so far. Mr. Seifert had
stated that the control of the disease was not the flax-millers’ business.
Knowing Mr. Seifert’s activities in this direction, he thought that it would
be unfortunate if this statement were allowed to stand. Three years ago
Dr. Cockayne had suggested the selection of disease-resisting strains, but
nothing seemed to have been done, and he had not heard any mention
that it was proposed now to be done by any oue in particular. Was it to
be left solely to the Government ?

Mr. Seifert, in explanation, stated that he had meant that the actual
investigations were not the business of the millers, but of the scientists.
As the industry was likely to expand greatly by the planting of flax on a
large scale, it was not fair to saddle the present small areas with the whole
cost. The question to be decided was how much the present areas should
stand, and how much the Government, representing the whole people,
should contribute.

Professor Easterfield then dealt with the chemical aspects of the
industry, and traced the history of the leaf from the swamp to the finished
fibre, showing the amount of loss of weight at each stage. He stated that
in reality the machinery was much more efficient than was generally
supposed. It was foolish to think of turning stripper-waste into paper,
and this fact must have been known to those who made paper from flax
as far back as 1830. A number of other possible uses of flax-waste were
mentioned, and a scheme outlined for the extraction of alcohol, the manu-
facture of fertilizer, and the provision of boiler-fucl from this material, of
which one mill in the Manawatu provides over 20 tons daily.

Mr. Bell deprecated comparison of the flax industry with the sugar
industry in the Hawaiian Islands, en the ground that in the latter place
the land was only fit for growing sugar, whereas in New Zealand the
flax swamps could easily be converted into dairying-land. Consequently,
if it was desired to retain the flax exports, it was a matter not for the
millers but for the Government, and not for a flax-millers’ experimental!
station.

Dr. Tillyard, in reply, pointed out that quite a considerable area of
good land in the Hawaiian Islands was being put under pineapples instead
of sugar, and this was an exact parallel to the position here, where it was
suggested that dairying should replace flax-growing.

After some further discussion, in which flax-millers and representatives
of the Department of Agriculture took part, it was resolved, on the motion
of Dr. Tillyard, That a committee of flax-millers and members of the
Congress be set up to go into the matter of forming a biological station
to have the yellow-leaf disease investigated from all sides. The following
were appointed members of the committee: Messrs. Ross, Seifert, and
Bell, representing the flax-millers; and Professor Easterfield, Dr. Tillyard,
Messrs. A. Cockayne, and R. Waters, representing the Congress.

512 Proceedings.

At a general session of the Congress held next morning the committee
submitted the following report, which was adopted by the Congress. The
committee were asked to continue their deliberations, reporting as occasion
demanded to the Standing Committee of the Institute.

Report of Committee.

i. The first essential of the flax problem is to find out whether or not
races of Phormiuvm exist which are resistant or immune to yellow-leaf
disease.

2. For the carrying-out of this research it is recommended that a small
flax experiment station should be built, and placed in charge of a skilled
plant-propagator, with one or more assistants.

3. The minimum salary to be offered for the position of chief investigator
should be £500 per annum, with guarantee of employment for five years.

4, A levy of 2s. per ton on flax should be collected through the Grading
Department, and devoted to payment of salaries, cost of building, equip-
ment, and upkeep of the experiment station.

5. The experiment station should be under the direction of a committee
of the Flax-millers’ Association.

PAPERS READ AT THE SECTIONS.

Agricultural Section.
Presidential Address: “‘ Science and Agriculture,” by Sir James G. Wilson.

ABSTRACT.

After insisting on the dependence of New Zealand on the agriculturist and
pastoralist, Sir James Wilson referred to the general deficiency of New Zealand soils,
after a few preliminary crops, in phosphates, especially in the North Island. They
are equally necessary in dairying. The relative merits of the different forms of applica-
tion were briefly discussed. Fortunately there is apparently sufficient nitrogen in
most New Zealand soils, and the deficiency that may arise in time can be met by
fixation of atmospheric nitrogen in New Zealand. Meanwhile the natural method of
fixation by the growing of leguminous plants should not be neglected. Potash is avail-
able in New Zealand in only small quantities, but kainit can now be imported from
our ally France. Lime exists in quantity, and in general it will pay to lime our soils
where the cost is reasonable, but the question of liming is one which requires very
careful study and experiment by experts.

The humidity of the New Zealand climate combined with the high temperature
gives great assistance to fungoid pests, and the absence of hard frosts in many districts
leaves our insect pests almost without an enemy. We have now got to rely on the
plant-breeder to find us resistant varieties to help us to cope with our troubles.
Judicious stocking with sheep and cattle will help to keep the weeds in our pastures
down. Where the weeds have got such a hold that it would be ruinous to try and
eradicate them, they will tend to dwindle and gradually come under control by the
exhaustion in the soil of the particular ingredients they need, while some will be
attacked by natural enemies.

‘Some Important Insect Problems of 1920,” by D. Miller.

ABSTRACT.

Although beneficial insects have occasionally done good work, they should be
looked upon merely as auxiliaries in the reduction of destructive insects. The insect
pests of New Zealand are mostly of European origin; very few native species have
become destructive. The address was illustrated by numerous lantern-slides showing
the life-history of the injurious species upon which the author was at present working.
Among these is the pear-midge, which is causing so much damage in the pear-orchards
of the Auckland district; the gall- making insect destroying the blue-gums around
Palmerston North and in many other parts of the country; and the common wood-
borer, upon which he had located a natural insect enemy. Other important insects
referred to were the cattle-tick, the grass-grub (the life-history of which he had recently
worked out), and the flax-grub.

New Zealand Institute Science Congress. 513

Discussion on Fire-blight.

A lecture on fire-blight was given to the Agriculture and Biology Sections
jointly by Messrs. A. H. Cockayne and R. Waters, and the subject was further
discussed by Drs. Tillyard and L. Cockayne and Mr. J. B.Garnett. A com-
mittee consisting of Sir James Wilson, Mr. Campbell, and Dr. Tillyard was
appointed to consider steps to be taken to assist in combating the ravages
of this pest.

(A paper on this subject, by R. Waters, “ Fire-blight: Bacteriological
History in New Zealand,” appears in the N.Z. Journal of Agriculture,
vol. 22, pp. 143-45, 1921, and another, by A. H. Cockayne, “ Fire-blight
and its Control,” in the same Journal, vol. 23, pp. 30-36, 1921.)

“Some Fodder Crops ct England and New Zealand,” by J. B. Garnett.

ABSTRACT.

It has been definitely shown in the past that although forage crops are not able
to compete with grass for cheapness of production in New Zealand, yet they fill a very
necessary part in the economy of both dairying and sheep-farming, in so far as they are
able to supply a succession of green food at times of the year when the pastures are
bare. The man who has no supplementary feed ready at these times loses a great
deal of milk immediately, and also Jater, because his cows, once having dropped in
yield, do not pick up again readily when the next growth of grass occurs. Various
fodder mixtures were given which have proved useful for these purposes in England,
and would probably, with slight modifications, prove equally good in New Zealand :
(1.) Oats 2 bushels, peas 1 bushel per acre. (2.) Giant ryecorn 2 bushels, winter vetches
1 bushel per acre. The second mixture sown in autumn will grow right through the
winter and come in early in the spring, before the grass starts. (3.) Field peas 1 bushel,
buckwheat 1 bushel, rape }1b. per acre. This mixture sown in spring will produce
a big bulk of succulent fodder in the late summer, when the pastures are dry and burnt
up. It would be much freer from “ blight” than rape sown alone. Various other
fodder plants and the best varieties were dealt with, and finally the importance of the
fuller study of the economics of the question was emphasized.

“The Economic Significance of Powdery Scab in Potatoes,” by R. Waters.

“Science and its Relation to Field Instruction to Farmers,” by T. H.
Patterson,

“The Importance of Soil Survey,” by T. Rigg.

“What constitutes a Fertile Soil,’ by G. de 8. Bavlis.

“ Factors in the Establishment of Lucerne,” by A. H. Cockayne.
“ “ 'Take-all’’ in Wheat,” by R. Waters.

“Some Important Successions in Permanent Grassland in New Zealand,”
by E. Bruce Levy.

Biology Section.

Presidential Address: “New Zealand and the Biological Problems of the
Pacific,” by Professor C. Chilton.

ABSTRACT.

A summary was first given of the various theories suggested by Hutton, Hedley,
and others to account for the relationship of New Zealand with South America on the
one hand, and with New Caledonia, New Guinea, &c., on the other. The similarity in
several respects between the animals and plants of the Hawaiian Islands and New
Zealand was pointed out, and it was suggested that a careful consideration of the two
would not only throw light on the origin of the New Zealand fauna and flora, but would

also give useful information on the methods of evolution which had taken place in these
two groups of islands.

17—Trans.

514 Proceedings.

The address was followed by a short discussion, in which Drs. L.
Cockayne and P. Marshall, and Mr. W. R. B. Oliver took part.

“Some Notes on the Habits and Uses of the Toheroa,” by Miss M. K.
Mestayer. (This paper appears in the N.Z. Journal of Science and
Technology, vol. 4, pp. 84-85, 1921.)

“Notes on the Natural Camouflage of some” Marine Mollusca,” by Miss
M. K. Mestayer.
ABSTRACT.

These notes on natural camouflage deal with some of the ways in which our marine
molluscs protect themselves from their enemies. This end is achieved in two ways:
either by the animal’s own effort, or by the shell becoming encrusted with the surround-
ing animal and vegetable life. Some measure of protection is also obtained by those
molluses living above half-tide, through the action of sun, wind, and rain weathering
their shells till they closely resemble the rocks they live on. The best example of
deliberate camouflage among New Zealand molluscs is to be found in the Hauraki Gulf,
at about 30 fathoms. It is known as the “carrier” shell, from its habit of cementing
other shells or bits of stone to its own, till it looks like a heap of old shells. The
commonest forms of this natural camouflage are those which depend on the surround-
ings of the shells concerned; some being covered with coralline and other seaweeds,
others often having their shells more or less hidden by small barnacles or other animal
ife.

* Plant-propagation,” by P. Black.

‘“On Growth-periods in New Zealand Plants, especially Nothofagus fusca
and the Totara,” by Professor H. B. Kirk. (This paper appears in
the present volume, pp. 429-32.)

‘“* Littoral Plant and Animal Communities,” by W. R. B. Oliver.
‘““A Remarkable New Mosquito,” by D. Miller.
“The Popular Names of New Zealand Plants,” by J. C. Andersen.

ABSTRACT.

The author has compiled lists of names used by various writers from the time of
Captain Cook onwards, showing the common names given to various plants, and showing
when the names were first applied, and how long and how consistently they have been
used. The cabbage-tree (Cordyline australis), for example, has nearly twenty different
names, and many trees have a dozen or more. The tree known as Nothofagus Solanderi
has been called ‘‘ black,’ ‘‘ white,” ‘‘ red,” and “‘ black-heart ”’ birch in various districts,
whilst at the same time the names “ black-birch,” “‘ white-birch,” &c., have been given
to many other trees as well, “ black-birch ” being applied to no fewer than five. The
object of the paper was to make a list available so that scientists and others might
adopt the same common name and avoid the confusion that had taken place in the
past.

‘ Ecological Problems relative to Salmonidae,” by W. J. Phillipps.

“The Order Hemiptera in New Zealand, with Special Reference to its
Biological and Economic Aspects,” by J. G. Myers.

“ Notes on the Vegetation of the Mid-Clarence Valley,” by B. C. Aston.

ABSTRACT.

The author stated that he had made five visits to this district since the first in
April, 1915, when a journey through the remarkable Ure Canon, or Ure Gorge, as it
is called, was made, and the ascent to the summit of Tapuaenuku (9,450 ft.) from the
Dee River was accomplished. The main features of the work accomplished were the
botanical examination of the Medway, Ure, Kekerangu, Nidd, Mead, and Dee River
basins, including the hills surrounding them (the last three being tributaries of the
Mid-Clarence), and the limestone foothills and eastern slopes of Mount Tapuaenuku.

New Zealand Institute Science Congress. 515

The results included the discovery of a remarkable polymorphic new species of
gentian which exhibited different habits of growth according to the habitat. This
semi-arid district was well supplied with moist, dark stations in close proximity to
very dry, strongly isolated stations. The same species might grow on a dark, dripping
river-cliff, a shingle-bed exposed to a large measure of sunlight, a dry shady hillside,
or a rock-crevice. A Carmichaelia, which was probably C. Meonroi, exhibited such a
variety of forms under these conditions that a botanist might class them as distinct
species if he did not know the conditions under which the specimens were growing.
The rediscovery was made of Wahlenbergia Matthewsii, the finest of the New Zealand
species of that genus, originally discovered by H. J. Matthews, and found to be common
in the Ure Valley as a rock-plant. Flowering specimens of Olearia coriacea were found
in the Mead Stream, a Haastia growing at 8,500 ft. elevation, and Helichysum Purdiet,
which, as Dr. Cockayne had pointed out, was probably a hybrid between H. bellidioides
and H. glomeratum, since H. Purdiei was always found in association with its reputed
parents. The speaker also described the rock associations met with. A Notospartiwm
was found to be abundant in the Inland Kaikouras, and it was this plant which
Mr. Petrie was now naming JN. glabrescens ; it attained a height of 15 ft. to 30 ft.

* Inheritance in Self-fertilized Plants,” by Dr. F. W. Hilgendorf.
“ Wellington Island Soils and Florulas.” by B. C. Aston.

Geology Section.

Presidential Address: “ The Birth and Development of New Zealand as a
Geographical Unit,” by Professor J. Park. (This paper appears in
the present volume. pp. 73-76.)

“The Cretaceous Rocks of the Kaipara District,” by Dr. P. Marshall.

ABSTRACT.

Up to the present time very few fossils have been found in rocks of Upper Cretaceous
age in New Zealand. The author, however, gave a description of a rich series of
important fossils that he had recently found. These were largely ammonites, and
showed a great similarity to fossils of similar Cretaceous age in South India and
Antarctica. This recent discovery enforces the opinion previously held that New
Zealand was joined to Antarctica in late Cretaceous times, and that this land was not
distant from an Indian extension.

“The Geology of Western Samoa,” by Dr. J. Allan Thomson. (This paper
appears in the N.Z. Journal of Science and Technology, vol. 4,
pp. 49-66, 1921.)

“The Structure of the Mangahao No. 1 Gorge (Mangahao Hydro-eclectric
Scheme), and its Bearing on the Construction of the Proposed Dam,”
by G. L. Adkin. (This paper appears in the N.Z. Journal of Science
and Technology, vol. 4, pp. 1-4, 1921.)

“The Warped Land-surface of the South-eastern Side of the Port Nichol-
son Depression,’ by Dr. C. A. Cotton. (This paper appears in the
present volume, pp. 131-43.)

“The Great Barrier Island,” by J. A. Bartrum. (This paper appears in
the present volume as “ Notes on the Geology of Great Barrier Island,
New Zealand,” pp. 115-27.)

“The Geology of the Port Waikato District,” by M. J. Gilbert, M.Sc. (Rev.
Brother Fergus). (This paper appears in the present volume as
“Geology of the Waikato Heads District and the Kawa Uncon-
formity,’ pp. 97-114.)

“The Tertiary Geology of the Awamoho District,” by G. H. Uttley.

“A Ball and Pillow Lava from Hawaii,” by Dr. J. Allan Thomson.
17*

516 Proceedings.

Physics, Chemistry, and Engineering Section.

Presidential Address: ‘ Electric- power Supply in New Zealand,” by

L. Birks.
ABSTRACT.

Dealing with the cost of electric-power plants, the author said that the legislation
under which electric installations may be established in New Zealand, based on the
assumption that the majority of the plants would be publicly owned, was exceedingly
simple, and the legal procedure cheap compared with that of Great Britain and else-
where. With regard to the future, the Government proposals provided for one horse-
power for each five head of population — say, 240,000 horse-power for the whole
Dominion. The normal coal-consumption for the Dominion was about 2,500,000 tons
per year, and the possible saving in coal-consumption, averaging both city and country
users at about 10 to 12 tons of coal per horse-power-year, was thus approximately the
total amount of the present consumption of the Dominion. Of course, a large con-
sumption must still be required for gas-generating, bunkering, and main-line railways ;
but, on the other hand, the electric supply would be largely required for new houses
and new industries, and would also be largely used to replace candles, kerosene, petrol,
and mainly firewood, as well as coal, leaving a fairly large demand for coal even when
the full 240,000 horse-power is available from hydro-electric sources. As to future
developments, the total recorded hydro-electric-power sources of 1,000 horse-power or
over in the Dominion as recorded in the Year-book of 1914 are between 3,000,000 and
4,000,000 horse-power, apart from probably another 1,000,000 horse-power available in
small units below 1,000 horse-power. As to the demand, the provision of one horse-
power per five head of population was, of course, only a stage in the development,
which would ultimately be exceeded, possibly many times over.

“Some New Zealand Mineral Oils,” by Professor T. H. Hasterfield and
N. McLelland.

ABSTRACT.

A statement was given of the districts in New Zealand in which mineral oils had
been found, and the paper also alluded to the attempts to supply mineral oil by the
distillation of oil-shales at Orepuki, Southland. The sulphur content of the southern
shales was stated to be a very serious objection, and a comparison was given of the
properties of Taranaki and Kotuku oil. The former is said to be remarkable in
the high content of benzoles and cycloparaffins. The proportion of toluol, used in the
manufacture of T.N.T. explosive particularly, was higher than in the case of the light
oil from coal-tar. A number of pure chemical compounds taken from Taranaki
petroleums were exhibited.

Professor Easterfield stated that, in his opinion, the boring of new wells in Taranaki
promised at present greater success than development in any other area, but urged
that as a matter of Imperial interest systematic prospecting by bores should be carried
out in a number of areas.

“The Quantum Theory,” by Professor P. W. Robertson.
“The Horizontal Pendulum,” by Dr. C. E. Adams.

“The Wet Process of recovering Mercury from Cinnabar,” by W. Donovan.
(This paper appears as “ Thornhill’s Sodium-sulphide Process for the
Recovery of Mercury,” in the N.Z. Journal of Science and Technology,
vol. 4, pp. 129-34, 1921.)

Discussion on Isotopes in New Zealand Minerals.

At a joint meeting of the Physics-and Geology Sections Professor P. W.
Robertson introduced the subject by explaining the recent developments in
chemistry which had shown that certain elements were mixtures of isotopes,
while others were suspected to be mixtures. It would be useful to place
on record the occurrences of New Zealand minerals which were available
as sources of these suspected mixtures, in order that chemists might know
where to turn for material. The subsequent investigations might prove to
have fundamental geological significance.

After some discussion it was resolved to: set up a committee (see
“ Resolutions,” below).

“The Transit Micrometer,” by Dr. C. E. Adams.

New Zealand Institute Science Congress. 517

General Section.

Presidential Address: ‘“‘ Science and the Principle of the Relativity of
Motion,” by E. Miller.

ABSTRACT.

The aim of the address is not to give an adequate account of Einstein’s theory of
relativity, but to pick out therefrom certain features which should serve to fit the
subject on to familiar scientific conceptions, and thereby render the most important
results of the theory intelligible, perhaps even acceptable, to the non-specialist. The
metaphysical notion of void space involves the relativity of all positions, directions,
and motions, including rest, or zero motion. But the scientific conception of space has
for ages past been more or less inconsistent with this view. The latter, however, has,
during the progress of science, vindicated itself with regard first to position and direction,
then in regard to uniform motions, and, within the past few years, with regard to all
motions. Each such vindication has constituted a sudden and remarkable increase of
intellectual power, and has involved a notable reconstruction of scientific conceptions.
The conceptions chiefly affected by the recent intellectual advance are those of space
and time, natural geometry, gravitation, and the other natural forces. Besides these,
a new dominating conception has been introduced which, when it is once mastered,
allows of a much more accurate and simple representation to our minds of what is really
happening in the external world.

Events referred to this entity, which has four dimensions, lose certain refractory
inconsistencies which they undoubtedly present when they are described in the usual
terms of space and time. Just as ethereal radiation is put forward by science as the
real external event giving rise to our subjective experiences of light and warmth, so
our movement in this four-dimensional continuum is put forward in the address as
giving rise to our subjective and other experiences of the measure of space and time
which we associate with natural occurrences. The conception affords us a truer
apprehension of what is really going on in the external world than we can receive
directly by our space-and-time experiences, which have been found by modern science
to vary with our relative motion in a most confusing and irreconcilable manner. The
satisfactory unification, as seen from the new point of view, of previously unrelated
facts, especially of the facts of gravitation, inertia, and centrifugal force, was described
in the address; and, since non-Kuclidean geometry is used in relativity investigations,
a short popular account was given of what such a thing may be.

“Maori Culture Areas in New Zealand,” by H. D. Skinner.

ABSTRACT.

The main culture-division in the island region of the Pacific lies between Melanesia
and Polynesia. ‘“* Melanesia” is culturally a very ill-defined term, and appears to cover
very heterogeneous material. The culture of Polynesia appears, on the other hand, to
be remarkably homogeneous. Maori culture, taken broadly, shows features derived
from Polynesia and others that find their closest relationships in Melanesia. In language
and in social structure the Maoris are Polynesian, but their material culture shows many
points of resemblance to that of the Western Pacific. Thus the rectangular, circular,
and pile types of house common in New Zealand are without parallel in Central and
Eastern Polynesia, but occur in almost identical form in Melanesia.

The material culture of the North Island shows strong affinities with the Western
Pacific while that of the South Island seems more nearly related to the material culture
of Polynesia. This division between the North Island and the South is the most im-
portant that can be made on cultural grounds in New Zealand There is a transitional
belt embracing both shores of Cook Strait. The South Island may be divided into three
other districts—Murihiku, south of the Rangitata ; Kaiapoi, south of the Buller and the
Awatere; and the Wakatu, including the rest of the Island except the transitional
region about the Marlborough Sounds.

The North Island may be divided into four areas, exclusive of the transitional belt
along the shore of Cook Strait. The West Coast Area stretches from the Rangitikei to
a little north of the Mokau. The East Coast Area lies south of the Mahia. The Central
Area includes the rest of the Island south of the Auckland Isthmus. The Northern
Area includes the rest of the North Island. To these areas must be added the Chatham
Islands, which show many points of resemblance to Murihiku.

““The Strange Disappearance of Maoris in Fiordland,” by W. H. Beattie.
(This paper appears as “ A Mystery of Fiordland: A Vanished Maori
Tribe,” in the N.Z. Journal of Science and Technology, vol. 4
pp. 86-90, 1921.)

b

518 Proceedings.

“ Maori Anthropometry,” by Dr. P. H. Buck.

ABSTRACT.

In his paper Dr. Buck pointed out that anthropometry, which dealt with the measure-
ments of the human body so as to establish the standard type of genus of a race, had
been neglected as regards the Maori branch of the Polynesians. It was absolutely
necessary to set up the Maori type in order to study his relationship to the other branches
of the Polynesians, and to determine what Melanesian characteristics existed amongst
them. The Americans had four scientific expeditions working in Polynesia, and, since
New Zealand administered Samoa, the Cook Group, and Niue Island, we should not
lag behind in the scientific study of those Polynesian branches under our control.
Attention was drawn to the unsatisfactory condition that existed with regard to
standard Polynesian and Melanesian types owing to insufiicient measurements of a
large enough number of living persons. Our primary duty was to remove this charge
of scientific neglect as regards ourselves by first establishing the Maori type or types.
He detailed some of the measurements made of over eight hundred members of the
Maori Battalion that served in the late war. For full-blooded Maoris he established
racial standards of 5 ft. 74 in. in height and 11 stone 9 lb. in weight, which were 1} in.
and 22 1b. greater than those so far accepted on too few observations. Head, face,
and nose measurements were detailed, and attention drawn to the tribal differences
that existed. An interesting feature was the modification of face and nose width which
occurred amongst those of mixed blood, the narrowing in these two measurements being
shown to increase with the greater admixture of white blood. The whole subject
opened up a new field of great scientific interest, and further investigation would
probably throw additional light on tribal and racial origin, and have an important
bearing on the culture differences that existed in various parts of New Zealand.

“* Some Investigations into the Variations in the New Zealand Price-level :
the Political, Social, and Industrial Effects following therefrom,” by
Dr. J. W. Mcllraith.

“The Horizontal Pendulum,” by Dr. C. KE. Adams.

“ History of the Offer of the Yale Telescopes to New Zealand,” by Dr. C. E.
Adams.

“The Earthquake of 20th September, 1920,” by Dr. C. KH. Adams.

“A National Observatory for New Zealand,” by Dr. C. E. Adams. (This
paper appears in the N.Z. Journal of Science and Technology, vol. 4,
pp. 91-94, 1921.)

RESOLUTIONS OF THE SCIENCE CONGRESS.

1. That this Congress, recognizing Bacillus amylovorus as being in the
forefront of destructive plant-diseases, views with alarm its introduction
into New Zealand, and urges upon the Government the necessity of adopt-
ing the most effective means towards its early eradication, and is further
of the opinion that it will be little short of criminal not only to the fruit-
grower and general public of the present day, but to future generations,
should any consideration of expediency whatever be allowed to interfere
with the vigorous prosecution of such a policy.

2. This Congress is of opinion that an absolutely complete census of all
hawthorn hedges or single plants and all other hosts of fire-blight should be
carried out in conjunction with the forthcoming general census.

3. That the time has arrived when the Marine Department ought to
establish systematic observations of the sea temperatures on the coasts of
New Zealand. In Europe and the United States, where such observations
have been regularly made for thirty years or more, important economic

New Zealand Institute Science Congress. 519

results have been obtained, it being found possible from temperature-
observations to predict the arrival at certain points of migratory food
fishes, such as herring, some time beforehand.

4. That this Congress congratulates the Government on the beginning
made to equip the Hector Observatory with improved seismological equip-
ment, as urged at the last Congress, and that, owing to the importance of
seismology to New Zealand, the Congress desires to urge the Government
to add to the equipment of the Hector Observatory by providing another
Milne-Shaw seismograph, so that both horizontal components may be deter-
mined, and that a vertical-component seismograph also be provided.

5. That a sub-committee consisting of Dr. Thomson, Mr. P. G. Morgan,
and Mr. Donovan (Dr. Thomson as convener) be set up and requested to
collect available information with respect to the New Zealand occurrence
of minerals containing suspected isotopes of certain elements, and that this
be handed to Professor Robertson for publication in some suitable journal.

6. That this Congress urges upon the Government and people of New
Zealand the great importance of accepting the generous offer to New Zea-
land of astronomical equipment and staff made by the Yale University
Corporation, New Haven, Connecticut, U.S.A.

7. That this Congress urges upon the Government the importance of
taking steps to participate in the determination of the longitude of the
Hector Observatory by radio-telegraphy from the Greenwich and Paris
Observatories, as recommended by the Bureau des Longitudes, Paris.

520 Proceedings.

WELLINGTON PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.

Since the 30th September, 1919, eight meetings of the society have
been held, when papers were read as follow :—

22nd October, 1919 (annual meeting): Hon. G. M. Thomson, “ Powdered
Coal.”

3rd December: Dr. R. J. Tillyard, “‘ Neuropteroid Insects.”

28th April, 1920: Professor D. M. Y. Sommerville, “‘ Map Projections.”

26th May: Dr. T. A. Jaggar, “ The Study of Volcanoes.”

23rd June: H. Rands, “‘ Research in a Chemical Munition Factory,
with Special Reference to the Ammonia-oxidation Process.”

28th July: T. E. Perks and W. Donovan, ‘“‘ Some Notes on the Corro-
sion of Muntz Metal”; Dr. C. E. Adams, “‘ New Zealand Observatories and
American Co-operation.”

28th August: J. H. Edmundson, “ Liquid Air.”

22nd September: E. K. Lomas, “ The Geographical Foundations of the
Peace Treaty Boundaries.”

In addition the following papers were taken as read :—

22nd October, 1919: Dr. L. Cockayne, ‘‘ Notes on New Zealand Floristic
Botany, No. 4”; Miss M. K. Mestayer, ““ Notes on New Zealand Mollusca—
No. 1, Three New Species of Polyplacophora, and other New Species ” ;
G. C. Burton and W. Donovan, “ Distillation Experiments with Waikaia
Shale’; E. Bond, ‘“‘ A Note on Candle-nuts from Rarotonga ” ; W. Dono-
van, “A Note on Sting-ray-liver Oil”?; Dr. J. A. Thomson, “ The
Notocene Geology of the Middle Waipara and Weka Pass District,”
“The Cretaceous Brachiopods of New Zealand,” “Some Fossil Species of
the Genus Neothyris (Brachipoda).”

3rd December: G. V. Hudson, “ Illustrated Life-histories of New Zea-
land Insects—No. 1, Gnophomyia rufa, Limnophila sinistra, Melanostoma
decessum.”

22nd September, 1920: EH. Meyrick, ‘“‘ Notes and Descriptions of New
Zealand Lepidoptera.”

27th October, 1920: Miss M. K. Mestayer, “ Notes on New Zealand
Mollusca—No. 2, Callochiton empleurus (Hutton)”; P. G. Morgan, “* Notes
on the Geology of the Patea District”; G. H. Cunningham, ““ New Zealand
Cordyceps,” “The Rusts of New Zealand”; D. Miller, “ Material for a
Monograph on the Diptera Fauna of New Zealand—Part II, Syrphidae ;
Part II, Empididae”’; J. G. Myers, “Supplement to Cicadidae of New
Zealand,” “ Bionomie Notes on some New Zealand Spiders,” “ Life-history
of some New Zealand Insects,” “ Notes on the Hemiptera of the Kermadec
Islands.”

17th November, 1920: W. R. B. Oliver, “ Notes on Specimens of New
Zealand Ferns and Flowering-plants in London Herbaria,” “The Crab-
eating Seal in New Zealand.”

The average attendance at ordinary meetings has been thirty-eight.

Wellington Philosophical Society. 521

Council Meetings—Nine meetings of the Council have been held, and,
in addition to the general management of the society, the following subjects
have been considered :—

Research Grants: Consideration and favourable recommendation were
given to an application from Professor Marsden for a grant of £125 for
radium to be used in a research on the disintegration effect of the impact
of a particles on matter, and for another for £60 towards the expenses of
a research into the relative efficiency of coal, gas, and electricity for domestic
purposes in Wellington.

An application from Sir David Hutchins for a grant of £50 for research
into the growth of native trees was also approved, and granted by the
Government.

Dr. C. KE. Adams made application for a grant of £250 for the purchase
of a Henrici Harmonic Analyser for various researches. The Council has
referred the matter to a sub-committee for report.

Hobart Meeting of the Australasian Association for the Advancement of
Science—Protessor H. B. Kirk and Dr. C. A. Cotton were appointed as
the society’s delegates to the Australasian Association for the Advancement
of Science meeting in Hobart in January, 1921.

Pan-Pacific Science Conference at Honolulu in August, 1920.— Dr.
J. Ailan Thomson was appointed as delegate to the Pan-Pacific Science
Conference at Honolulu in August, 1920.

Museum, Library, and Research Committee—A committee was set up to
urge on the Government (1) the need for a new and fireproof building for
the Dominion Museum, (2) for the establishment of a scientific and techno-
logical library, and (3) for the establishment of a Board of Science and
Industry.

Hamilton Memorial Prize—Rules have been drafted and forwarded to
the Institute for controlling the award of the Hamilton Prize, which, when
approved, will be gazetted.

Natural History and Field Club Section—On the 3rd December, 1919, a
new section, the Natural History and Field Club Section, was formed, and
in connection therewith the society agreed to the introduction of associate
members, at a subscription of 5s., who may belong to any one section, but
shall not receive the annual volume of the Transactions. During the year
twenty-six persons were elected associates, and meetings and field excursions
have been held on several occasions.

Fellows of the New Zealand Institute-—Since the last annual report was
compiled the election of original Fellows of the New Zealand Institute has
been announced, and the followimg five members of the society have
received Fellowships: B.C, Aston, G. Hogben, G. V. Hudson, H. B. Kirk,
and J. Allan Thomson.

Yale Observatory Committee—On the 28th July a committee was set
up to further the project of the Yale University to establish an astronomical
observatory in New Zealand. A strong committee was formed, and met
on the 5th August. It is now communicating with the Director of the
Yale Observatory.

522 Proceedings.

Membership.—During the year the membership has slightly increased,
there being now 206 on the roll. Forty-one new members were elected,
nine resigned, and four were removed from the roll, as their letters were
returned. Six ordinary members and one life member died, and one
member was elected a life member. The associates number twenty-nine.

Inbrary.—The periodicals have been received regularly by the Librarian.
Some back numbers have been written for to complete the files.

The sum of £62 7s. 10d. was allocated to the library, which, added to
last year’s balance, makes a total of £174 9s. 7d. Of this sum £48 18s. was
spent, leaving a balance of £125 Ils. 7d. to be expended.

Committee and Officers for 1921.—President—C. HK. Adams, D.Sc., F.R.A.S8.
Vice-Presidents—P. G. Morgan, M.A., F.G.8.; J. Allan Thomson, M.A.,
D.Sc., F.G.8., F.N.Z.Inst. Councl—C. G. G. Berry; Elsdon Best,
MNGZ Inst. ; Ly Birks, Bise Mon. By (C.A. (Cotton, » Se: EGsos
EK NeZdinsts; He i WeranavisA SHeG:S, . VAcw© Giiord.) iaAg Bones ie
R. W. Holmes, I.8.0., M.Inst.C.E. ; Captain Hooper, F.R.A.S.; G. V. Hud-
son, F.E.S., F.N.Z.Inst.; H. B. Kirk, M.A., F.N.Z.Inst.; J. 8S. Maclaurin,
D.Sc., F.C.S. ; EH. Marsden, D.Sc., F.R.A.S., M.C.; P. W. Robertson, M.A.,
M.Sc., D.Ph. Secretary and Treasurer—H. Hamilton, A.O.S.M. Auditor—
K. R. Dymock, F.1.A.N.Z. Representatives to the New Zealand Institute—
T. H. Easterfield, M.A., Ph.D., F.N.Z.Inst.; H. B. Kirk, M.A., F.N.Z.Inst.

ASTRONOMICAL SECTION.

Three meetings of the committee and five of the section have been held, at the
latter of which an average attendance of twenty was maintained.

The society having introduced a rule admitting associates to any one section at
a small subscription, advantage has been taken of this, and two associates have joined.
This form of membership when it becomes more widely known may tend towards an
increase of interest in astronomy.

The bad weather conditions prevailing during the session, and the lack of leisure,
were factors in reducing the work done at the Observatory. Predictions were
calculated and observations made of a few occultations of stars by planets and by the
moon. In one case valuable observations were made at Lick of an occultation by
Jupiter of an eighth-magnitude star as the result of data supplied by Dr. Adams and
Mr. Westland.

Papers were read as follow :—

Ist October, 1919: Professor EK. Marsden, ‘‘Some Recent Work on the Constitution
of Matter.”

3rd June, 1920: A. C. Gifford, “The Initial Radiation of a Nova,” ‘The High
Velocities of the Planetary Nebulae”’?; Dr. C. E. Adams and Professor E. Marsden,
“The Samoan Observatory.”

7th July: Mr. C. J. Westland, ‘The Prediction of Eclipses’; Dr. C. E. Adams,
“Notes on Time Observations.”’

4th August: Professor E. Marsden and Professor D. M. Y. Sommerville, “‘ A
Symposium on Relativity.”

lst September: “‘ An Evening at the Observatories.”

Observatory and Instrument.—The building is in fair repair, but requires painting,
and the dome dressing. The instrument is in good order; electric lights have been
fitted to the circles and the cross-wires. The lighting has been rearranged, and a
sounder, beating seconds from the clock, has been added. A micrometer eye-piece
has been obtained, but so far no systematic work has been done with it.

The Observatory has been open during the year on the second and fourth Tuesdays
in each month, and a good attendance has been the rule. The public are learning to
take advantage of the combined tramway and Observatory tickets. A special evening
was arranged for the Brooklyn School, when twenty scholars and a teacher were shown
some of the wonders of the sky. An invitation was sent to the Workers’ Educational

Wellington Philosophical Society. 523

Association to visit the Observatory, but advantage of it was not taken. The work
of keeping the telescope in order and opening the Observatory to the public has devolved
mainly on Dr. Adams, Mr, C. J. Westland, and the Honorary Secretary, and it is hoped
that other members of the section will come forward and help in this direction.

Committee.—The following subjects have come before the committee : Astronomical
Union at Brussels ; determination of longitude 129° E.; eclipse of the sun, September,
1922; the Yale offer of telescopes, &c.

The section wrote urging the Government to send an expedition to Australia to
observe the eclipse of September, 1922, the only total eclipse observable from any point
as near as Australia for many years to come. Im connection therewith valuable
information was obtained from the Commonwealth Meteorologist, Melbourne, concerning
the climatic conditions and the best site for an observing-station.

The section notes with pleasure that a Bill is before Parliament defining New
Zealand mean time as twelve hours ahead of Greenwich mean time.

Proctor Library Fund.—A proposal to use part of the interest on the Proctor
Library Fund for purchasing books for the Observatory library is in abeyance, pending
a reply from Miss Procter.

Officers.—The following officers for the year were elected at the annual meeting
on the Ist October, 1919: Honorary Member—Miss Mary Proctor. Chairman—
Dr. C. E. Adams, D.Sc., F.R.A.S. Vice-Chatrmen—Mr. A. C. Gifford, M.A., F.R.A.S. ;
Professor D. M. Y. Sommerville, M.A., D.Sc. Commuttee—Professor H. Marsden, D.Sc.,
F.RB.A.S., M.C. ; Mr. C. P. Powles; Mr. C. J. Westland, F.R.A.S.; Mr. R. D. Thompson,
M.A.; Mr. J. Darling; Mr. D. J. Kerr; Captain G. 8. Hooper. Director and Curator
of Instruments—Dr. C. Monro Hector, M.D., B.Se., F.R.A.S. Hon. Treasurer—Dr.
C. E. Adams, D.Sc., F.R.A.S. Hon. Secretary—C. G. G. Berry.

TECHNOLOGICAL SECTION.

Six meetings have been held, the August meeting having to be deferred until
September owing to the restriction in the tram service and electric lighting. The
meetings have been well attended.

The thanks of the society are due to the various contributors of papers, and in
particular to Mr. L. M. Sandston, who came from Christchurch to read his paper on
‘* Highway Engineering.” The following papers have been read :—

12th May, 1920: W. 8S. La Trobe, inaugural address, ‘‘ Technological Education.”

16th June: G. B. Bradshaw, “‘ The Cement-gun.”

21st July: L. M. Sandston, “‘ Highway Engineering.”

9th September: Professor E. Marsden, “‘ A Simple Method for the Determination
of Peak Voltages’; ‘‘ The Interference of Transmission-lines with Telephone-lines.”’

15th September: W. S. La Trobe, “‘ Notes on the General Theory of Mechanism.”

20th October: R. Roberts, “ Ring Problems peculiar to Electrical Machinery.”’

Owing to his leaving Wellington during the year, it was unfortunately necessary
for Mr. Owen to resign from the position of Secretary, and Mr. G. B. Bradshaw has
been appointed in his place for the remainder of the year.

Committee and Officers for 1921.—Chairman—L. Birks, B.Sc., M.I.E.E. Vice-
Chairmen—J. 8. Maclaurin, D.Sc., F.C.S.; W. S. La Trobe, M.A. Committee—
R. W. Holmes, I.8.0., M.Inst.C.E.; F. W. Furkert, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E., A.M.I.M.E. ;
H. Sladden, member of Board of Surveyors; E. Marsden, D.Sc.; J. E. L. Cull, B.Se.
Hon. Secretary—G. B. Bradshaw.

GEOLOGICAL SECTION.

Six ordinary meetings have been held. A number of exhibits have been brought
by members to the meetings, and these have aroused considerable interest and given
matter for discussion.

Eleven papers have been read and discussed. The titles and authors of these are
as follow :—

20th August, 1919: Dr. J. Allan Thomson and Miss Mestayer, “A Study of a
New Zealand Limpet”’; E. K. Lomas, “Some Geological Observations in the Hatuma
District, Hawke’s Bay.”

10th September: Dr. J. Henderson, “The Geology of the South-western King-
country.’

524 Proceedings.

8th October : W. Donovan, “The Natural-gas Resources of New Zealand’; G. L.
Adkin, “‘ Examples of Readjustment of Drainage in the Tararua Western Foothills ” ;
G. H. Uttley, “Tertiary Geology of the Wharekuri-Kurow Area,” and ‘‘ Notes on
Geological Survey Bulletin No. 20.”

12th May, 1920: G. H. Uttley, ““ Notes on the Geology of the Oamaru District.”

5th June: P. G. Morgan, “ Fossils of the Mount Radiant Subdivision, Karamea,”
and ‘‘ Notes on the Stratigraphy and Palaeontology of the Greymouth and Westport
Districts.”

14th July: J. Henderson, “‘ The Geology of the Raglan District.”

Committee and Officers for 1921.—Chairman—H. T. Ferrar. Vice-Chairman—G. H.
Uttley, M.A., M.Sc., F.G.S. | Committee—Dr. J. Henderson, M.A., D.Sc., B.Sc. in Eng.
(Metall.); R. W. Holmes, I.8.0., M.Inst.C.E.; E. K. Lomas, M.A., M.Sc.; P. G.
Morgan, M.A., F.G.S.; Dr. J. Allan Thomson, M.A., D.Sc., F.G.S., F.N.Z.Inst. Hon.
Secretary—Dr. C. A. Cotton, D.Sc., F.G.S.

HISTORICAL SECTION.

The annual and five general meetings have been held, when papers were read as
follow :—

18th May, 1920: Elsdon Best, “‘ The Maori Genius for Personification.”’

15th June: Miss Hetherington, ‘‘ The Discovery and Opening-up of the Goldfields
in the Hauraki Peninsula.”

20th July: Johannes C. Andersen, “‘ Further Maori String Games.”

17th August: F. P. Wilson, “‘ Early Days in Wellington.”

21st September (annual meeting): Elsdon Best, ‘‘ Old Redoubts, Blockhouses, and
Stockades of the Wellington District.”

19th October: H. Baillie, “‘ New Zealand and Naval Protection”; P. Beckett,
“Some Notes on Shell-middens at Paraparaumu Beach.”

About the middle of the season the section lost the services of Mr. E. N. Hogben,
owing to his removal to Palmerston North. His resignation from the committee was
accepted with regret, as he was a good and enthusiastic worker.

Officers for 1921.—Chairman—Elsdon Best, F.N.Z.Inst. Vice-Chairman—Colonel
T. W. Porter, C.B. _Committee—Miss Hetherington, M.A.; Dr. C. Prendergast Knight ;
Messrs. H. Baillie, F. P. Wilson, M.A., J. Cowan, E. G. Pilcher. Hon. Secretary—
Johannes C. Andersen.

NATURAL HISTORY AND FIELD CLUB SECTION.

Since the formation of this branch on the 3rd December, 1919, a series of field
excursions and indoor meetings have been held, and the attendances have been very
satisfactory. Twenty-six associate members have joined the Philosophical Society
through the medium of this section. Seven field excursions were successfully held, and
four indoor meetings followed in the winter months. Botany, geology, entomology,
and marine zoology formed the chief subjects for discussion.

The following papers and addresses were given at the indoor meetings :—

Ist June, 1920: J. G. Myers, *“‘ New Zealand Cicadas.”

6th July: D. Miller, “‘ Mosquito Investigations in North Auckland”; Professor
T. H. Johnston, ‘*‘ Some of Australia’s Insect Pests.”

3rd August: G. H. Cunningham, “ Fungi.”

7th September: D. Miller, “ Hover-flies and their Economic Importance”; W. J.
Phillipps, ‘* Notes on the Edible Fishes of New Zealand”; G. E. Mason (communi-
cated by H. Hamilton), “ Observations on Parasites found on the Huia Bird and not
previously recorded.”’

Officers for 1920-2 1.—Chairman—G. V. Hudson, F.N.Z.Inst., F.E.S. Vice-Chair-
men—Professor H. B. Kirk, M.A., F.N.Z.Inst.; Dr. J. Allan Thomson, M.A., D.Sc.,
F.G.S., F.N.Z.Inst. Committee—T. Ralph; E. K. Lomas, M.A., M.Sc., F.R.G.S. ;
C. A. Cotton, D.Sc., F.G.8.; H. Baillie; D. Miller. Hon. Secretary—H. Hamilton,
A.O.S.M.

Auckland Institute. 525

AUCKLAND INSTITUTE.

At the annual meeting (28th February, 1921) the annual report and
balance-sheet were read and adopted.

ABSTRACT.

At the expiry of another year it is the duty of the Council to submit to the members
and the general public their fifty-third annual report on the condition of the society
and the progress it has made during the year.

Members.—The number of new members added during the year has been twenty-
four. Against this, twenty-nine names have been removed—nine by death, fourteen
by resignation or removal from the provincial district, and six for non-payment of
subscription for mor «than two consecutive years. ‘The net loss has thus been five, the
number of members at the present time being 450.

Several of the members removed by death have been long in association with the
Institute, and have rendered important services to it. Mr. John Reid served on the
Council from 1895 to 1915, and was appointed a trustee in 1906, a post which he
occupied until his death. Mr. E. K. Mulgan has contributed lectures and papers of
importance, while his position as an educationist of the first rank renders his loss a
severe one. The decease of the Hon. J. A. Tole should also be referred to, for, although
he took no active part in the affairs of the Institute, his work in connection with
education generally placed him in sympathetic accord with it.

Finance.—The total revenue of the Working Account, after deducting the balance
in hand at the beginning of the year, has been £1,867 5s. 7d., being a decrease of
£8 19s. 8d. on the amount of the previous year. Examining the various items, it will
be noted that the members’ subscriptions show an increase from £407 8s. to £429 9s.
The receipts from the Museum Endowment have amounted to £764 12s. 10d., or almost
exactly the same sum as that credited last year. The invested funds of the Costley
Bequest have yielded £466 10s., also showing a slight increase on the amount realized
during the previous year. The total expenditure has been £1,753 9s., and the cash
balance in hand is £373 13s. 4d.

‘The invested funds of the society, which now amount to the sum of £23,211 8s. 9d.,
have had the careful attention of the trustees during the year.

Meetings.—Nine meetings have been held during the year, at which various lectures
were delivered, and an opportunity offered for discussion. Certain papers were also
forwarded for publication in the Transactions of the New Zealand Institute. The following
is a complete list of both papers and lectures: C. M. Carter, ‘‘ Ceylon, its People and
its Archaeology”; Dr. A. B. Fitt, “Some Applications of Modern Psychology”? ;
Professor J. C. Johnson, “ Coral Islands, Part I—The Reef, its Structure and Origin,”
and ‘‘ Coral islands, Part 11—The Island, with Particular Reference to Polynesia ”’ ;
K. V. Miller, ““ The Theory of Relativity’; Professor F. P. Worley, ““ Atoms and the
Transmutation of the Elements”; Professor R. M. Algie, ““ The Scenic Attractions of
the Tongariro National Park”; Dr. P. H. Buck (Te Rangi Hiroa), ‘‘ Maori Warfare ”’ ;
T. F. Cheeseman, ‘‘ New Species of Plants”’; D. Petrie, ‘‘ Descriptions of New Native
Plants”; J. A. Bartrum, “ Notes on the Geology of the Great Barrier Island” ;
M. J. Gilbert, “‘ Notes on the Geology of the Waikato Heads District”’; L. T. Griffin,
“ Descriptions of Four Fishes new to New Zealand”; Dr. P. H. Buck, ‘‘ The Maori
Food-supplies of Lake Rotorua,” and ‘‘ Maori Decorative Art.”

Those of the above papers which were intended for publication in the Transactions
of the New Zealand Institute have been forwarded to the Editor, and will probably
appear in volume 53, now in the press. Volume 52, containing the papers read before
the various branches of the Institute during the year 1919, has been issued during the
year, and distributed among the members.

Library.—About £150 has been expended over the library during the year; but
some expenditure incurred for the purchase of books and for bookbinding has still
to be met. Two consignments of books, numbering over one hundred volumes, have
been received during the year. Six weeks ago another order was despatched, which
should arrive during the autumn. The magazine and other serial publications sub-
scribed to by the Institute have been regularly received, and have been made available
for the use of readers. Various books and memoirs have been received in exchange,
and several donations have been made by private individuals. Under this heading
special mention should be made of a set of fifty bound volumes of the periodical

526 Proceedings.

Engineering, presented by the trustees of the late H. Metcalfe, C.E. The gift is of
considerable importance from a technological point of view, and will form a welcome
addition to the library.

The scarcity of shelf-room in the library has long been a source of anxiety to the
Council. An attempt has been made to mitigate the evil by erecting a temporary
range of shelving in the assistant’s room, to which the geographical portion of the
library has been transferred. This has slightly improved matters, but the position will
soon be as acute as before. At the present time there can be no proper classification
of the books on the shelving, making it more difficult for readers to consult the library,
and causing much increased work to the custodians.

Museum.—With the exception of a very short period necessarily reserved for
cleaning and rearrangement, the Museum has been open to the public during the whole
of the year. The attendance has been most satisfactory, as proved by the following
statistics. Taking the Sunday attendance first, the register kept by the janitor shows
that 27,102 people entered the building on that day, being an average of 521 for each
Sunday. ‘The greatest attendance was 887, on the 4th April; the smallest 88, on the
26th September. The total number of visitors on the ten chief holidays of the year
was 8,478, or an average of 847 for each holiday. The greatest attendance on any one
holiday was 4,320, on the 23rd April, the date of the arrival of the Prince of Wales. But
this extraordinary attendance was purely caused by the massing of huge crowds at the
foot of Princes Street in order to see the Prince’s vessel arrive and pass up the harbour
to her berth. The next largest attendance was on King’s Birthday, amounting to 975 ;
but the number of visitors on Easter Monday and Labour Day almost equalled that.
As explained in last year’s report, it is impossible to give the actual attendance on
ordinary week-days, but it is believed to be about 250, which would give a total of
75,000. Adding this number to that counted for Sundays and holidays, the grand total
becomes 112,500. Last year the number was estimated at 107,787.

In the report for the previous year the Council stated that in the present con-
gested state of the Museum it is practically impossible to make any changes of import-
ance therein, or to exhibit more than a small proportion of the many additions that
are being regularly received. The correctness of this statement will become more
obvious with each succeeding year. All that can be done at present is to keep the
collections in good order and condition, and to see that they are properly labelled and
arranged for public exhibition. In short, until a new building is provided little work
can be done in the Museum itself beyond those minor alterations and improvements
that can still be carried out. During the year it has been proved that excellent work
can be done, and important results obtained, by a series of short collecting trips into
various parts of the country. It is suggested that this plan should be extended during
the coming year.

The additions and donations received or announced during the year have been
exceptionally numerous and valuable, but only the more important can be mentioned
here. Among them, the chief place must be given to Mr. J. B. Turner’s superb collection
of Fijian and Polynesian ethnological specimens. For nearly fifty years Mr. Turner has
been engaged in building up this collection, which is recognized as being the finest and
most complete in Fiji. It contains sets of nearly all the articles necessary to fully
illustrate the manners and customs of the ancient Fijian, and when placed in associa-
tion with the Maori collection in the Auckland Museum and the numerous Polynesian
articles already there will render the Museum pre-eminent as a centre for the study
of Polynesian culture. Mr. Turner is a native of Auckland, and his magnanimous gift
will ensure him a high place among the benefactors of the city.

During a collecting tour made by Mr. Griffin through the Hauraki Plains and
other districts, donations of Maori articles were received from many settlers. Mr. L.
Carter presented three large ancient stone-worked carvings, a bundle of seventeen long
rods presumably used in house-building, two fine wooden wedges, together with a number
of other objects. Interesting Maori articles were also presented by Messrs, Miln, Benny,
and Bond, R. Muir, J. A. Lennard, J. Kidd, T. Dunbar, Mrs. Shelley, and others.
Articles of note from other districts have been received from G. Graham, Colonel
Boscawen, S. A. Browne, D. Munro, R. Wild, F. Wood, and numerous others.

Attention should also be directed to an interesting collection of ethnological articles
from Assyria, comprising seventeen inscribed clay tablets, a Roman lamp, four scarabs,
thirty ancient coins, the whole presented by Mr. Graham Findlay. Finally, it is well
to mention a collection of ethnological specimens from Australia received in exchange
from the Australian Museum, Sydney.

The War Memorial Museum and the Appeal for Funds.—At the last annual meeting,
held on the 23rd February, 1920, full particulars were given of the progress of the
scheme up to the time of the meeting. Briefly stated, it had been decided that the War
Memorial for the City of Auckland should consist of a suitable building to be erected
on Observatory Hill, in the Auckland Domain. It was further decided that the building

Auckland Institute. SPATS

should form a combined museum and war collection; and that it should be planned
on an impressive and dignified scale, so as to keep permanently alive the purpose and
aim of its existence as a memorial of the Great War.

The first step was clearly to obtain information as to the minimum cost of a
building large enough to accommodate the war collections and associated ‘‘ Hall of
Memory,” together with the collections of the present Auckland Museum. Without
such particulars it was obviously impossible to frame an appeal for funds of a suffi-
ciently definite nature to place before the citizens of Auckland. A committee of the
Council was therefore appointed to investigate the matter, and sufficient evidence of
a reliable nature was obtained to enable the committee to form an adequate idea of
museum requirements.

After consideration it was decided that the next step should be to ascertain what
assistance could be obtained from the State. The Mayor, as President of the Institute,
appealed to the Prime Minister on the subject. After the facts of the case had been
fully and clearly represented, a reply was received to the effect that a grant of £25,000
would be made if a similar sum was obtained by public subscription.

it was then determined to apply to the major financial institutions of the city,
the name of the Auckland Savings-bank heading the list. The request was generously
and willingly received by the bank, which unanimously agreed to give a donation of
£25,000—probably the largest single donation ever made in Auckland. ‘Then came
a reply from the Auckland Racing Club, which at first voted a donation of £2,000,
which was afterwards generously increased to £5,065, that sum representing the net
profits derived from the race meeting given in honour of the visit of the Prince of
Wales to Auckland.

At this stage it was felt that the time had arrived for setting up an organization
to promote the furtherance of the appeal for funds, and to enlarge the number of
workers in the cause. A public meeting was therefore held in the Town Hall on the
22nd October, the Mayor in the chair. It was then resolved to appoint a Citizens
Committee to promote and organize a public appeal throughout the Auckland District
for the balance of the funds required to erect in the Auckland Domain a War Memorial
Museum, which was declared to be the most appropriate form for Auckland’s War
Memorial to take; and, further, the meeting resolved that all questions arising there-
from be referred to such Citizens Committee, with power to act. At a subsequent
meeting of the committee, Mr. J. H. Gunson (President of the Auckland Institute and
Museum) was appointed chairman of the committee, Mr. V. J. Larner treasurer, and
Mr. W. Elliot secretary. It was further resolved that these three gentlemen should
be the trustees of the Building Fund. On further consideration, it was decided to fix
£200,000 as the objective of the fund, the general opinion being that such a sum will
be required to erect a memorial worthy of the city and its inhabitants.

Almost immediately after the appointment of the committee the City Council,
acting with a high sense of civic responsibility, decided to vote £10,000 to the fund.
This was followed by a donation of £5,000 from the Auckland Harbour Board, while
the two chief insurance companies—the New Zealand and the South British—have
each given the sum of £2,000.

Since than many public institutions and private individuals have made large con-
tributions. So far, the Citizens Committee have published no authoritative list of
donations, but it is understood that such will be shortly issued. In the meantime, it
is no breach of confidence to say that the total of the contributions made, a considerable
proportion of which has been actually received, is sufficiently large to ensure the final
success of the movement.

It is not without justifiable pride that this sketch of the attempt to provide funds.
for the Auckland War Memorial has been written. The beginning has been so unex-
pectedly full and generous that it cannot be doubted that the objects of the promoters
will be fully attained. And, if so, the citizens of Auckland will leave behind them a
proof of far-seeing generosity that it will be difficult to match in cities of much larger size.

Election of Officers for 1920-21.—President—J. H. Gunson, Mayor of
Auckland. Vice-Presidents—Hon. EK. Mitchelson, M.L.C.; Hon. C. J. Parr,
C.M.G., M.P. Council—J. Kenderdine ; T. W. Leys, Ph.D.; A. J. Lunn ;
K. V. Miller; H. H. Ostler; T. Peacock; D. Petrie, M.A.; Professor H. W.
Segar, M.A.; Professor A. P W. Thomas, M.A, F.L.8.; H. E. Vaile ;
Professor F. P. Worley, D.Sc. Trustees—T. Peacock; Professor A. P. W.
Thomas; J. H. Upton; H. Hi. Vaile. Secretary and Curator—T. F. Cheese-
man, FLS., F.Z.8., F.N.Z.Inst. Assistant and Preparator of Specimens—
L. T. Griffin, F.Z.S. Auditor—S. Gray, F.R.A.

528 Proceedings.

PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE OF CANTERBURY.

At the annual meeting (ist December, 1920) the annual report and
balance-sheet were adopted.
ABSTRACT.

Council.—Eleven meetings of the Council have been held during the year. The
personnel remains the same as at last election.

Membership.—During the year twenty-one new members were elected and seventeen
names were removed from the roll, which now stands at 234, as against 230. at the
beginning of the session.

Obituary.—It is with regret that the Council records the death of six of our members
during the year—namely, J. B. Struthers, P. Schneider, A. Kaye, G. E. Blanch, E.
Herring, and Miss Hall; and the sympathy of the Institute is extended to the relatives.
The Council further desires to record its sense of the loss sustained by the New Zealand
Institute in the death of Mr. George Hogben, the well-known Dominion seismologist.
Mr. Hogben was President of the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury in 1887.

Meetings of the Institute—During the year eight ordinary and two additional
ordinary meetings were held at Canterbury College, and in addition meetings were held
at Kaiapoi and Methven. Towards the end of January Dr. R. J. Tillyard, Macleay
Research Fellow of Sydney (since appointed entomologist to the Cawthron Institute),
gave an illustrated lecture on ‘‘ Dragon-flies.” In April a social evening was held, at
which, through the kind permission of the Board of Governors of Canterbury College,
the Physics, Chemistry, and Biological Laboratories were thrown open to members.
and their friends. To the professors in charge, who had kindly arranged demonstrations
and exhibits, the best thanks of the Institute are due.

At the May meeting Mr. L. P. Symes delivered his presidential address on the
subject, “‘ Fats, Edible and Otherwise.” Other lectures delivered were: Dr. T. A.
Jaggar, of the Volcano Observatory at Hawaii, ““The Study of Active Volcanoes ”’ ;
Dr. C. C. Farr, “ Relativity and the Einstein Hypothesis’; Professor E. Marsden,
““Gun-location on the Western Front”?; Dr. C. Chilton, “‘The First Pan-Pacific
Science Conference.”

Fifteen technical papers were also read during the session, comprising six botanical,
four zoological, three geological, and two chemical.

The attendances throughout the year have been most gratifying.

Following the practice instituted last year, the Council arranged a number of
meetings at places out of Christchurch, and this year they were held at Methven and
Kaiapoi, where the following addresses were given: At Methven—G. Archey, “‘ Mos-
quitoes and Man”; L. J. Wild, “Science in the Development of Agriculture.” At
Kaiapoi—L. P. Symes, “ Edible Fats”; Dr. F. W. Hilgendorf, ‘‘The Waimakariri
Artesian System.” The attendances at these lectures was most encouraging, and the
appreciative interest taken in the matters dealt with fully warrants the continuance
and development of the policy of holding meetings outside Christchurch.

Government Research Grants.—On the recommendation of this Institute a grant of
£200 was made to Dr. W. P. Evans for “‘ Research on the New Zealand Brown Coals,”
and one of £50 to Mr. George Gray for research on the “‘ Composition of Canterbury
Waters.” Other research grants, covering operations that are still proceeding, which
the Institute has been instrumental in obtaining, are: L. J. Wild, “Soil Survey” ;
R. Speight, ‘‘ Geological Survey of the Malvern Hills”; Dr. C. C. Farr, ‘‘ Porosity
of Porcelain”; G. Brittan, ‘“‘ Fruit-tree Diseases’? ; W. Morrison, ‘‘ Afforestation on
the Spenser Ranges”?; Dr. C. Chilton, ‘“‘ Investigations on the New Zealand Flax
(Phormium).”’

Inbrary.—The extended accommodation indicated in last year’s report is not yet
available, but it is hoped that as soon as building conditions become more favourable
the contemplated extensions to the Public Library will be completed. The need for
more space has become so acute that arrangements have been made to remove some of
the older and less-used books from the shelves and store them in cases, in order to make
room for the later journals and periodicals as they are bound. Beyond these journals,
very few books have this year been added, owing partly to the lack of room and partly
to the high cost. Altogether, thirty-one volumes have been bound, and twenty-nine

Philosophical Institute of Canterbury. 529

more await binding. It is hoped shortly to form a Pacific Section of the library, on
the lines of the Antarctic Section already existing. Several of the publications are
already available, and steps are being taken for opening up exchanges with other
scientific institutions whose researches bear on the Pacific. The following donations
of books and periodicals have been received by the honorary librarian: Dr. Chilton—
Shackleton’s South and Davis’s Voyage of the ‘‘ Aurora” ; Mr. English—Journal of the
Chemical Society ; Mr. L. P. Symes—Journal of the American Chemical Society.

Riccarton Bush.—The Institute’s representative on the board of trustees of
Riccarton Bush reports that the bush has been open to the public as usual during the
year, that improvements have been made as far as funds permitted, and that the bush
is in a very satisfactory condition. As stated in last year’s report, the funds are
insufficient to effect any extensive improvements, and the Council commends this
object to members as worthy of their hearty support.

Pan-Pacific Scientific Conference—The Institute was represented at the Pan-
Pacific Scientific Conference at Honolulu in August, 1920, by Dr. Charles Chilton, who
reports that the Conference was successful even beyond the ardent expectations of its
promoters. It was attended by over a hundred representatives from all the countries
surrounding the Pacific, all of them, either from their own official position or from
their researches, being specially qualified to deal with the scientific problems presented
by the Pacific. The meetings were held in the Throne-room of the Capitol of Honolulu,
the morning meetings being occupied with general questions of interest to all the
members, and the afternoon meetings being devoted to the consideration of the more
special matters by the different sections of Anthropology, Biology, Botany, Entomology,
Geography, Geology, Seismology, and Volcanology.

Dr. Gregory, Professor of Geology at Yale University and Director of the Bishop
Museum, was elected chairman of the Conference, and Dr. A. L. Dean, President of
the University of Hawaii, vice-chairman and secretary. Dr. Chilton was elected
leader of the Biology Section. Many matters dealing with the Pacific were discussed,
and much information received concerning the marine laboratories and other institutions
around the Pacific. The Samoan Geophysical Observatory, referred to later in this
report, was mentioned, and the hope expressed that a Director would speedily be
appointed to continue the important work already done.

The second week of the Conference was spent in a visit to the active volcano of
Kilauea, the meetings of the section of Seismology and Volcanology being continued
at the voleano. The third week was mainly devoted to drawing up statements of the
principal problems in connection with the Pacific that require most urgent attention,
and in endeavouring to arrange for the co-operation of the different Governments and
institutions for the carrying-out of the work. It is hoped that the resolutions passed,
together with the proceedings of the meetings, will be issued shortly, while a second
part of the proceedings, containing papers read before the Conference, will be published
at a later date. Many of the subjects, especially those referring to the volcanological
research and matters connected with the Cook and Samoan Islands, are of peculiar
interest to New Zealand, and it is hoped that members of the Institute will be able to
assist in the work which has been outlined. The Institute is grateful for the hospitality
so liberally extended by the residents of Honolulu to the delegates to the Conference.

Artesian Wells——An Artesian Wells Committee has been set up to carry on and
extend the work which was done by the committee of some years ago. It is proposed
to review the earlier work and records, and to make further investigations, including
systematic observations of water-level, a number of automatic recorders now being
available for this purpose.

Samoan Geophysical Observatory.—Last year the Council reported having made
representations to the Hon. Minister of Marine urging the continuation of the observations
of the Samoan Geophysical Observatory. A committee set up by the New Zealand
Institute conferred with the Government in reference to the future conduct of the
Cbservatory, and has made recommendations by which it is hoped this important
observatory will be put on an Imperial footing. It is hoped that a Director will soon
be appointed. Mr. Westland has been appointed first scientific assistant, and will
shortly take up his new duties.

Hutton Memorial Medal—The Hutton Memorial Medal, which was awarded by
the Board of Governors to Dr. Holloway, a member of this Institute, for researches in
botany, was, in the unavoidable absence of the President of the New Zealand Institute,
presented to Dr. Holloway by Dr. Chilton at the June meeting.

Butler's House—In February a deputation of the Council waited on the Hon. W.
Nosworthy in reference to the preservation of Butler’s house and Sinclair’s grave,
situated on his property at Mesopotamia. Though he could not see his way to transfer
these two sites to the Institute, Mr. Nosworthy sympathetically undertook to mark the

530 Proceedings.

site of Sinclair’s grave and personally to guarantee the preservation of Butler’s house.
Mr. Nosworthy has since supplied the Institute with photographs of Butler’s house, and
these are now being framed and will be preserved in the Institute’s rooms. To Mr.
Nosworthy the Institute extends its sincere thanks for the interest he has taken in this
matter.

Finance.—The balance-sheet shows the total receipts, including a balance from the
previous year, to be £420 6s. 9d. £35 19s. 7d. has been expended on the library, the
amount being smaller than usual, as the yearly account for scientific journals and
periodicals has not been received, owing to abnormal conditions resulting from the
war. The levy to the New Zealand Institute of £30 2s. 6d. has also been paid, leaving
a credit balance on the ordinary account of £110 lls. 9d., and of £142 16s. 3d. in the
Research Fund Account. The Life Members’ Subscription Account now stands at
£175 16s. 9d., deposited with the Permanent Investment and Loan Association of
Canterbury.

Election of Officers for 1921—President—A. M. Wright, A.I.C., F.CS.
Vice-Presidents—L. P. Symes; L. J. Wild, M.A., B.Sc., F.G.8. Council—
Professor A. Wall, M.A.; C. Coleridge Farr, D.Sc., F.P.S.L., F.N.Z Inst. ;
W. Martin, B.Sc.; F. W. Hilgendorf, M.A., D.Sc.; Dr. F. J. Borrie; C. E.
Foweraker, M.A. Representatives on the Board of Governors of the New
Zealand Institute—F. W. Hilgendorf, M.A., D.8c.; A. M. Wright, A.I.C,
F.C.S. Representative on the Board of Trustees of the Riccarton Bush—
Charles Chilton, D.Sc., M.A., LL.D., F.N.Z.Inst., F.L.8. Hon. Secretary—
G. EH. Archey, M.A. Hon. Treasurer—Charles Chilton, D.Sc., M.A., LL.D.,
F.N.Z.AInst., ¥.L.8. Hon. LInbrarian—Miss KE. M. Herriott. Hon. Auditor—
J. O. Jameson.

Otago Institute. 531

OTAGO INSTITUTE.

At the annual meeting (7th December, 1920) the annual report and
balance-sheet were adopted.

ABSTRACT,

Nine meetings of the Council were held during 1920. In addition to the usual
routine work of managing the affairs of the Institute in general, the following items
of special business were dealt with :—

Fellowship of the New Zealand Institute—At the request of the New Zealand
Institute the Council forwarded a list of eight nominations for the election of four
Fellows.

Offer of Yale Telescopes—Being informed that the Yale University has offered to
lend to New Zealand some valuable instruments for charting the heavens, &c., the
Council set up a sub-committee to co-operate with delegates from the Otago Expansion
League and from the University Council. Ministerial sympathy in the project was
aroused, and Dr. Adams, Government Astronomer, has completed a flying survey of
the more distant parts. Several sites have been selected for more detailed investigation.

Dr. Tillyard’s Visit.—Dr. Tillyard, of Sydney, was invited by the Council of the
Institute to visit Otago for entomological research. He was similarly invited by
the affiliated societies, and made remarkably successful studies in various parts of the
Dominion. He gave two special lectures in Dunedin, under the auspices of the Institute,
and reported to the Council at the end of his stay that all those special problems he had
set himself to solve had been either solved or were in the process of solution.

Subsequently Dr. Tillyard accepted the position of Biologist to the Cawthron
Institute, Nelson, and has recently represented the Dominion at the Entomological
Congress in London.

Section for the Study of the Early History of Man.—At the instigation of Mr. H. D.
Skinner, the Council agreed to establish a section for the study of the early history of
man. A committee, including as co-opted members several prominent citizens and
some members of the University staff, was set up to consider the best lines to follow.
As a result a circular has been issued to members of the Institute and to others likely
to join the section. It is hoped that the movement will be successful.

Appeal for a Larger Interest on the Part of the Public.—In order to popularize the
work of the Institute the Council has decided that the ordinary meetings shall be open
to the public. A circular has also been issued appealing for a larger membership.

Meetings.—Eight ordinary and three special meetings of the Institute were held.
At these meetings the following papers were read, and have since been submitted for
publication in the Transactions: Dr. R. V. Fulton, ‘‘ Description of a Stone supposed
to have been used by the Maoris for sharpening Weapons”; Professor J. Park, “‘ The
Geological History of Eastern Marlborough”; J. M. Fowler (communicated by Pro-
fessor Park), ‘“‘ On an Ice-striated Rock-surface on the shore of Circle Cove, Lake
Manapouri’; Professor W. N. Benson, “‘ Palaeozoic and Mesozoic Seas and Lands in
Australasia’; Mrs. D. E. Johnson (communicated by Dr. J. Malcolm), “‘ Food Value
of New Zealand Fishes, Part IT.”

The following addresses were given at the ordinary meetings during the session :
Dr. R. V. Fulton, “‘ Pakeha v. Maori” (presidential address); Professor J. Malcolm,
‘“Some Experiments on Contraction of Muscle”; D. Tannock, “Climate in Relation
to Human Welfare’; Professor W. B. Benham, ‘‘ The History of the Tuatara’’; Pro-
fessor J. Macmillan Brown, ‘“‘ The Pacific Ocean and its Future”’; Professor Dunlop,
‘* Psychology and Industry’; P. Rouse, “The Development of Artificial Fertilizers ”’ ;
Dr. Adams, Government Astronomer, “‘Some Observatories and their Work.”

Special addresses were given on nights other than the ordinary times of meeting
of the Institute. They were: ‘‘ Dragon-fiies and Fossil Insects,” two lectures by Dr.
Tillyard ; and one, ‘‘ Volcanoes and Volcanology,” by Dr. T. A. Jaggar, Government
Voleanologist at Honolulu. All these addresses proved very interesting, and were
fairly well attended. ;

Librarian's Report.—The Institute has opened subscriptions to the following new
journals and periodicals: Geographical Journal, Journal of the Royal Anthropological
Institution (in continuation), The Radio Review, Wireless, and to a very interesting

532 Proceedings.

publication, Discovery, which appeals to the general reader, for it contains articles
written by well-known authorities on a great variety of subjects, literary, archaeological
historical, classical, as well as scientific subjects. Several new books have been
purchased, and a number of volumes have been presented by Dr. Colquhoun to the
Anthopological Section.

As reported last year, the University has added considerably to the library in the
Museum, especially to the anthropological works. That institution has also received
from the Carnegie Research Institute of Washington the series of monographs issued
by them, which are housed in the library.

Iam glad to be able to report that more use is being made of the library by
members than in preceding years.

Membership.—During the year four of the members on last year’s list have died
and sixteen have resigned. Fourteen new members have joined, so that the list now
stands at 152, as against 158 for last year.

Balance-sheet.—The year’s transactions show a credit balance of £5 12s. 8d. The
gross receipts totalled about £700, including subscriptions amounting to £145, and
deposits at call, £462.

Election of Officers for 1921.—President—W. G. Howes, F.E.S. Vice-
Presidents—Dr. R. V. Fulton and H. Brasch. Hon. Secretary—Professor
W.N. Benson, B.A., D.Sc., F.G.8. Hon. Treasurer—J. C. Begg. Hon.
Auditor—R. Gilkison. Hon. Librarian—Professor W. B. Benham, M.A.,
D.Sc., F.R.S., F.N.Z.Inst. Council—Hon. G. M. Thomson, F.N.Z.Inst.,
BUS. M.L:Cy: sProfessor J. Park, HGS; ~ Professor, Ka Jack, 'sca-
Professor W. B. Benham, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.N.Z.Inst.; H. Mandeno ;
H. D. Skinner, B.A. ; and G. 8. Thomson, B.Sc.

TECHNOLOGICAL BRANCH.

During the session the Technological Branch was wound up and its assets trans-
ferred to the main account of the Institute.

ASTRONOMICAL BRANCH.

The Astronomical Branch has held only one general meeting (on the 3rd August),
at which the following contributions were given: Professor White, ““Some Notes on
Mars”; J. C. Begg, “A Visit to Lick Observatory’; Professor Jack, ‘‘ The Offer of
Telescopes by Yale University.” On the last topic Professor Park, who presided, also
read some notes, and a strong case was made out for Central Otago as an ideal site for
an observatory.

It was decided to co-operate with the committee of the general Institute in
endeavouring to secure the Yale instruments for Otago, and useful records of the night
sky at several points in the province have since been obtained from interested local
observers.

The branch has also carried on negotiations with a view of securing a commanding
site on the Town Belt, and erecting thereon a small observatory to house the Beverly
telescope and the transit instrument in its possession.

At the annual meeting, held on the 7th December, the following office-bearers were
elected: Chairman—R. Gilkison. Vice-Chairmen—Professor Park, F.G.S.; Professor
R. Jack, D.Sc.; and Professor D. R. White, M.A. Committee—Rev. D. Dutton,
F.R.A.S.; Dr. P. D. Cameron; H. Brasch; C. Frye; J. W. Milnes; Rev. A. M.
Dalrymple, M.A. Hon. Secretary—J. C. Begg, Fifield Street, Roslyn.

Nelson Institute. Bao

NELSON INSTITUTE.

The annual general meeting of the Scientific Branch of the Nelson
Institute, the first meeting of the present year, was held on the 11th
August, 1920, Mr. F. G. Gibbs presiding. Over twenty persons were pre-
sent, apologies being received from a number of others who were willing
to become members.

After some discussion as to the future constitution, it was decided that
the work of the branch should continue on the lines previously followed,
and the existing constitution was adopted. Gratification was expressed at
the large accession of new members, and especially at the willingness of
the staff of the Cawthron Institute to take an active part in the operations
of the branch.

Three meetings of the committee and three general meetings were sub-
sequently held. Well-attended lectures were given by Professor T. H.
Easterfield, on “* Colloids,” and T. Rigg, on “‘ The Work of the Rothamsted
Experimental Station.” The following papers were read: R. J. Tillyard,
‘““A New Species of Uropetela”; A. Philpott, “Notes on the Lepi-
doptera.”’

The final gathering of the year took the form of an excursion to the
Dun Mountain, under the leadership of F. G. Gibbs.

Election of Officers for 1921.—President—Theodore Rigg, M.A., M.Sc.
Committee—Professor T. H LEasterfield, M.A., Ph.D., F.N_Z. Inst. ; Miss
K. M. Curtis, M.A., D.Sc., D.L.C.; F. G. Gibbs, M.A.; A. Philpott, F.E.S. ;
F. V. Knapp; and F. L. N. Tuck, B.Sc. Secretary and Treasurer—W. C.

Davies.

MANAWATU PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.

The annual general meeting was held at the Museum on the 19th
November, 1920, when the annual report and balance-sheet were adopted.

ABSTRACT,

Attendance at the monthly meetings has been fairly satisfactory, but, considering
the trouble and expense that the society has gone to in providing lectures and papers:
the interest of the public leaves something to "be desired.

The society in October suffered a grievous loss by the death of Mr. Kenneth Wilson,
M.A., who for nearly eleven years had acted as its Hon. Secretary and Treasurer.
Mr. Wilson was one of the original founders of the Manawatu Philosophical Society,
had occupied every office, and to his untiring and enthusiastic work is due the present
satisfactory position of the society, and the finding of his successor will be a difficult
matter.

Death also removed two other very old members in the persons of Mr. C. E. Walde-
grave and Mr. T. Manson.

Six members resigned, in all cases due to removal from the district, and nine
members were elected, the net result for the year being a gain of one in our member-
ship. The financial position of the society is, on the whole, satisfactory, but in view of
the heavy expenses attendant upon the holding of the New Zealand Science Congress
in Palmerston North special efforts are necessary, and are being made, to meet these
extraordinary conditions.

The Museum continues to expand, and the Council is seriously faced with the
question of increased accommodation for exhibits ; and, our available space being now

534 Proceedings.

fully occupied, it has been found necessary to decline, though with great reluctance,
some valuable exhibits. There is good reason to hope, however, that in the new library
to be erected by the municipal authorities ample accommodation for the Museum will
be provided, and deputations from the Council of the society touching this matter met
with a most encouraging reception from the civic body. Meanwhile the fire risk in our
present building is causing the Council much anxiety, and this risk, added to the fact
of the congestion, were the points most dwelt upon by the speakers at the several depu-
tations. The report of the Curator shows that the average daily attendance was twenty-
two, and exhibits were received from thirteen different donors, to whom our best thanks

are accorded.
Mr. R. H. F. Grace reported that the attendance at the Observatory has been fair,

but no great advantage has been taken of the privilege of school-children attending as
a class free; and in view of the very accessible situation of the Observatory and the
awakened interest in astronomy their lack of appreciation of the facilities afforded is

difficult to explain.

The telescope is in good repair, but the building requires repainting, and, if the
opportunity offers, steps should be taken to secure a more modern instrument, as the
one we have is not adapted for precise work, and we therefore cannot collaborate in the
general work being done in New Zealand. The October eclipse of the moon was,
unfortunately, not observable, owing to heavy clouds.

During the year nine general meetings were held, and the following papers were
read: Colonel Porter, ‘‘ Personal Reminiscences of Maori Customs and Superstitions ”’ ;
Dr. H. Bett, “The Transfusion of Blood”; T. E. Sedgwick, “‘ Population”; R.
Edwards, ‘‘ The Origin of Coal”; Johannes C. Andersen, “‘ Bird-song and the Song-
birds of New Zealand”; C. T. Salmon, ‘“ The Cosmic Cycle”; ‘“T. Watson, “The
Climate as a Factor in Racial Characteristics”’; Elsdon Best, ‘‘ Ancient Maori Lore and

Customs.”
Your Council commends to your attention the distinction accorded to Palmerston

North in being chosen as the location of the 1921 Biennial Science Congress, and
earnestly trusts that every effort will be put forth by members of the society and
townspeople generally to make the gathering, which is fixed for the last week in
January, a notable success.

Election of Officers for 1921—Presideni—Dr. D. H. Bett, M.B., Ch.B.,
M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., F.R.C.S.E. Vice-Presidents—A. Whittaker; J. B.
Gerrand. Councii—Miss D. Wilson; R. Ross; R. Edwards; J. A.
Colquhoun, M.Sc.; C. Taylor; E. Larcomb; H. J. Canton; A. H. M.
Wricht ; J. Murray, M.A.; W. Park, F.R.H.S.; M. A. Elliot; M. &:
Oram, M.A., LL.B. Officer in Charge of the Observatory—R. H. F. Grace.
Honorary Secretary and Treasurer—C. T. Salmen. Honorary Auditor—
W. E. Bendall, F.P.A.

WANGANUI PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.

Three meetings were held during the year 1920, at which the following
lectures were given :---

June: H. E. Segar, ‘‘ The Dwindling Sovereign.”

September: P. Marshall, ‘‘ The Age of the Earth.”

October: R. Dunn, “ Coal-tar Chemistry’; P. Marshall and R. Mur-
doch, ‘‘ Some Tertiary Mollusca, with Descriptions of New Species,” “ Fossils
from the Paparoa Rapids, on the Wanganui River,” “Tertiary Rocks near
Hawera.”

At the annual meeting the report and balance-sheet were adopted, and
the following officers were appointed :—

President—P. Marshall, M.A., D.Sc., F.G.S., F.N.Z.Inst. Vace-Presidents
—J. A. Neame, B.A., and J. T. Ward. Council—T. Allison; C. Palmer
Brown, M.A., LL.B.; R. Murdoch; T. W. Downes; H. E. Sturge, M.A. ;
H. R. Hatherly, M.R.C.S.; C. C. Hutton, M.A. Hon. Secretary and
Treasurer—R. Murdoch.

kee HulN ola ex

0 ec

Sak,

587

NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE ACT, 1908.
1908, No. 130.

An Act to consolidate certain Hnactments of the General Assembly
relating to the New Zealand Institute.

BE IT ENACTED by the General Assembly of New Zealand in Parliament
assembled, and by the authority of the same, as follows :—

1. (1.) The Short Title of this Act is the New Zealand Institute
Act, 1908.

(2.) This Act is a consolidation of the enactments mentioned in the
Schedule hereto, and with respect to those enactments the following pro-
visions shall apply :—

(a.) The Institute and Board respectively constituted under those

enactments, and subsisting on the coming into operation of this
Act, shall be deemed to be the same Institute and Board respec-
tively constituted under this Act without any change of consti-
tution or corporate entity or otherwise; and the members
thereof in office on the coming into operation of this Act shall
continue in office until their successors under this Act come into
office.

(b.) All Orders in Council, regulations, appointments, societies incor-
porated with the Institute, and generally all acts of authority
which originated under the said enactments or any enactment
thereby repealed, and are subsisting or in force on the coming
into operation of this Act, shall enure for the purposes of this
Act as fully and effectually as if they had originated under the
corresponding provisions of this Act, and accordingly shall,
where necessary, be deemed to have so originated.

(c.) All property vested in the Board constituted as aforesaid shall
be deemed to be vested in the Board established and recognized
by this Act.

(d.) All matters and proceedings commenced under the said enact-
ments, and pending or in progress on the coming into opera-
tion of this Act, may be continued, completed, and enforced
under this Act.

2. (1.) The body now known as the New Zealand Institute (herein-
after referred to as ‘‘ the Institute’’) shall consist of the Auckland Insti-
tute, the Wellington Philosophical Society, the Phtlosophical Institute
of Canterbury, the Otago Institute, the Hawke's Bay Philosophical
Institute, the Nelson Institute, the Westland Institute, the Southland
Institute, and such others as heretofore have been or may hereafter be
incorporated therewith in accordance with regulations heretofore made
or hereafter to be made by the Board of Governors.

(2.) Members of the above-named incorporated societies shall be ipso
facto members of the Institute.

3. The control and management of the Institute shall be vested in a
Board of Governors (hereinafter referred to as ‘‘ the Board ”), constituted
as follows :—

The Governor:

The Minister of Internal Affairs :

Four members to be appointed by the Governor in Council, of
whom two shall be appointed during the month of December
in every year:

538 Appendix.

Two members to be appointed by each of the incorporated societies
at Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin during
the month of December in each alternate year; and the next
year in which such an appointment shall be made is the
year one thousand nine hundred and nine:

One member to be appointed by each of the other incorporated
societies during the month of December in each alternate
year; and the next year in which such an appointment shall
be made is the year one thousand nine hundred and nine.

4. (1.) Of the members appointed by the Governor in Council, the
two members longest in office without reappointment shall retire annually
on the appointment of their successors.

(2.) Subject to the last preceding subsection, the appointed members
of the Board shall hold office until the appointment of their successors.

5. The Board shall be a body corporate by the name of the ‘‘ New
Zealand Institute,’’ and by that name shall have perpetual succession
and a common seal, and may sue and be sued, and shall have power and
authority to take, purchase, and hold lands for the purposes hereinafter
mentioned.

6. (1.) The Board shall have power to appoint a fit person, to be
known as the “ President,’ to superintend and carry out all necessary
work in connection with the affairs of the Institute, and to provide him
with such further assistance as may be required.

(2.) The Board shall also appoint the President or some other fit
person to be editor of the Transactions of the Institute, and may appoint
a committee to assist him in the work of editing the same.

(85.) The Board shall have power from time to time to make regu-
lations under which societies may become incorporated with the
Institute, and to declare that any incorporated society shall cease to be
incorporated if such regulations are not complied with ; and such regu-
lations on being published in the Gazette shall have the force of law.

(4.) The Board may receive any grants, bequests, or gifts of books
or specimens of any kind whatsoever for the use of the Institute, and
dispose of them as it thinks fit.

(5.) The Board shall have control of the property from time to time
vested in it or acquired by it; and shall make regulations for the
management of the same, and for the encouragement of research by the
members of the Institute; and in all matters, specified or unspecified,
shall have power to act for and on behalf of the Institute.

7. (1.) Any casual vacancy in the Board, howsoever caused, shall be
filled within three months by the society or authority that appointed
the member whose place has become vacant, and if not filled within that
time the vacancy shall be filled by the Board.

(2.) Any person appointed to fill a casual vacancy shall only hold
office for such period as his predecessor would have held office under
this Act.

8. (1.) Annual meetings of the Board shall be held in the month of
January in each year, the date and place of such annual meeting to be
fixed at the previous annual meeting.

(2.) The Board may meet during the year at such other times and
places as it deems necessary.

(3.) At each annual meeting the President shall present to the
meeting a report of the work of the Institute for the year preceding, and
a balance-sheet, duly audited, of all sums received and paid on behalf
of the Institute.

9. The Board may from time to time, as it sees fit, make arrange-
ments for the holding of general meetings of members of the Institute,

New Zealand Institute Act. 539

at times and places to be arranged, for the reading of scientific papers,
the delivery of lectures, and for the general promotion of science in New
Zealand by any means that may appear desirable.

10. The Minister of Finance shall from time to time, without further
appropriation than this Act, pay to the Board the sum of five hundred
pounds in each financial year, to be applied in or towards payment of the
general current expenses of the Institute.

11. Forthwith upon the making of any regulations or the publica-
tion of any Transactions, the Board shall transmit a copy thereof to the
Minister of Internal Affairs, who shall lay the same before Parliament if
sitting, or if not, then within twenty days after the commencement of the
next ensuing session thereof.

SCHEDULE.
Enactments consolidated.

1903, No. 48.—The New Zealand Institute Act, 1903.

NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE AMENDMENT ACT, 1920.
1920, No. 3.
An Act to amend the New Zealand Institute Act, 1908.
[30th July, 1920.
BE IT ENACTED by the General Assembly of New Zealand in Parliament
assembled, and by the authority of the same, as follows :—

1. This Act may be cited as the New Zealand Institute Amendment
Act, 1920, and shall be read together with and deemed part of the New
Zealand Institute Act, 1908.

2. Section ten of the New Zealand Institute Act, 1908, is hereby
amended by omitting the words “five hundred pounds,” and substituting
the words “ one thousand pounds.”

REGULATIONS.

THE following are the regulations of the New Zealand Institute under
the Act of 1903 :—*

The word ‘Institute’’ used in the following regulations means the
New Zealand Institute as constituted by the New Zealand Institute
Act, 1903.

INCORPORATION OF SOCIETIES.

1. No society shall be incorporated with the Institute under the pro-
visions of the New Zealand Institute Act, 1903, unless such society shall
consist of not less than twenty-five members, subscribing in the aggregate
a sum of not less than £25 sterling annually for the promotion of art,
science, or such other branch of knowledge for which it is associated, to
be from time to time certified to the satisfaction of the Board of Governors
of the Institute by the President for the time being of the society.

2. Any society incorporated as aforesaid shall cease to be incorporated
with the Institute in case the number of the members of the said society
shall at any time become less than twenty-five, or the amount of money
annually subscribed by such members shall at any time be less
than £25.

3. The by-laws of every society to be incorporated as aforesaid shall
provide for the expenditure of not less than one-third of the annual

* New Zealand Gazette, 14th July, 1904.

540 Appendix.

revenue in or towards the formation or support of some local public
museum or library, or otherwise shall provide for the contribution of not
less than one-sixth of its said revenue towards the extension and main-
tenance of the New Zealand Institute.

4. Any society incorporated as aforesaid which shall in any one year
fail to expend the proportion of revenue specified in Regulation No. 3
aforesaid in manner provided shali from henceforth cease to be incor-
porated with the Institute.

PUBLICATIONS.

5. All papers read before any society for the time being incorporated
with the Institute shall be deemed to be communications to the Insti-
tute, and then may be published as Proceedings or Transactions of the
Institute, subject to the following regulations of the Board of the Institute
regarding publications :—

(a.) The publications of the Institute shall consist of —

(1.) A current abstract of the proceedings of the societies
for the time being incorporated with the Institute, to be
intituled ‘‘ Proceedings of the New Zealand Institute ”’ ;

(2.) And of transactions comprising papers read before the
incorporated societies (subject, however, to selection as herein-
after mentioned), and of such other matter as the Board of
Governors shall from time to time determine to publish, to
be intituled ‘‘ Transactions of the New Zealand Institute.”’

(b.) The Board of Governors shall determine what papers are to be
published.

(c.) Papers not recommended for publication may be returned to their
authors if so desired.

(d.) All papers sent in for publication must be legibly written, type-
written, or printed.

(e.) A proportional contribution may be required from each society
towards the cost of publishing Proceedings and Transactions
of the Institute.

(f.) Kach incorporated society will be entitled to receive a propor-
tional number of copies of the Transactions and Proceedings
of the New Zealand Institute, to be from time to time fixed
by the Board of Governors.

MANAGEMENT OF THE PROPERTY OF THE INSTITUTE.

6. All property accumulated by or with funds derived from incor-
porated societies, and placed in charge of the Institute, shall be vested
in the Institute, and be used and applied at the discretion of the Board of
Governors for public advantage, in like manner with any other of the
property of the Institute.

7. All donations by societies, public Departments, or private indi-
viduals to the Institute shall be acknowledged by a printed form of
receipt and shall be entered in the books of the Institute provided for
that purpose, and shall then be dealt with as the Board of Governors may
direct.

Honorary MEMBERS.

8. The Board of Governors shall have power to elect honorary
members (being persons not residing in the Colony of New Zealand), pro-
vided that the total number of honorary members shall not exceed thirty.

Regulations. \ d41

9. In case of a vacancy in the list of honorary members, each incor-
porated society, after intimation from the Secretary of the Institute, may
nominate for election as honorary member one person.

10. The names, descriptions, and addresses of persons so nominated,
together with the grounds on which their election as honorary members
is “recommended, shall be forthwith forwarded to the President of the
New Zealand Institute, and shall by him be submitted to the Governors
at the next succeeding meeting.

GENERAL REGULATIONS.

11. Subject to the New Zealand Institute Act, 1908, and to the
foregoing rules, all societies incorporated with the Institute shall be
entitled to retain or alter their own form of constitution and the by-laws
for their own management, and shall conduct their own affairs.

12. Upon application signed by the President and countersigned by the
Secretary of any society, accompanied by the certificate required under
Regulation No. 1, a certificate of incorporation will be granted under
the seal of the Institute, and will remain in force as long as the fore-
going regulations of the Institute are complied with by the society.

13. In voting on any subject the President is to have a deliberate as
well as a casting vote.

14. The President may at any time call a meeting of the Board, and
shall do so on the requisition in writing of four Governors.

15. Twenty-one days’ notice of every meeting of the Board shall be
given by posting the same to each Governor at an address furnished by
him to the Secretary.

16. In case of a vacancy in the office of President, a meeting of
the Board shall be called by the Secretary within twenty-one days to
elect a new President.

17. The Governors for the time being resident or present in Wellington
shall be a Standing Committee for the purpose of transacting urgent
business and assisting the officers.

18. The Standing Committee may appoint persons to perform the
duties of any other office which may become vacant. Any such appoint-
ment shall hold good until the next meeting of the Board, when the
vacancy shall be filled.

19. The foregoing regulations may be altered or amended at any
annual meeting, provided that notice be given in writing to the Secretary
of the Institute not later than the 30th November.

The following additional regulations, and amendment to regulations,
were adopted at a general meeting of the Board of Governors of the New
Zealand Institute, heid at Wellington on the 30th January, 1918, and at
Christchurch on the 38rd February, 1919. (See New Zealand Gazette,
No. 110, 4th September, 1919.)

REGULATIONS GOVERNING THE FELLOWSHIP OF THE INSTITUTE.

20. The Fellowship of the New Zealand Institute shall be an honorary
distinction for the life of the holder.

21. The Original Fellows shall be twenty in number, and shall include
the past Presidents and the Hutton and Hector Medallists who have held
their distinctions and positions prior to 3rd February, 1919, and who at
that date are members of the Institute. The remaining Original Fellows

542 Appendix.

shall be nominated as provided for in Regulation 26 (a), and shall be
elected by the said past Presidents and Hector and Hutton Medallists.

22. The total number of Fellows at any time shall not be more than
forty.

23, After the appointment and election of the Original Fellows, as pro-
vided in Regulation 21, not more than four Fellows shall be elected in any
one year.

24. The Fellowship shall be given for research or distinction in science.

25. No person shall be elected as Fellow unless he is a British subject
and has been a member of one of the incorporated societies for three years
immediately preceding his election.

26. After the appointment and election of the Original Fellows as pro-
vided in Regulation 21 there shall be held an annual election of Fellows
at such time as the Board of Governors shall appoint. Such election shall
be determined as follows :—

(a.) Hach of the incorporated societies at Auckland, Wellington, Christ-
church, and Dunedin may nominate not more than twice as
many persons as there are vacancies, and each of the other
incorporated societies may nominate as many persons as there
are vacancies. Hach nomination must be accompanied by a
statement of the qualifications of the candidate for Fellowship.

(b.) Out of the persons so nominated the Fellows resident in New Zea-
land shall select twice as many persons as there are vacancies, if
so many be nominated.

(c.) The names of the nominees shall be submitted to the Fellows at
least six months, and the names selected by them submitted
to the Governors at least three months, before the date fixed
for the annual meeting of the Board of Governors at which the
election is to take place.

(d.) The election shall be made by the Board of Governors at the annual
meeting from the persons selected by the Fellows.

(e.) The methods of selection in subclause (b) and of election in sub-
clause (d) shall be determined by the Board of Governors.

(f.) The official abbreviation of the title “ Fellow of the New Zealand
Institute ” shall be “ F.N.Z.Inst.”

AMENDMENT TO REGULATIONS.

Regulation 5 (a) of the regulations published in the New Zealand Gazetie
of the 14th July, 1904, is hereby amended to read :—
““(a.) The publications of the Institute shall consist of—

‘““(1.) Such current abstract of the proceedings of the societies
for the time being incorporated with the Institute as the Board
of Governors deems desirable ;

““(2.) And of transactions comprising papers read before the
incorporated societies or any general meeting of the New Zealand
Institute (subject, however, to selection as hereinafter mentioned),
and of such other matter as the Board of Governors shall from
time to time for special reasons in each case determine to publish,
to be intituled Transactions of the New Zealand Institute.”

Hutton Memorial Fund. 543

THE HUTTON MEMORIAL MEDAL AND RESEARCH FUND.

DECLARATION OF TRUST.

Tus deed, made the fifteenth day of February, one thousand nine hundred
and nine (1909), between the New Zealand Institute of the one part, and
the Public Trustee of the other part : Whereas the New Zealand Institute
is possessed of a fund consisting now of the sum of five hundred and fifty-
five pounds one shilling (£555 1s.), held for the purposes of the Hutton
Memorial Medal and Research Fund on the terms of the rules and regu-
lations made by the Governors of the said Institute, a copy whereof is
hereto annexed: And whereas the said money has been transferred to the
Public Trustee for the purposes of investment, and the Public Trustee
now holds the same for such purposes, and it is expedient to declare the
trusts upon which the same is held by the Public Trustee :

Now this deed witnesseth that the Public Trustee shall hold the said
moneys and all other moneys which shall be handed to him by the said
Governors for the same purposes upon trust from time to time to invest
the same upon such securities as are lawful for the Public Trustee to
invest on, and to hold the principal and income thereof for the purposes
set out in the said rules hereto attached.

And it is hereby declared that it shall be lawful for the Public Trustee
to pay all or any of the said moneys, both principal and interest, to the
Treasurer of the said New Zealand Institute upon being directed so to do
by a resolution of the Governors of the said Institute, and a letter signed
by the Secretary of the said Institute enclosing a copy of such resolution
certified by him and by the President as correct shall be sufficient
evidence to the Public Trustee of the due passing of such resolution:
And upon receipt of such letter and copy the receipt of the Treasurer for
the time being of the said Institute shall be a sufficient discharge to the
Public Trustee: And in no case shall the Public Trustee be concerned to
inquire into the administration of the said moneys by the Governors of
the said Institute.

As witness the seals of the said parties hereto, the day and year
hereinbefore written.

RESOLUTIONS OF BOARD oF GOVERNORS.

RESOLVED by the Board of Governors of the New Zealand Institute
that—

1. The funds placed in the hands of the Board by the committee of
subscribers to the Hutton Memorial Fund be called ‘“‘The Hutton
Memorial Research Fund,’ in memory of the late Captain Frederick
Wollaston Hutton, F.R.S. Such fund shall consist of the moneys sub-
scribed and granted for the purpose of the Hutton Memorial, and all
other funds which may be given or granted for the same purpose.

2. The funds shall be vested in the Institute. The Board of
Governors of the Institute shall have the control of the said moneys,
and may invest the same upon any securities proper for trust-moneys,

3. A sum not exceeding £100 shall be expended in procuring a bronze
medal to be known as ‘‘ The Hutton Memorial Medal.”’

544 Appendix.

4. The fund, or such part thereof as shall not be used as aforesaid,
shall be invested in such securities as aforesaid as may be approved of by
the Board of Governors, and the interest arising from such investment
hall be used for the furtherance of the objects of the fund.

5. The Hutton Memorial Medal shall be awarded from time to time
by the Board of Governors, in accordance with these regulations, to
persons who have made some noticeable contribution in connection with
the zoology, botany, or geology of New Zealand.

6. The Board shall make regulations setting out the manner in which
the funds shall be administered. Such regulations shall conform to the
terms of the trust.

7. The Board of Governors may, in the manner prescribed in the
regulations, make grants from time to time from the accrued interest to
persons or committees who require assistance in prosecuting researches
in the zoology, botany, or geology of New Zealand.

8. There shall be published annually in the ‘Transactions of the
New Zealand Institute’”’ the regulations adopted by the Board as afore-
said, a list of the recipients of the Hutton Memorial Medal, a list of the
persons to whom grants have been made during the previous year, and
also, where possible, an abstract of researches made by them.

REGULATIONS UNDER WHICH THE Hutton MrmortAtL MEDAL SHALL BE
AWARDED AND THE RESEARCH E'UND ADMINISTERED.

1. Unless in exceptional circumstances, the Hutton Memorial Medal
shall be awarded not oftener than once in every three years ; and in no
case shall any medal be awarded unless, in the opinion of the Board,
some contribution really deserving of the honour has been made.

2. The medal shall not be awarded for any research published previous
to the 31st December, 1906.

3. The research for which the medal is awarded must have a distinct
bearing on New Zealand zoology, botany, or geology.

4. The medal shall be awarded only to those who have received the
greater part of their education in New Zealand or who have resided in
New Zealand for not less than ten years.

5. Whenever possible, the medal shall be presented in some public
manner.

6. The Board of Governors may, at any annual meeting, make grants
from the accrued interest of the fund to any person, society, or commit-
tee for the encouragement of research in New Zealand zoology, botany,
or geology.

7. Applications for such grants shall be made to the Board before the
30th September.

8. In making such grants the Board of Governors shall give preference
to such persons as are defined in regulation 4.

9. The recipients of such grants shall report to the Board before the
31st December in the year following, showing in a general way how the
grant has been expended and what progress has been made with the
research.

10. The results of researches aided by grants from the fund shall,
where possible, be published in New Zealand.

11. The Board of Governors may from time to time amend or alter
the regulations, such amendments or alterations being in all cases in con-
formity with resolutions 1 to 4.

Hutton Memorial Fund. 545

AWARD OF THE Hutton Mermortan MEDAL.

1911. Professor W. B. Benham, D.Sc., F.R.8., University of Otago—
For researches in New Zealand zoology.

1914. Dr. L. Cockayne, F.L.S., F.R.5.— For researches on the
ecology of New Zealand plants.

1917. Professor P. Marshall, M.A., D.Sc.—For researches in New
Zealand geology.

1920. Rev. John E. Holloway, D.Sc.—For researches in New Zealand
pteridophytic botany.

GRANT FROM THE Hutton Memorial RESEARCH FuND.

1919. Miss M. K. Mestayer—£10, for work on the New Zealand
Mollusca.

HECTOR MEMORIAL RESEARCH FUND.
DECLARATION OF TRUST.

THis deed, made the thirty-first day of July, one thousand nine hundred
and fourteen, between the New Zealand Institute, a body corporate
duly incorporated by the New Zealand Institute Act, 1908, of the one
part, and the Public Trustee of the other part: Whereas by a declara-
tion of trust dated the twenty-seventh day of January, one thousand
nine hundred and twelve, after reciting that the New Zealand Institute
was possessed of a fund consisting of the sum of £1,045 10s. 2d., held
for the purposes of the Hector Memorial Research Fund on the terms of
the rules and regulations therein mentioned, which said moneys had been
handed to the Public Trustee for investment, it was declared (¢nter alia)
that the Public Trustee should hold the said moneys and all other moneys
which should be handed to him by the said Governors of the Institute
for the same purpose upon trust from time to time, to invest the same
in the common fund of the Public Trust Office, and to hold the principal
and income thereof for the purposes set out in the said rules and regula-
tions in the said deed set forth: And whereas the said rules and regu-
lations have been amended by the Governors of the New Zealand Institute,
and as amended are hereinafter set forth: And whereas it is expedient
to declare that the said moneys are held by the Public Trustee upon the
trusts declared by the said deed of trust and for the purposes set forth
in the said rules and regulations as amended as aforesaid :

Now this deed witnesseth and it is hereby declared that the Public
Trustee shall hold the said moneys and all other moneys which shall be
handed to him by the said Governors for the same purpose upon trust
from time to time to invest the same in the common fund of the Public
Trust Office, and to hold the principal and income thereof for the pur-
poses set out in the said rules and regulations hereinafter set forth :

And it is hereby declared that it shall be lawful for the Public
Trustee to pay, and he shall pay, all or any of the said moneys, both
principal and interest, to the Treasurer of the said New Zealand Insti-
tute upon being directed to do so by a resolution of the Governors of
the said Institute, and a letter signed by the Secretary of the said Insti-
tute enclosing a copy of such resolution certified by him and by the
President as correct shall be sufficient evidence to the Public Trustee
of the due passing of such resolution: And upon receipt of such letter
and copy the receipt of the Treasurer for the time being of the said

18—Trans.

546 Appendix.

Institute shall. be a sufficient discharge to the Public Trustee: And in
no case shall the Public Trustee be concerned to inquire into the adminis-
tration of the said moneys by the Governors of the said Institute.

As witness the seals of the said parties hereto, the day and year first
hereinbefore written.

Rules and Regulations made by the Governors of the New Zealand
Institute in relation to the Hector Memorial Research Fund.

1. The funds placed in the hands of the Board by the Wellington
Hector Memorial Committee be called ‘‘ The Hector Memorial Research
Fund,’’ in memory of the late Sir James Hector, K.C.M.G., F.R.S.
The object of such fund shall be the encouragement of scientific research
in New Zealand, and such fund shall consist of the moneys subscribed
and granted for the purpose of the memorial and all other funds which
may be given or granted for the same purpose.

2. The funds shall be vested in the Institute. The Board of Go-
vernors of the said Institute shall have the control of the said moneys,
and may invest the same upon any securities proper for trust-moneys.

3. A sum not exceeding one hundred pounds (£100) shall be expended
in procuring a bronze medal, to be known as the Hector Memorial Medal.

4, The fund, or such part thereof as shall not be used as aforesaid,
shall be invested in such securities as may be approved by the Board
of Governors, and the interest arising from such investment shall be
used for the furtherance of the objects of the fund by providing thereout °
a prize for the encouragement of such scientific research in New Zealand
of such amount as the Board of Governors shall from time to time
determine.

5. The Hector Memorial Medal and Prize shall be awarded annually
by the Board of Governors.

6. The prize and medal shall be awarded by rotation for the follow-
ing subjects, namely—(1) Botany, (2) chemistry, (3) ethnology, (4) geo-
logy, (5) physics (including mathematics and astronomy), (6) zoology
(including animal physiology).

In each year the medal and prize shall be awarded to that investi-
gator who, working within the Dominion of New Zealand, shall in the
opinion of the Board of Governors have done most towards the advance-
ment of that branch of science to which the medal and prize are in such
year allotted.

7. Whenever possible the medal shall be presented in some public
manner.

AWARD OF THE Hector MEMORIAL RESEARCH FUND.

1912. I. Cockayne, Ph.D., F.L.8., F.R.S.—For researches in New
Zealand botany.

1913. TT. H. EKasterfield, M.A., Ph.D.—For researches in chemistry.

1914. Elsdon Best—For researches in New Zealand ethnology.

1915. P. Marshall, M.A., D.Sc., F.G.S.—For researches in New
Zealand geology.

1916. Sir Ernest Rutherford,-F.R.S.—For researches in physics.

1917. Charles Chilton, M.A., D.Sc., F.L.8.,C.M.Z.S.—For researches
in zoology.

1918. T. F. Cheeseman, F.L.S., F.Z.S.—For researches in New
Zealand systematic botany.

1919. P. W. Robertson—For researches in chemistry.

1920. 8. Perey Smith—For researches in New Zealand ethnology.

1921. R. Speight, M.A., M.Sc., F.G.S.—For work in New Zealand
geology.

Regulations for Government Research Grant. 547

REGULATIONS FOR ADMINISTERING THE GOVERNMENT
RESEARCH GRANT.*

ALL grants shall be subject to the following conditions, and each grantee
shall be duly informed of these conditions :—

1. All instruments, specimens, objects, or materials of permanent value,
whether purchased or obtained out of or by means of the grant, or supplied
from among those at the disposal of the Institute, are to be regarded, unless
the Research Grants Committee decide otherwise, as the property of the
Institute, and are to be returned by the grantee, for disposal according to
the orders of the committee, at the conclusion of his research, or at such
other time as the committee may determine.

2. Every one receiving a grant shall furnish to the Research Grants
Committee, on or before the lst January following upon the allotment of
the grant, a report (or, if the object of the grant be not attained, an in-
terim report, to be renewed at the same date in each subsequent year until
a final report can be furnished or the committee dispense with further
reports) containing (a) a brief statement showing the results arrived at
or the stage which the inquiry has reached ; (b) a general statement of the
expenditure incurred, accompanied, as far as is possible, with vouchers;
(c) a list of the instruments, specimens, objects, or materials purchased or
obtained out of the grant, or supplied by the committee, which are at
present in his possession ; and (d) references to any transactions, journals,
or other publications in which results of the research have been printed.
In the event of the grantee failing to send in within three months of
the said Ist January a report satisfactory to the committee he may be
required, on resolution of the Board of Governors, to return the whole of
the sum allotted to him.

3. Where a grant is made to two or more persons acting as a committee
for the purpose of carrying out some research, one member of the said
committee shall assume the responsibility of furnishing the report and
recelving and disbursing the money.

4. Papers in which results are published that have been obtained
through aid furnished by the Government grant should contain an acknow-
ledgment of that fact.

5. Every grantee shall, before any of the grant is paid to him, be
required to sign an engagement that he is prepared to carry out the general
conditions applicable to all grants, as well as any conditions which may
be attached to his particular grant.

6. In cases where specimens or preparations of souiemant value are
obtained through a grant the committee shall, as far as possible, direct that
such specimens shall be deposited in a museum or University college within
the province where the specimens or material were obtained, or in which
the grantee has worked. The acknowledgment of the receipt of the speci-
mens by such institution shall fully satisfy the claims of the Iastitute.

7. In cases where, after completion of a research, the committee directs
that any instrument or apparatus obtained by means of the grant shall be
deposited in an institution of higher learning, such deposit shall be subject
to an annual report from the institution in question as to the condition of
the instrument or apparatus, and as to the use that has been made of it.

*In addition to these regulations the Standing Committee is also bound by certain
resolutions which appear on page 536 of volume 49, Trans. N.Z. Inst., and which grantees
are also bound to observe.

548 ; Appendia.

RESEARCH GRANTS MADE DURING THE YEAR ENDING 3lst Marcu, 1921.

Through the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury :—

Professor Evans, £200 and £200 for research on New Zealand brown
coals.

Mr. George Gray, £50 for research on the waters of Canterbury.

Professor C. Coleridge Farr, £75 for research on the physical properties
of gas-free sulphur.

Dr. F. W. Hilgendorf, £100 on behalf of the Artesian Wells Committee
of Canterbury.

Through the Otago Institute :—
Mr. H. D. Skinner, £200 for an ethnographical survey of the South
Island.
Professor J. Malcolm, £150 for research into the food values of New
Zealand fishes.

Through the Wellington Philosophical Society :—
Sir D. E. Hutchins, £50 for research on the growth of native trees.
Professor EH. Marsden, £50 for research on the physical properties of
New Zealand timbers.
Through the Nelson Institute :—
Miss K. M. Curtis, £100 for research in parasitic mycology.

THE CARTER BEQUEST.

For extracts from the will of Charles Rooking Carter see vol. 48, 1916,
pp. 565-66.

549

NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE.

ESTABLISHED UNDER AN ACT OF THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY OF NEW ZEALAND
INTITULED THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE ACT, 1867; RECONSTITUTED BY
AN ACT OF THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY OF NEW ZEALAND UNDER THE NEW
ZEALAND INSTITUTE ACT, 1903, AND CONTINUED BY THE NEW ZEALAND
INSTITUTE ACT, 1908.

BOARD OF GOVERNORS.

EX OFFICIO.
His Excellency the Governor-General.

The Hon. the Minister of Internal Affairs.

NOMINATED BY THE GOVERNMENT.

Dr. Charles Chilton, F.L.S., C.M.Z.8., F.N.Z.Inst. (reappointed Decem-
ber, 1918); Dr. J. Allan Thomson, F.G.5., F.N.Z.Inst. (reappointed
December, 1919); Mr. B. C. Aston, F.1.C., F.C.S., F.N.Z.Inst. (re-
appointed December, 1919) ; Dr. Leonard Cockayne, F.R.S., F.L.S.,
F.N.Z.Inst. (appointed June, 1921).

ELECTED BY AFFILIATED SOCIETIES (DECEMBER, 1919).

Professor H.-B. Kirk, M.A.,
F.N.Z. Inst.

Professor T. H. Easterfield,

| M.A., Ph.D., F.N.Z. Inst.

cee H. W. Segar, M.A,

|_ Ph.D., F.N.Z.Inst.

Professor A. P. W. Thomas,

| MA, F.N.Z.Inst.

Dr. F. W. Hilgendorf, M.A.

{ Me. A. M. Wright, F.C.S.

a G. M. Thomson, F.L.S.,

Wellington Philosophical Institute

Auckland Institute ...

Philosophical Institute of Canterbury ...

Otago Institute E.N.Z.Inst., M.L.C.

Professor J. Natcoin! M.D.

Hawke’s Bay ee tae Institute ... al. Hull Ax, EGS.

Nelson Institute... 3 i DEL Gace RES TBE
F.N.Z. Inst.

Manawatu Philosophical Society ... | Mir. M.A. Eliott:

Wanganui Philosophical Society . ‘Dr. P.Marshall)-M.A., -EG:8:;
F.N.Z. Inst.

Poverty Bay Institute is :.. Ven. Archdeacon H. WW.

Williams, M.A.

OFFICERS FOR THE YEAR 1921.

PRESIDENT: Professor T. H. Easterfield, M.A., Ph.D., F.N.Z. Inst.
Hon. TREASURER: Mr. M. A. Eliott.
Hon. Epiror: Mr. Johannes C. Andersen.
Hon. Liprarian: Dr. J. Allan Thomson, F.G.S., F.N.Z.Inst.

Hon. Secretary: Mr. B. C. Aston, F.I.C., F.C.S., F.N.Z.Inst.
(Box 40, Post-office, Wellington).

550

Appendiz.

AFFILIATED SOCIETIES.

Name of Society.

Secretary's Name and Address. Date of Affiliation.

Wellington Philosophical
Society

Auckland Institute

Philosophical Institute of
Canterbury

Otago Institute

Hawke’s Bay Philosophical
Institute
Nelson Institute ..

Manawatu
Society

Wanganui
Society

Poverty Bay Institute

Philosophical

. | W. C. Davies,

Philosophical | R. Murdoch, P.O. Box 221,
| John Mouat, Adams Chambers,

H. Hamilton, Dominion Museum,| 10th June, 1868.

Wellington

T. F. Cheeseman, Museum, Auck-| 10th June, 1868.
land

G. KE. aArchey, Canterbury | 22nd October, 1868.

Museum, Christchurch
Professor W. N. Benson, Univer-
‘sity, Dunedin
C. F. H. Pollock, P.O. Box 301,
Napier

18th October, 1869.
31st March, 1875.

Cawthron Insti- | 20th December, 1883.
tute, Nelson
Chas. T. Salmon, P.O. Box 293,

Palmerston North

6th January, 1905.

2nd December, 1911.
Wanganui
1st February, 1919.
Gisborne

Gladstone Road,

FORMER HONORARY MEMBERS.

Agassiz, Professor Louis.
Drury, Captain Byron, R.N.

Finsch, Professor Otto, Ph.D.
Flower, Professor W. H., F.R.S.
Hochstetter, Dr. Ferdinand von.

Darwin, Charles, M.A., F.R.S.

Gray, J. H., Ph.D., F.B.S.

Grey, Sir George, K.C.B.

Huxley, Thomas H., LL.D., F.R.S.

Bowen, Sir George Ferguson,
Giinther, A., M.D., M.A., -
Lyell, Sir Charles, 'Bart.,

McLachlan, Robert, F.L.S.
Newton, Alfred, F.R.S.

Filhol, Dr. H.

Rolleston, Professor G., M.D.,

Berggren, Dr. S.
Clarke, Rey. W. B.,

h.
D.C.

M.A., F.R.8.

1870.
Hooker, Sir J. D., G.C.S.1., C.B., M.D.,
F.R.S., O.M.
Mueller, Ferdinand von, M.D., F.R.S.,

C.M.G.
Owen, Professor Richard, F.R.S.
Richards, Rear-Admiral G. H.

LSTA
| Lindsay, W. Lauder, M.D., F.R.S.E.

1872.
| Stokes, Vice-Admiral J. L.

1878.
G.C.M.G. Pickard-Cambridge, Rev. O., M.A., F.R.S.,
D?, ERS. C.M.Z.S.
L., F.R.S.
1874.
| Thomson, Professor Wyville, F.R.S.
1875.
Sclater, P. L., M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S.
F.R.S. |

1876.
| Etheridge, Professor R., F.R.S.

Former Honorary Members. 551

1877.
Baird, Professor Spencer F. | Weld, Frederick A., C.M.G.

1878.

Garrod, Professor A. H., F.R.S Tenison- Woods, Rey. J. E., F.L.S.
R.S

Miiller, Professor Max, F. :

1880.
The Most Noble the Marquis of Normanby, G.C.M.G.

1883.

Carpenter, Dr. W. B., C.B., F.R.S. Thomson, Sir William, F.R.S.
Eilery, Robert L. J., F.R.S.

1885.

Gray, Professor Asa. Wallace, Sir A. R., F.R.S., O.M.
Sharp, Richard Bowdler, M.A., F.R.S.

1888.

Beneden, Professor J. P. van. McCoy, Professor Sir F., K.C.M.G., D.Sc.,
EKttingshausen, Baron von. F.R.S.

1890.
Riley, Professor C. VY.

1891.
Davis, J. W., F.G.S8., F.L.S.

1895.
Mitten, William, F.R.S.

1896.
Langley, S. P. < | Lydekker, Richard, F.R.S.

1900.

Agardh, Dr. J. G. Massee, George, F.L.S., F.R.M.S.
Avebury, Lord, P.C., F.R.S.

1901.
Eve, H. W., M.A. | Howes, G. B., LL.D., F.R.S.

1906.
Milne, J., F.R.S.

1909.
Darwin, Sir George, F.R.S.

1914.
Arber, EK. A. Newell, M.A., Sc.D., F.G.8., F.L.8.

FORMER MANAGER AND EDITOR.

[UNDER THE NeW Zrauanp Institure Act, 1867.]

1867-1908.
Hector, Sir James, M.D., K.C.M.G., F.R.S.

552 Appendix

PAST PRESIDENTS.

1903-4.
Hutton, Captain Frederick Wollaston, F.R.S.
1905-6.
Hector, Sir James, M.D., K.C.M.G., F.R.S.

1907-8.
Thomson, George Rialcolrn, F.L.S.

1909-10.
Hamilton, A.

1911-12.
Cheeseman, T. F., F.L.S., F.Z.S.

1913-14.
Chilton, C., M.A., D.Sc., LL.D., F.L.8., 0.M.Z.8.

1913;
Petrie, D., M.A., Ph.D.

1916-17.
Benham, W.B., M.A., D.Sc., F.Z.S., E.R.S.

1918-19.
Cockayne, L., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.N.Z.Inst.

HONORARY MEMBERS.
LST

SHarp, Dr. D., University Museum, Cambridge.

1890.

LIvERSIDGE, Professor A., M.A., F.R.S., | Norpsrepr, Professor Orro, Ph.D., Uni-
Fieldhead, Coombe Warren, Kingston versity of Lund, Sweden.
Hill, England. :

1891.
GoopaLB, Professor G. L., M.D., LL.D., Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass., U.S.A.

1894.

Coprineton, Rev. R. H., D.D., Wadhurst | TH1srLTonN-DyzEr, Sir W. T., K.C.M.G.,
Rectory, Sussex, England. C.1.E., LL.D., M.A., F.R.S., Witcombe,
Gloucester, England.

1901.

GOEBEL, Professor Dr. CARL von, University of Munich.

1902.
Sars, Professor G. O., University of Christiania, Norway.
1908.
Kuorz, Professor Orro J., 437 Albert Street, Ottawa, Canada.
1904.

RUTHERFORD, Professor Sir H., D.Sc., | Davip, Professor T. EpGrkwortH, F.R.S.,
F.R.S. F.N.Z.Inst., Nobel Laureate, C.M.G., Sydney University, N.S.W.
Cambridge, England.

1906.

BEpDDARD, F.E., D.Sc., F.R.S., Zoological | BRapy, G. 8., D.Sc., F.R.S., University of
Society, London. Durham, England.

Honorary Members. 553

1907.

Denpy, Dr. A., F.R.S., King’s College, | Meyrick, E., B.A., F.R.S., Marlborough
University of London, Fingland. - College, England. ;

Drets, Professor L., Ph.D., University of | StmpBine, Rev. T. R. R., F.R.S., Tun-
Marburg. bridge Wells, England.

1910.
Bruce, Dr. W. §S., Edinburgh.

10S:

Davis, Professor W. Morris, Harvard | Hemsuny, Dr. W. Bortine, F.R.S., Kew
University, Cambridge, Mass., U.S.A. Lodge, St. Peter’s Road, Broadstairs,
; Kent, England.

1914.
Batrour, Professor I. Baytey, F.R.S., | Haswexw, Professor W. A., F.R.S, Mimi-
Royal Botanic Gardens, Edinburgh. hau, Woollahra Point, Sydney.
1915.
Bateson, Professor W., F.R.S., Merton, Surrey, England.
L916:
Massart, Professor Jean, University of Brussels, Belgium.
1 Suse
ME LLor, JosEPH WiLtIAM, D.Sc. (N.Z.), Sandon House, Regent Street, Stoke-on-Trent,
England.
1920.
RRAser,. Sir J. G., D:C.L., No. 1 Brick | Hann, Sir A. D., M.A., K.C.B:, EUR:S:,
Court, Temple, London, E.C. 4. Ministry of Agriculture, London.
GREGORY, Professor J. W., D.Sc., F.R.S., | Mawson, Sir Dovuauas,. B.E., D.Sc., The
F.G.S., University, Glasgow. University, Box 498, G.P.O., Adelaide.

Woops, Henry, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., University, Cambridge.

ORIGINAL FELLOWS OF THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE.
(See New Zealand Gazette, 20th November, 1919.)

Aston, Bernard Cracroft, F.I.C., F.C.S.
*tBenham, Professor William Blaxland, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.Z.S.
7+Best, Elsdon.
*+Cheeseman, Thomas Frederick, F.L.S., F.Z.S.
*+Chilton, Professor Charles, M.A., D.Sc., LL.D., M.B., C.M., F.L.S., C.M.Z.S.
*ttCockayne, Leonard, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.L.S.
jEasterfield, Professor Thomas Hill, M.A., Ph.D., F.1.C., F.C.S.
Farr, Professor Clinton Coleridge, D.Sc., F.P.S.L., Assoc. M. Inst.C.E.
Hogben, George, C.M.G., M.A., ¥.G.S.
Hudson, George Vernon, F.E.S.
Kirk, Professor Harry Borrer, M.A.
7iMarshall, Patrick, M.A., D.Sc., F.G.S., F.R.G.S., F.E.S.
*Petrie, Donald, M.A., Ph.D.
+Rutherford, Sir Ernest, Kt., F.R.S., D.Se., Ph.D., LL.D.
Segar, Professor Hugh William, M.A.
Smith, Stephenson Percy, F.R.G.S.
Speight, Robert, M.A., M.Sc., F.G.S.
Thomas, Professor Algernon Phillips Withiel, M.A., F.L.S.
*Thomson, Hon. George Malcolm, F.L.S., M.L.C.
Thomson, James Allan, M.A., D.Se., A.O.S.M., F.G.S.

FELLOWS ELECTED, 1921.

Cotton, Charles Andrew, D.Sc., A.O.S.M., F.G.S.

Hilgendorf, Frederick William, B.A., D.Sc.

Holloway, Rev. John Ernest, L.Th., D.Sc.

Park, Professor James, M.Am.Inst.M.E., M.Inst.M.M., F.G.S.

* Past President j Hector Medallist. ¢ Hutton Medallist.

19—Trans.

554

Appendix.

ORDINARY MEMBERS.

WELLINGTON PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.

[* Life members. ]

Ackland, E. W., P.O. Box 928, Wellington.

Adams, C. E., D.Se., ATA. (London);
F.R.A.S., Hector Observatory, Wellington.

Adkin, G. L., Queen Street, Levin.

Andersen, Johannes C., Turnbull Library,
Bowen Street, Wellington.

Anderson, W. J.. M.A., LL.D., Education
Department, Wellington.

Andrew, R. L., Dominion Laboratory, Wel-
lington.

Anson, Miss J. C., Victoria College.

Aston, B. C.5) HC EiCiSs ) EN-Ziinst.,
P.O. Box 40, Wellington.

Atkinson, E. H., 71 Fairlie Terrace, « burn.

Bagley, G., care of Young’s Chemical Com-
pany, 14 Egmont Street, Wellington.

Baillie, H., Public Library, Wellington.

Bakewell, F. H., M.A., Education Board,
Mercer Street, Wellington.

Baldwin, E. S., 215 Lambton Quay, Wel-
lington.

Bateson, H., Dominion Publishing Company.

Beckett, Peter, Paraparaumu.

Bell, E. D., Panama Street, Wellington.

Bell, Hon. Sir Francis H. D., K.C., M.L.C.,
Panama Street, Wellington.

Bennett, Francis, Headmaster, Berhampore
School.

Berry, C. G. G., Railway Buildings, Welling-
ton.

Best, Elsdon, F.N.Z.Inst., Dominion Museum,
Wellington.

Birks, L., B.Sc., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E., A.M.1.E.E.,
Public Works Department, Wellington.

Blair, David K., M.I.Mech.¥., 9 Grey Street,
Wellington.

Boyes, L. F., care of Messrs. John Duthie |

and Co. (Ltd.), Wellington.
Bradshaw, G. B., Box 863, Wellington.
Brandon, A. de B., B.A., atherston Street,
Wellington.
Brent, H. C., Laboratory ~'.1.0., Wellington.
Bridges, G. G., 2 Wesley toad, Wellington.

Brodrick, T, N., Under-Secretary, Lands and |

Survey Department, Wellington.
Brown, J., The Bartons, Fairview, Timaru.

Burnett, J., M.Inst.C.E., 31 Moana Road, |

Kelburn.

Burton, Richard F., Longner Hall, Salop,
Shrewsbury, England.*

Cachemaille, E. D., care of Harbour Board,
Wellington.

Cameron, Dr. R. A., 148 Willis Street, Wel-
lington.

Campbell, J., F.R.I.B.A., Government Archi-
tect, Public Works Department, Welling-
ton.

Carter, W. H., care of Dr. Henry, The Terrace,
Wellington.

Chamberlin, T. Chamberlin, Crescent Road,
Khandalah.

Chapman, Martin,
Wellington.

Clarke, J. T., 120 Karori Road, Wellington.

K.C., Brandon Street,

Cockayne, A. H., 71 Fairlie Terrace, Kelburn.

Cockayne,” 1... PhoD; “HTS. Rass
F.N.Z.Inst., Ngaio, Wellington.

Cockcroft, T., Bank of New Zealand, Te Aro.

Comrie, L. J., M.A., Cornwall Park Avenue,
Auckland.
Cooke, Miss G. F., Sefton Street, Wellington.
Cotton, C. A., D.Se., F.G.S., F.N.Z.Inst.,
Victoria University College, Wellington.
Coventry, Mrs. H., Te Rehunga, Dannevirke.
Cowan, J., Department of Internal Affairs,
Wellington.

Crawford, A. D., Box 126, G.P.O., Wellington.

Crawford, Miss E. J., Girls’ College, Wellington.

Cull, J. E. L., B.Se. in Eng. (Mech.), Public
Works Department, Wellington.

Cumming, E., Land and Income Tax Depart-
ment, Wellington.

Curtis, H. F., 19 May Street, Wellington.

Darling, J., Kelburn.

Davies, V. C., Westown, New Plymouth.

Donovan, W., M.Sc., Dominion Laboratory,
Wellington.

Doré, A. B., Bacteriological Laboratory,
Wellington.

Dougall, Archibald, 9 Claremont Grove, Wel-
lington.

Dymock, E. R., F.1A.N.Z., A.LA.V., Box
193, Wellington.

Earnshaw, W., 4 Watson Street, Wellington.
Easterfield, Professor T. H., M.A., Ph.D.,
F.N.Z.Inst., Cawthron Institute, Nelson.
Edwards, W. A., 97 Cuba Street, Wellington.
Eis, E. McIntosh, Director Forestry Depart-

ment, Wellington.
Ewen, Charles A., Heretaunga, Upper Hutt.

Ferguson, William, M.A., M. Inst.C. E.,
M.I.Mech.E., 131 Coromandel Street, Wel-
lington.

Ferrar, H. T., M.A., F.G.S., 38 The Terrace.*

Findlay, Sir John G., K.C., LL.D., 197
Lambton Quay, Wellington.

FitzGerald, Gerald, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E., P.O.
Box 461, Wellington.

Fletcher, Rev. H. J., The Manse, Taupo.

Fortune, Alfred, 23 Matai Road, Hataitai.

Fox, Thomas O., Borough Engineer, Miramar,
Wellington.

Freeman, C. J., 95 Webb Street, Wellington.*

Frengley, Dr., Hatton Street, Karori.

Furkert, F. W., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E., Public
Works Department, Wellington.
Garrow, Professor J. M. E., B.A., LL.B.,
Victoria University College, Wellington.*
Gavin, W. H., Public Works Department,
Wellington.

Gibbs, Dr. H. E., 240 Willis Street, Welling-
ton.

Gifford, A. C., M.A., F.R.A.S., 6 Shannon
Street, Wellington.*

Gilbert, Rev. Father T. A., St. Patrick’s
College, Wellington.

Glendinning, T. A., B.Sc., F.1I.C., Watt Street,
Wellington.

Roll of Members.

Goudie, H. A., Whakarewarewa.

Grange, L. I., 38 The Terrace, Wellington.

Gray, W., Mauriceville.

Grimmett, R. E. R., Agricultural Laboratory,
Wellington.

Hamilton, H., A.O.S.M., Dominion Museum,
Wellington.*

Hanify, H. P., 18 Panama Street, Welling-
ton.

Hansford, George D., Parliamentary Build-
ings, Wellington.

Hastie, Miss J. A., care of Street and Co.,
30 Cornhill, London E.C.*

Hector, C. Monro, M.D., B.Sc., F.R.A.S.,
200 Willis Street, Wellington.

Heenan, J. W., Department of Internal
Affairs, Wellington.

Helyer, Miss E., 13 Tonks Grove, Welling-
ton.

Henderson, J., M.A., D.Sc., B.Sc. in Eng.
(Metall.), Geological Survey Department,

Wellington.
Hetherington, Miss J., Training College,
Wellington.
Hicks, P. L., Bacteriological Laboratory,
Wellington.

Hislop, J., Internal Affairs Department, Wel-
lington.

Hodson, W. H., 40 Pirie Street, Wellington.

Hogben, E. N., Boys’ High School, Palmerston
North.

Holm, Miss A., 31 Patanga Crescent, Welling-
ton.

Holmes, R. W., M.Inst.C.E., Burnell Avenue,
Wellington.

Hooper, Captain G. S., Grant Road, North
Wellington.

Hooper, R. H., 6 St. John’s Street, Wel-
lington.

Hudson, G. V., Hill
View, Karori.

Jack, J. W., i170 Featherston Street, Wel-
lington.

Jenkinson, 8. H., Railway Department, Wel-
lington.

Jones, A. Morris, 47 Upland Road, Kelburn.

Joseph, Joseph, P.O. Box 443, Wellington.

Kennedy, Rev. Dr. D., F.R.A.S., Green-
meadows, Hawke’s Bay.

Kerr, W. J., National Bank, Grey Street,
Wellington.

King, G. W., B.E., care of A. H. King, P.O.
Box 116, Christchurch.

Kirk, Professor H. B., M.A., F.N.Z.Inst.,
Victoria, University College, Wellington.

F.E.S., F.N.Z.Inst.,

555

McArthur, Captain Charles, Khandallah.

McCabe, Ultan F., care of Richardson and
McCabe, 11 Grey Street, Wellington.

McDonald, J., Dominion Museum, Welling-
ton.

McKenzie, C. J., Public Works Department,
Wellington.

McKenzie, Donald, care of Mrs. Elizabeth
McKenzie, Marton.

Maclaurin, J. S., D.Se., F.C.S., Dominion
Laboratory, Wellington.

MacLean, F. W., M.Inst.C.E., Chief Engineer,
Head Office, Railway Department, Wel-
lington.

McSherry, Harry, Box 49, Pahiatua.

Marchbanks, J., M.Inst.C.E., Harbour Board,
Wellington.

Marsden, Professor E., D.Sc., Victoria Uni-
versity College, Wellington.

Marwick, J., 38 The Terrace, Wellington.

Mason, J. Malcolm, M.D., F.C.S., D.P.H.,
Lower Huit.

Maxwell, E., Marumarunui, Opunake.

Maxwell, J. P., M.Inst.C.E., 145 Dixon Street,
Wellington.

Mestayer, R. L., M-Inst.C.E., 139 Sydney
Street, Wellington.

Millar, H. M., Public Works Department,
Wellington.

Miller, D., 71 Fairlie Terrace, -Kelburn.

Mills, Leonard, New Parliamentary Buildings.
Wellington.

Moore, G., Eparaima, via Masterton.

Moore, W. Lancelot, Bank Chambers, Lamb-
ton Quay, Wellington.

Moorhouse, W. H. Sefton, 134 Dixon Street,
Wellington.

Morgan, P. G., M.A., F.G.8., Director of Geo-
logical Survey, 38 The Terrace, Wellington.

Morice, Dr. C. G., 21 Portland Crescent,
Wellington.

Morice, J. M., B.Sc., Town Hall, Welling-
ton.

Morrison, J. C., Box 413, G.P.O., Welling-

ton.
| Morton, W. H., M.Inst.C.E., City Engineer,

Wellington.

Murphy, B. E., M.A., B.Com., LL.B., Victoria
College, Wellington.

Myers, J. G., Dominion Laboratory, Wel-

lington.

| Myers, Miss P., B.A., 26 Fitzherbert Terrace,

Wellington.

| Neill, W. T., Lands and Survey Department,

Kissell, F. T. M., Public Works Department, |

Wellington.
Knight, C. Prendergast, 126 Bolton Street,
Wellington.

La Trobe, W. S., M.A., Hamilton Road,
Karori.

Levi, P., M.A., care of Wilford and Levi, 15
Stout Street, Wellington.

Lomas, E. K., M.A., M.Sc., Training College,
Wellington.

Lomax, Major H. A., Araruhe, Aramoho,
Wanganui.

Longhurst, W. T. A., Scots College, Welling-
ton.

Luke, John P., C.M.G., M.P., Hiropi Street,
Wellington.

19*

Government Buildings, Wellington.
Newman, A. K., M.B., M.R.C.P., M.P., 56
Hobson Street, Wellington.

| Nicol, John, 57 Cuba Street, Wellington.
Norris, E. T., M.A., Registrar, University of

New Zealand, Wellington.

O’Donoghue, A. J., Blenheim.

Ongley, M., M.A., Geological Survey Depart-
ment, Wellington.

Orchiston, J., M.I.E.E., 16 Rimu Road, Kel-
burn.

O’Regan, P. J., Box 807, G.P.O., Wellington.

Orr, Robert, Heke Street, Lower Hutt, Wel-

lington.

| Owen, A. C., Box 138, New Plymouth.

Parr, E. J., Education Department, Wel-
lington.

556

Parry, Evan, B.Sc., M.I.E.E., Assoc.M. Inst.
C.E., the English Electric Company (Li-
mited), Queen’s House, Kingsway, London
W.C. 2.

Paterson, A. J., City Engineer’s Office, Town
Hall, Wellington.

Patterson, Hugh, Assistant Engineer, Public
Works Office, Ngatapa.

Pearce, Arthur E., care of Levin and Co.
(Limited), Wellington.

Pearson, G. A., New Zealand Railways, Wel-
lington.

Philhpps, W. J., Dominion Museum, Welling-
ton.

Phillips, Coleman, Carterton.*

Phipson, P. B., F.C.S., care of J. Staples and
Co. (Limited), Wellingéon.

Pigott, Miss Ellen, M.A., Victoria University
College, Wellington.

Pilcher, E. G., 225 The Terrace, Wellington.

Pomare, Hon. Dr. M., M.P., Wellington.

Powles, C. P., 219 Lambton Quay, Welling-
ton.*

Ralph, T., 85 Webb Street, Wellington.

Rands, Henry, Wellington Gas Company,
Limited, Miramar.

Reakes, C. J., D.V.Sc., M.B.C.V.S., Agricul-
tural Department, Wellington.

Richardson, C. E., P.O. Box 863 (11 Grey
Street), Wellington.

Robertson, Professor P. W., Victoria Univer- |
sity College, Wellington. |

Robinson, I. R., care of Chief Electrical En- |
gineer, Public Works Department, Wel- |

lington.

Ronayne, R. H. P., 50 Tinakori Road, Wel-
lington.

Roy, R. B., Taita, Wellington.*

Salmon, Miss O. K., 100 Coromandel Street,
Wellington.

Salmond, Sir J. W., K.C., M.A., LL.B., Crown |
Law Office, Wellington.

Shields, Miss C., Girls’ College, Wellington.

Shrimpton, E. A., Telegraph Department,
Wellington.

Sladden, H., Lower Hutt, Wellington.

Smith, M. Crompton, Lands and Survey De-
partment, Wellington.

Sommerville, Professor D. M. Y., M.A., D.Sc.,
F.R.S.E., Victoria University College, Wel- |
lington.

Appendix.

Spencer, W. E., M.A., M.Sc., Education De-
partment, Wellington.

Stout, T. Duncan M., M.B., M.S., F.R.C.S.,
238 The Terrace, Wellington.

Strachan, J. R., Land Transfer Office, Wel-
ington.

Sunley, R. M., View Road, Karori.

Sutherland, W. S., Whakatomotomo, Pirinoa.

Taylor, C. M., Wellington College.

Tennant, J. 8., M.A., B.Sc., Training College,

Wellington.
Thomas, J., South Wellington School.
Thomson, J. Allan, M.A., D.Se., F.G.S.,

F.N.Z.Inst., Dominion Museum, Wellington.
Thomson, John, B.E., M.Inst.C.E., 17 Dork-
ing Road, Brooklyn, Wellington.
Thomson, W. M., M.A., M.B., Ch.B., Hawera.
Tillyard, R. J., M.A., F.E.S., Cawthron In-
stitute, Nelson.
Tolley, H. R., 34 Wright Street, Wellington.
Tombs, H. H.. Burnell Avenue, Wellington.
Toogood, H. F., 11 Grey Street, Wellington.
Treadwell, C. H., 4 Panama Street, Welling-
ton.
Turner, E. Phillips, F.R.G.S., Lands and Sur-
vey Department, Wellington.

| Uttley, G., M.A., M.Sc., F.G.S., Scots College,

Miramar.

| Vickerman, H., M.Se., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E., Do-

minion Farmers’ Institute, Featherston
Street, Wellington.

Vosseller, F. W., Baker’s Buildings, Feather-
ston Street, Wellington.

Waters, R., 71 Fairlie Terrace, Kelburn.

Waterworth, A., 286 Lambton Quay, Wel-
lington.

Webb, E. N., 324 Lambton Quay, Wellington.

Westland, CG. J., F.R.A.S., 76 Glen Road,
Kelburn.

Widdop, F. C., District Railway Engineer,
Thorndon Office, Wellington.

Wilson, F. P., M.A., Victoria University Col-
lege, Wellington

Wilson, Sir James G., Bull’s.

Wyles, G. W., Assistant Signal Engineer,
Railways, Wellington.

Wynne, H. J., Railway Department, Welling
ton.

| Young, J. S., Railways, Wellington.

AssoctatE MEMBERS.

Bathgate, Miss, Training College, Wellington.

Castle, Miss A., Dominion Museum, Welling-
ton.

Cooke, Miss G. F., Sefton Street, Highland
Park, Wellington.

Cotton, Mrs., Plunket Street, Kelburn, Wel-
lington.

Craig, Miss K. M., 122 Molesworth Street,
Wellington.

Craig, R. K., 122 Molesworth Street, Wel-
lington.

Haggett, F. G., Trelissick Crescent, Ngaio.

Hamilton, Mrs., Wallace Street, Karori.

Harle, Miss, Training College, Wellington.

Holm, Miss B., Patanga Crescent, Wellington.

Holm, Miss E., Patanga Crescent, Wellington.

Hudson, Mrs. G. V., Hill View, Karori.

Hudson, Miss, Hill View, Karori.

Joyce, Miss, Fitzherbert Terrace, Wellington.

Langdon, C. R., 72 Wellington Road, Kil-
birnie.

McKay, A. W., Dominion Museum.

Mestayer, Miss M. K., 139 Sydney Street,
Wellington.

Pattle, Miss, Johnsonville.

Pope, Miss, 17 Crieff Street.

Richardson, Miss, Lands and Survey Depart-
ment, Wellington.

Rump, B., 3 Freeling Street, Island Bay.

Styche, J. E., care of Messrs. Kirkcaldie and
Stains, Wellington.

Thomas, H., P.O. Box 199, Wellington.

Topp, J. B., 7 Wellington Road, Kilbirnie.

Tripe, Mrs. J., Selwyn Terrace.

Roll of Members.

557

AUCKLAND INSTITUTE.

[* Honorary and life members. ]

Abbott, R. H., City Chambers, Queen Street,
Auckland.

Abel, R. S., care of Abel, Dykes, and Co.,
Shortland Street. Auckland.

Adams, L.,

Aickin, G., Carlton Gore Road, Auckland.

Alexander, J., Shortland Street. Auckland.

Alexander, L. W., 14 Victoria Buildings,
Auckland.

Algie, R. M., M.A., University College, Auck-
land.

Alison, A., Devonport Ferry Company, Auck-
land

Alison, Hon. E. W., M.L.C., Devonport
Ferry Company, Auckland.

Alison, E. W., jun., Bank of New Zealand
Chambers, Swanson Street, Auckland.

Alison, Ernest, Takapuna.
Allen, John, Cheltenham Avenue, Devonport.
Allum, John, National Electrical and Engineer-
ing Company, Wellesley Street, Auckland,
Ambury, S. J., Greenwood’s Corner, One-
hunga.

Anderson, FE., Bassett Road, Remuera.

Andrews, F. N., care of Andrews and Clark,
Queen Street, Auckland.

Ardern, P. S., M.A., Remuera.

Arey, W. E., Victoria Arcade, Auckland.

Armitage, F. L., Gleeson’s Buildings, High
Street.

Arnold, C., Sandford’s Buildings, Auckland.

Arnoldson, L., Quay Street, Auckland.

Arthur, T. oe Elliott Street, Auckland.

Atkinson, H., Grafton Road, Auckland.

Baker, ©. C., Ewington and Baker, Durham
Street East, Auckland.

Baker, G. H., Commerce Street, Auckland.

Ball, W. T., Sylvan Avenue, Mount Eden.

Bamford, H. D., LL.D., New Zealand Insur-
ance Buildings, Auckland.

Bankart, A. 8., Strand Arcade, Queen Street,
Auckland.

Bankart, F. J., Shortland Street, Auckland.

Barr, J., Public Library, Wellesley Street,
Auckiand.

Barr, J. M., Auckland Savings-bank, Auckland.

Barry, 8., Queen Street, Auckland.

Bartlett, W. H., Queen Street, Auckland.

Bloodworth, T.,
Parnell.
Bloomfield, G. R.,

35 Scarborough Terrace,

“The Pines,’ Epsom.*

Bloomfield, H. R., St. Stephen’s Avenue,
Parnell.*

Bloomfield, J. L. N. R., St. Stephen’s Avenue,
Parnell.

Boucher, P. T., Piha.

Bradley, Samuel, Onehunga.

Bradney, H., Queen Street Wharf, Auckland.

Brett, H., Star Office, Shortland Street,
Auckland.

Brown, Professor F. D., Remuera.

Brown, E. A., Cleave’s Buildings, High Street,
Auckland.

Bruce, W. W., Williamson Chambers, Short-
land Street, Auckland

Buchanan, A., Legal Chambers, Wyndham
Street, Auckland.*

Buddle, C., Wyndham Street, Auckland.

Buddle, H. D., Victoria Avenue, Remuera.

Burns, R., Customs Street, Auckland.

Burt, A., care of A. T. Burt and Co., Customs
Street, Auckland.

Bush, W. E., City Engineer, Auckland.

Butler, J., Kauri Timber Company, Customs
Street, Auckland.

Butler, Miss, Girls’ Grammar School, Auckland.

Buttle, B., Kaiapoi Woollen Company,
Elliott Street, Auckland.

Buttle, G. A., Victoria Arcade, Selwyn Road,
Epsom, Auckland.

Buttle, J.. New Zealand Insurance Company,
Queen Street, Auckland.

_ Cadman, F. P., care of Hoiland, Gillett, and

| Carpenter, J. M.,
| Carr, E. J., care of Carr and Haslam, Gladstone

| Carter, M.,

Bartrum, J. A., M.Se., University College,
Auckland. |
Bates, T. L., Alfred Street, Waratah, New-

castle, New South Wales.*
Beattie, Dr. R. M , Mental Hospital, Avondale.
Bell, R. W., Waihi.
Binney, E. H., care of Binney and Sons, Fort
Street, Auckland.
Birch, F. W., Highwic Avenue, Epsom.
Bishop, J. J., Dunvegan, Titirangi.
Biss, N. L. H., Shortland Street, Auckland.
Blomfield, E. C., Parr and Blomfield, Short-
land Street, Auckland.

Co., Customs Street, Auckland.
Caldwell, D. R., Cambridge.
Campbell, J. P., care of Russeli, Campbell, and
MeVeagh, High Street, Auckland.
Carlaw, J., 226 Symonds Street, Auckland.
Newmarket.

Chambers, Quay Street, Auckland.
Carse, H., Kaiaka, Mangonui.
Carter, ©. E., Ewing Ghrece! Takapasns
Carter, C. M., Lake Town, Takapuna.
Smeeton’s Buildings, Queen Street,
Auckland.
Casey, W., Hamilton Road, Ponsonby.
Caughey, A. C., care of Smith and Caughey,
Queen Street, Auckland.
Caughey, J. Marsden, care of Smith and
Caughey, Queen Street, Auckland.
Chambers, 8. G., 106 Victoria Arcade, Queen
Street, ‘Auckland.
Chatfield, Dr. H. A., Queen Street, Auckland.
Cheal, P. E., Cameron Road, Remuera.

Cheeseman, T. F., F.L.S., F.Z.S., F.N.Z.Inst.,

i Clarks Har@s:

Museum, Auckland.
Choyee, H. C., Remuera Road, Remuera.
Clark, A., Wellesley Street, Auckland.
Wellesley Street, Auckland.

558

Clark, M., Wellesley Street, Auckland.

Clark, R. G., care of Robertson Bros., Quay
Street, Auckland.

Clarke, S. I., P.O. Box 387, Auckland.

Clay, T. B., care of S. Vaile and Sons, Queen
Street. Auckland.

Clayton, C. Z., Ellerslie.

Clayton, D. L., Kauri Timber Company,
Customs Street. Auckland.

Cleave, A., High Street, Auckland.

Clinch, J. A., Ph.D., Training College, Auck-
land.

Coates, T., Orakei.

Coe, James, Mount Eden Road, Auckland.

Colbeck, W. B., New Zealand Insurance
Buildings, Queen Street, Auckland.

Cole, Rev. R. H., Gladstone Road, Parnell.

Coleman, J. W., Lower Queen Street, Auck-
land.

Colwill, J. H., Swanson Street, Auckland.

Coombes, F. H., Victoria Avenue, Remuera.

Cooper, Mr. Justice, Supreme Court, Auckland.

Cooper, A. N., care of Read, Towle, Hellaby,
and Cooper, Auckland.

Copeland, M., 97 College Hill, Auckland.

Court, A. J., Karangahape Road, Auckland.

Court, G., Karangahape Road, Auckland.

Court, J., Hamilton Road, Auckland.

Court, J. W., care of J. Court (Limited),
Queen Street, Auckland.

Cousins, H. G., Normal School, Wellesley |

Street, Auckland.

Craig, J. C., care of J. J. Craig (Limited),
Queen Street, Auckland.

Crompton, W. J., 3 Mount Pleasant Road,
Mount Eden.

Crook, John, 10 Prospect Terrace, Mount Eden,

Cuff, J. C., Emerald Hill, Epsom.

Culling, 'T. S., Ferry Buildings, Queen Street,
Auckland.

Culpan, W., care of Hesketh and Richmond,
Wyndham Street, Auckland.

Davis, Elliot R., care of Hancock and Co.,
Customs Street, Auckland.

Davis, Ernest, care of Hancock and Co.,
Customs Street, Auckland.

Dearsly, H., P.O. Box 466, Auckland.

De Guerrier, F. E., Tramway Company,
Auckland.

Dempsey, J., Newmarket.

Dennin, John, care of Hon. E. Mitchelson,
Waimauku.

Dettmann, Professor H. 8., University College,
Auckland.

Donald, A. W., care of A. B. Donald, Queen
Street, Auckland.

Donald, J. B., care of A. B. Donald, Queen
Street, Auckland.

Downard, F. N. BR., “The Carlton,’ Cam-
bridge.

Duder, R. W., Devonport.

Dunean, A., Railway Office, Auckland.

Dunning, James, Lucerne Road, Remuera.

Duthie, D. W., National Bank of New Zealand,
Wellington.

Eady, A., Queen Street, Auckland.

Appendix.

Earl, i., K.C., Swanson Street, Auckland.

Edgerley, Miss K., Girls’ Grammar School,
Auckland.

Edmiston, H. J., care of Champtaloup and
Edmiston, Queen Street, Auckland.

Edson, J., Waimarama, Tudor Street, Devon-
port.

Egerton, Professor C. W., University College,
Auckland.

Ellingham, W. R., Customs Street, Auckland.

Elliot, G., Bank of New Zealand Buildings,
Swanson Street, Auckland.

Elliot, W., Bank of New Zealand Buildings,
Swanson Street, Auckland.

Ellis, A. F., Argyle Street, Ponsonby.

Endean, J., jun., Waitemata Hotel, Auckland.

Entrican, A. J., Customs Street, Auckland.

Entrican, A. R., University College, Auckland.

Entrican, J. C., Customs Street, Auckland.

Evans, E. W., care of Brown, Barrett, and
Co., Customs Street, Auckland.

Ewen, J. F., care of Sargood, Son, and Ewen
(Limited), Victoria Street West, Auckland.

Fairclough, Dr. W. A., Imperial Buildings,
Queen Street, Auckland.

Falla, R. A., Domain Drive, Parnell.

Fallon, W., Union Buildings, Customs Street,
Auckland.

Farrell, R., Anglesea Street, Auckland.

Fenwick, Dr. G., New Zealand Expeditionary
Force.

Fenwick, R., care of T. and S. Morrin, Auck-
land.

Ferguson, A. M., care of John Burns and Co.
(Limited), Customs Street, Auckland.

Firth, R. W., Wymondsley Road, Otahuhu.

Fisher, F. S., Birkdale.

Fleming, G. H., Remuera Road, Remuera.

Fleming, J., 142 Grafton Road, Auckland.

Florance, R. S., Stipendiary Magistrate, Gis-
borne.

Fowlds, Hon. G., Queen Street, Auckland. *

Fowlds, G., jun., Queen Street, Auckland.

Frater, J. W., Stock Exchange, Auckland.

Frater, Captain W., Manukau Road, Parnell.

Frethey, Miss J., New Plymouth.

Furness, C. H., Customs Street East, Auck-
land.

Garlick, G. C., Tonson Garlick (Limited),
Queen Street, Auckland.

Garrard, C. W., M.A., Education Offices, Auck-
land.

George, G., Technical College.
Street, Auckland.

George, Hon. S. T., St. Stephen’s Avenue,
Parnell.

Gerard, E., Union Buildings, Customs Street.
Auckland.

Gibson, Noel, Dilworth Institute, Remuera.

Gilfillan, H., St. Stephen’s Avenue, Parnell.

Gillett, J., care of Hoiland and Gillett,
Customs Street, Auckland.

Gillies, A. W., Glenalvon, Waterloo Quadrant,
Auckland.

Girdler, Dr., Khyber Pass Road, Auckland.

Gleeson, J. C., High Street, Auckland.

Wellesley

Roll of Members.

Goldie, A., Wallace Street, Ponsonby.

Goldie, D., Imperial Buildings, Auckland.

Goldie, H., Imperial Buildings, Auckland.

Gordon, Dr. F. W., Hillsborough.

Gordon, J. B., St. George’s Bay Road, Parnell.

Gorrie, H. T., care of Buckland and Sons,
Albert Street, Auckland.

Graham, A. G., care of Briscoe and Co.,
Customs Street, Auckland.

Graham, G., 25 Grafton Road, Auckland.

Grant, Miss J., M.A., Devonport.

Gray, A., Smeeton’s Buildings, Queen Street,
Auckland.*

Gray, S., Mount Eden Borough Couneil
Offices, Mount Eden.

Gray, W. A., Waitemata Chambers, Auckland.

Greenhough, H. P., 20 Lillington Road.
Remuera.

Gribbin, G., Imperial Buildings, Queen Street,
Auckland.

Griffin, L. T., Museum, Auckland.

Gulliver, T. V., 503 New Zealand Insurance
Buildings, Auckland.

Gunson, J. H., Mayor of Auckland, Church
Road, Epsom.

Gunson, R. W., Clifton Road, Takapuna.

Haddow, J. G., Wyndham Street, Auckland.

Haines, H., F.R.C.S., Shortland Street, Auck-
land.

Hall, J. W., P.O. Box 1048, Auckland.

Hall, Edwin, Seacliff Road, Onehunga.

Hamer, W. H., C.E., Harbour Board Offices,
Auckland.

Harbutt, S. J., Selwyn Road, Epsom.

Hardie, J. C., care of Hardie Bros., Queen
Street, Auckland.

Harding, E., Dargaville.

Hardley, J. W., Customs Street, Auckland.

Harris, Louis, Huntly.

Harvey, A., Lower Albert Street, Auckland.

Hay, D. A., Montpellier Nursery, Remuera.

Hay, Douglas, Stock Exchange, Auckland.

Hazard, W. H., Customs Street West, Auck-
land.

Heather, H. D., Fort Street, Auckland.

Hemmingway, W. H., Union Buildings, Cus-
toms Street, Auckland.

Henning, G., 36 Remuera Road, Auckland.

Herries, Hon. Sir W. H., M.P., Wellington.

Hesketh, H. R., Hesketh and Richmond,
Wyndham Street, Auckland.

Hesketh, S., Hesketh and Richmond, Wynd-

ham Street, Auckland.

Hill, J. C., care of Hill and Plummer, Queen
Street, Auckland.

Hills, F. M., Arney Road, Remuera.

Holderness, D., Harbour Board Offices, Auck-
land.

Horton, E., Herald Office,
Auckland.

Horton, H., Herald Office,
Auckland

Houghton, C. V., New Zealand Shipping
Company, Quay Street, Auckland.

Hovell, 8S. W., Waihi.

Howey-Walker, A., Queen Street, Auckland.

Queen

Queen Street,

Street,

559

Hudson, C., Mount Eden Road, Auckland.

ee Ashley, C.E., Swanson Street, Auck-
land.

Hutchinson, F. R., St. Heliers.

Ick-Hewins, Dr., Howick.

Inglis, Dr. R. T., New Zealand Expeditionary
Force.

Isaacs, R. C., St. George’s Bay Road, Parnell.

Jackson, J. H., Customs Street, Auckland.

Jackson, Thornton, Jackson and Russell,
Auckland.

Johnson, H. Dunbar, 151 Newton Road,
Auckland.
Johnson, Professor J. C., M.Se., University
College, Auckland.*
Johnston, Hallyburton,
Plains.

Johnston, J. B., Stewart and Johnston, Wynd-
ham Street, Auckland.

Johnstone, A. H., Fort Street, Auckland.

Joll, L., Mount Eden.

Kalaugher, J. P., Education Offices, Auck-
land,

Kenderdine, J., Sale Street, Auckland.

Kent, B., Lower Symonds Street, Auckland.

Kent, G. 8., St. Stephen’s Avenue, Parnell.

Kissling, H. P., St. Stephen’s Avenue, Par-
nell.

Knight, G., Asquith Avenue, Mount Albert.

Laidlaw, R. A., Hobson Street, Auckland.

Lamb, J. A., Arney Road, Remuera.

re S. E., B.Se., University College, Auck-
land.

Lancaster, T. L., B.Sc., University College,
Auckland.

Lang, Sir F. W., M.P., Queenstown Road,
Onehunga.

Larner, V. J., Swanson Street, Auckland.

Laurie, B. A., care of W. S. Laurie and Co.,
Customs Street, Auckland.

Lawson, H. W., National Bank of New Zea-
land, Queen Street, Auckland.

Leighton, F. W., High Street, Auckland.

Le Roy, E., 42 Queen Street, Auckland.

Lewisham, W. C., care of Robertson Bros.,
Quay Street, Auckland.

Leyland, 8. H., care of Leyland and O’Brien,
Customs Street West, Auckland.

Leyland, W. B., care of Leyland and O’Brien,
Customs Street West, Auckland,

Leys, Cecil, Star Office, Shortland Street,
Auckland.

Leys, T. W., Star Office, Shortland Street,
Auckland.

Lintott, G. S., Customs Street East, Auckland.

Logan, R., Government Insurance Buildings,
Queen Street, Auckland.

Long, D., Farmers’ Freezing Company, Queen
Street, Auckland.

Long, W. H., Woodford Road, Mount Eden.

Lowe, Dr. De Clive, Lower Symonds Street,
Auckland

Lunn, A. G., care of Collins Bros., Wyndham
Street, Auckland.

Lusk, H. B., King’s College, Remuera.

Ngatea, Hauraki

560

McCullough, Hon. W., Thames.

McDonald, Rev. W., Gardner Road, Epsom.

Macfarlane, J. B., Fort Street, Auckland.

McFarlane, T., C.E., Coromandel.

McGregor, W. R., University College, Auck-
land.

Mcellraith, Dr. J. W., Commercial Hotel,
Whangarei.

McIntosh, D. T., 5 Claybrook Road, Parnell.

Mackay, G. J., Queen Street, Auckland.

Mackay, J. G. H., Ellison Chambers, Queen

Street, Auckland.

Mackay, P. M., Wellesley Street, Auckland.

Mackellar, Dr. E. D., Manukau Road, Par-

nell.

McKenzie, Captain G., Devonport.

Mackenzie, Dr. Kenneth, Princes Street,

Auckland.

Macky, T. H., care of Macky, Logan, and Co.,
Elliott Street, Auckland.

McLaughlin, T. M., Phoenix Chambers, Queen
Street, Auckland.

Maemillian, C. C., care of Auckland Institute,
Auckland.*

McVeagh, R., Russell, Campbell, and McVeagh,
High Street, Auckland.

Mahoney. T., Swanson Street. Auckland.

Mains, T., Tram Terminus, Remuera.

Mains, W., Tram Terminus, Remuera.

Mair, Captain G., Rotorua.

Mair, S. A. R., Hunterville, Wellington.

Major, C. T., King’s College, Remuera.

Makgill, Dr. R. H., Health Department, Wel-
lington.

Mander, F., M.P., Ranfurly Road, Epsom.

Marriner, H. A., New Zealand Insurance Com-
pany, Queen Street, Auckland.

Marsack, Dr., New Zealand Expeditionary
Force.

Marshall, J., Te Ataahua. Remuera Road.

Mason, Mrs. F., care of Bank of Australasia,
Manaia.

Massey, Right Hon. W. F., M.P., Wellington.

Matthews, H. B., Clonbern Road, Remuera.

Maxwell, L. S., Lower Hobson Street, Auck-
land.

Mennie, J. M., Albert Street, Auckland.

Miller, E. V., 71 Upland Road, Remuera.

Miller, KE. N., Albert Street, Thames.

Milne, J.. care of John Chambers and Son,
Fort Street, Auckland.

Milne, Miss M. J., Remuera.

Milne, Stewart, care of Milne and Choyce,
Queen Street, Auckland.

Milroy, 8., Kauri Timber Company, Customs
Street West, Auckland.

Milsom, Dr. E. H. B., 18 Waterloo Quadrant,
Auckland.

Mitchelson, Hon. E., Waitaramoa, Remuera.

Mitchelson, E. P., Motutara, Waimauku.

Montgomery, Dr. Gladys, Khyber Pass Road,
Auckland.

Bomiion, A. R.. Palmerston Buildings, Auck-
and.

Morton, E., Customs Street, Auckland.

Morton, H. B., Taumata, Wapiti Avenue,
Epsom.

Appendix.

Moses, H. C., No Deposit Piano Company,
High Street, Auckland.

Mulgan, A. E, Star Office, Auckland.

Mulgan, E. K , Education Offices, Auckland.

_ Mullins, P., Shaddock Street, Mount Eden.

Murray, G. T., ©.E., Public Works Office,
Auckland.

Myers, Hon. A. M., M.P., Campbell and
Ehrenfried Company, Auckland.

Myers, B., Symonds Street, Auckland.

Napier, W. J., Napier, Luxford, and Smith,
A.M.P. Buildings, Queen Street, Auckland.

Nathan, C. J., care of A. H. Nathan and Co.,

_ Customs Street, Auckland.

Nathan, D. L., care of L. D. Nathan and Coe
Shortland Street, Auckland.

Nathan, N. A., care of L. D. Nathan and Co.,
Shortland Street, Auckland.*

Neve, B., Technical College, Wellesley Street,
Auckland.

Niccol, G., Customs Street West, Auckland.

Nicholson, O., Imperiai Buildings, Queen
Street, Auckland.

Nolan, H. O., St. Stephen’s Avenue, Parnell.

Oliphant, P., 24 Symonds Street, Auckland.

Oliver, W. R. B., F.L.S., H.M. Customs, Auck-
land.*

Ostler, H. H., care of Jackson, Russell, Tunks,
and Ostler, Shortland Street, Auckland.

Owen, Professor G., D.Sc., University College,
Auckland.

Parr, Hon. C. J., C.M.G., M.P., Shortland
Street, Auckland

Partridge, H. E., Albert Street, Auckland.

Patterson, D. B., 23 Shortland Street, Auck-
land.

Peacock, T., Queen Street, Auckland.

Perkins, A. W., care of Dalgety and Co.,
Customs Street West, Auckland.

Petrie, D . M.A., Ph.D., F.N.Z.Inst., “ Bose-
mead,” Ranfurly Road, Epsom.

Philcox, T., 1i Fairview Road, Mount Eden.

Philson, W. W., Colonial Sugar Company,
Quay Street, Auckland.

Pond, J. A., F.C.S., Queen Street, Auckland.

Porter, A., care of E. Porter and Co., Queen
Street. Auckland.

Potter, FE. H., P.O. Box 230, Auckland.

Pountney, W. H., Fort Street, Auckland.

Powell, A. W. B., Albany Avenue, Epsom,

Powell, F. E., C.E., Ferry Buildings, Queen
Street, Auckland.

Poynton, J. W., 63 Epsom Avenue, Mount
Eden.

Price, E. A., Cambria Park, Papatoetoe.

Price, T. G., 109 Queen Street, Auckland.

Pryor, 8S. H., 26 Pencarrow Avenue, Mount
Eden.

Pulling, Miss, Diocesan School, Epsom.

Purchas, Dr. A. C., Carlton Gore Road,
Auckland.

Pycroft, A. T., Railway Offices, Auckland.

Ralph, W. J., Princes Street, Auckland.

Rangi Hiroa, Dr., care of Public Health De-
partment Auckland.

Rawnsley, S., Federal Street, Auckland.

Roll of Members.

Rayner, Dr. F. J., Queen Street, Auckland.

Reed, J. R., K.C., “‘ Cargen,’” Eden Crescent,
Auckland.

Renshaw, F., Sharland and Co., Lorne Street,
Auckland.

Rhodes, G., ‘‘ Ronaki,”’ Remuera.

Richmond, H. P., Arney Road, Remuera.

Robb, J., Victoria Avenue, Mount Eden.

Roberton, A. B., Heather, Roberton, and Co.,
Fort Street, Auckland.

Roberton, Dr. E.. Market Road, Remuera.

Robertson, Dr. Carrick, Alfred Street, Auck- |

land.

Robertson, James, Market Road, Remuera.

Roche, H., Horahora, near Cambridge, Wai-
kato.

Rollett, F. C., Herald Office, Queen Street,
Auckland.

Rowe, J., Onehunga.

Russell, E. N. A., Russell, Campbell, and
MeVeagh, High Street, Auckland.

Salt, G. Macbride, University College, Auck-
land.

Saunders, W. R., Commercial Union Insur-
ance Company, Auckland.

Saxton, A. C., Pyrmont, Sydney.

Scott, D. D., Kempthorne, Prosser, and Co.,
Albert Street, Auckland.

Scott, Rev. D. D., The Manse, Onechunga.

Segar, Professor H. W., M.A., F.N.Z.Inst.,
Manukau Road, Parnell.

Shakespear, Mrs. R. H., Whangaparaoa.

Shaw, F., Vermont Street, Ponsonby.

Shaw, H., Epsom.

Shroff, H. R., 108 Victoria Street, Auckland.*

Simmonds, Rev. J. H., Wesley Training Col-
lege, Epsom.

Simson, T., Mount St. John Avenue, Epsem.

Sinclair, A., Kuranui, Symonds Street, Auck-
land.

Sinclair, G., care of Pilkington and Co.,
Queen Street, Auckland.

Skeet, H. M., Pencarrow Avenue, Mount Eden.

Smeeton, H. M., Remuera.

Smith, E., New Brighton, Miranda.*

Smith, H. G. Seth, 88 Victoria Avenue,
Remuera.*

Smith, Captain James, Franklin Road, Pon-
sonby.

Smith, Mrs. W. H., Princes Street, Auckland.

Smith, S. Percy, F.R.G.S., F.N.Z.Inst., New
Plymouth.*

Smith, W. Todd, Brooklands, Alfred Street,
Auckland.

Somerville, Dr. J., Alfred Street, Auckland.

Somerville, J. M., Birkenhead.

Spedding, J. C., Market Road, Remuera.

Stanton, J., Fort Street, Auckland.

Stevenson, A. G., Gladstone Road, Mount
Albert.

Stewart, D. F., care of R. S. Lamb and Co.,
32 Jamieson Street, Sydney.

Stewart, J. W., Wyndham Street, Auckland.

Stewart, John A., Kainga-tonu, Ranfurly
Road, Epsom.

Stewart, R. Leslie, care of Brown and Stewart,
Swanson Street, Auckland.

561

| Streeter, 8S. C., Enfield Street, Mount Eden.

| Suter, A., Loutis, Clonbern Road, Remuera.

Swan, H. C., Henderson.

Talbot, Dr. A. G., A.M.P. Buildings, Queen
Street, Auckland.

Thomas, Professor A. P. W., M.A., F.L.S.,
F.N.Z.Inst., Mountain Road, Epsom.

Thornes, J., Queen Street, Auckland.

Tibbs, J. W., M.A., Grammar School, Auck-
land.

Tinne, H., Union Club, Trafalgar Square,
London.*

Tole, Hon. J. A., Shortland Street, Auckland.

Townson, W., Thames.

Trounson, J., Northcote.

Tudehope, R., Wellesley Street, Auckland.

Tudehope, R. T., 189 Symonds Street, Auck-
land.

Tunks, C. J., Jackson, Russell, Tunks, and
Ostler, Shortland Street, Auckland.

Turner, E. C., care of Turner and Sons,
Market Square, Auckland.

Upton, J. H., Bank of New Zealand Buildings,
Swanson Street, Auckland.

Upton, P., South British Insurance Company,
Queen Street, Auckland.

Upton, P. T., P.O. Box 878, Auckland.

Upton, Selwyn, Star Office, Auckland.

Vaile, E. E., Broadlands, Waiotapu.

Vaile, H. E., Queen Street, Auckland.

Veale, P. O., 1 Beresford Street, Auckland.

Vernon, Professor W. S., M.A., University
College, Auckland.

Virtue, P., Roller Mills, Quay Street, Auck-
land.

Wade, Captain, H. L., New Zealand Expedi-
tionary Force.

Wake, F. W., Cleave’s Buildings, High Street,
Auckland.

Walklate, J. J., Electric Tramway Company,
Auckland.

Wallace, T. F., Waihi Gold-mining Company,
Shortland Street, Auckland.

Ware, W., Portland Road, Remuera.

Warnock, J. A., 2 King Street, Grey Lynn.

Wells, T. U., Westbourne Road, Remuera.

White, P. C., care of S. White and Sons,
Customs Street West, Auckland.

White, R. W., Wellington Street, Auckland.

Whitley, W. S., Albert Street, Auckland.

Whitney, C. A., Colonial Ammunition Com-
pany, Auckland. |

Whittome, F., Newmarket.

Williams, N. T., National Insurance Company,
Queen Street, Auckland.

Williamson, C., Commercial Bank Buildings,
Auckland.

Williamson, J. D., Northern Club, Auckland

Wilson, Andrew, District Surveyor, Hangatiki.

Wilson, C. A., P.O. Box 1081, Auckland.

Wilson, F. W., Herald Buildings, Queen
Street, Auckland.

Wilson, G. A., Wilson and Canham, Ferry
Buildings, Auckland.

Wilson, H. W., Town Hall, Auckland.

Wilson, J. A., care of A. Eady and Sons,
Queen Street, Auckland.

562

Wilson, J. M., Portland Road, Remuera.

Wilson, John, New Zealand Insurance Build- |

ings, Queen Street, Auckland.
Wilson, Liston, Upland Road, Remuera.
Wilson, Martyn, Roselle, Lower Remuera.
Wilson, Mrs. R. M., Russell Road, Remuera.
Wilson, W. R., Herald Office, Queen Street,
Auckland.

Wing, 8., Hellabys Limited, Shortland Street,
Auckland.
Winkelmann,

land.
Winstone, F. M., Claude Road, Epsom.*

H., Victoria Arcade, Auck-

Winstone, G., Customs Street East, Auck- |

land.
Wiseman, F., Queen Street, Auckland.
Wiseman, J. W., Albert Street, Auckland.

Appendix.

Withy, E., care of Auckland Institute, Auck-
land.*

Wood, Right Rev. C. J., D.D., Bishop of
Melanesia, Norfolk Island.*

Woodward, W. E., Union Bank of Australia,
Queen Street, Auckland.

Woollams, W. H., Queen Street, Auckland.

Worley, Professor F. P., D.Se., University
College, Auckland.

Wright, R., care of A. B. Wright and Sons,
Commerce Street, Auckland.

Wyllie, A., C.E., Electrical Power Station,
Breakwater Road, Auckland.

Yates, E., Albert Street, Auckland.

Young, J. L., Henderson and Macfarlane,
Union Buildings, Customs Street, Auckland.

PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE OF CANTERBURY.

[* Life members.]

Acland, Dr. H. T. D., 381 Montreal Street,
Christchurch.

Acland, H. D., 42 Park Terrace, Christchurch.

Aldridge, W. G., M.A., Technical
Invercargill.

Alexander, R. E., Canterbury Agricultural
College, Lincoln.

Allan, H. H., M.A., F.L.S., High Street, Ash-
burton.

Allison, H., care of Harman and Stevens,
Christchurch.

Alpers, O. T. J., 69 Fendalton Road.

Anderson, Mrs., Murchiston, St.
Christchurch.

Anderson, J. G., M.Se., Boys’ High School,
Invercargill.

Archey, G. E., M.A., Canterbury Museum,
Christchurch.

Askew, H. O., B.A., Canterbury College,
Christchurch.

Bates, D., Sumner.

Baughan, Miss B. E., Clifton, Sumner.

Beaven, A. W., care of Andrews and Beaven,
Moorhouse Avenue, Christchurch.

Beere, Miss M., Public Hospital, Timaru

Bell, E. J., care of Public Library, Christ-
church.

Belshaw, Horace, High School, Hawera.

Berry, R. E., 165 Manchester Street, Christ-
church.

Bevan-Brown, C. E., M.A., Hackthorne Road,
Christchurch.

Bevis, Miss J. F., B.Sc., 286 Madras Street,
Christchurch.

Bingham, S. C., 31 Gracefield Street, Christ-
church.

Bird, J. W., M.A., Scots College, Wellington.

Birks, L., B.Sc., care of Public Works De-
partment, Wellington.

Bishop, F. C. B., 10 Cranmer Square, Christ-
ehurch.

Martin’s,

School, |

Bishop, R. C., Gas Office, 77 Worcester
Street, Christchurch.

Bissett, J. W., Kaiapoi Woollen Company,
Christchurch.

Boag, T. D., Bryndwyr.

Booth, G. 'T., 242 Papanui Road, Christchurch.

Borrie, Dr. F. J., 236 Hereford Street, Christ-
church.

Borrie, Miss, 236 Hereford Street, Christ-
church.

Bradley, Orton, Charteris Bay.

Brittin, Guy, Riwaka, Motueka, Nelson.

Broadhead, H. D., M.A., Boys’ High School,
Christchurch.

Brock, W., M.A., Education Office, Christ-
church.

Brown, Professor Macmillan, M.A., LL.D.,
‘© Holmbank,”’ Cashmere Hills.*

Burnett, T. D., Cave, South Canterbury.

Campbell, J. W., Chancery Lane, Christchurch.

Candy, F. R., care of Tramway Office, Christ-
church.

Chilton, Professor C., D.Sc., M.A., LL.D.,
F.N.Z.Inst., F.L.S., Canterbury College,
Christchurch. *

Christensen, C. E., Rotorua.

Clark, W. H., 100 Bealey Avenue, Christ-
church.

Cocks, Rev. P. J., B.A., St. John’s Vicarage,
Christchurch.

Cocks, Miss, Colombo Road South, Christ-
church.

Colee, W. C., M.A., Schoolhouse, Waimataitai,
Timaru.

Coles, W. R., 446 Wilson’s Road, Christchurch.

Collins, J. G., care of Collins and Harman,
Christchurch.

Condliffe, Professor J. B., M.A., Canterbury
College, Christchurch.

Coombs, Miss, 37 Sherbourne Street, Christ-
church.

Roll of Members.

Cowley, S. R., 156 Antigua Street, Christ-
church.

Cradock, Miss F., care of A. Hopkins, Cathedral
Square, Christchurch.

Dash, Charles, 233 Norwood Street, Becken-
ham, Christchurch.

Day, James S., care of Dominion Trust Com-
pany, 163 Hereford Street, Christchurch.

Deans, John, Kirkstyle, Coalgate.

Deans, William, Sandown, Waddington.

Dobson, A. Dudley, M.Inst.C.E., City Coun-
cil Office, Christchurch.

Dorrien-Smith, Major A. A., D.S.O., Tresco
Abbey, Scilly, England.

Dougall, J. J., 105 Clyde Road, Christchurch.

Drummond, James, F.L.S., F.Z.S., Lyttelton
Times, Christchurch.

English, R., F.C.S., M.I.M.E., Gas Office,
Christchurch.

Evans, Professor W. P., M.A., Ph.D., Canter-
bury College, Christchurch.

Everist, W., 69 Dyer’s Pass Road, Christ-
church.

Fairbairn, A., 53 Fendalton Road, Christ-
church.

Farr, Professor C. Coleridge, D.Sc., F.P.S.L.,
F.N.Z.Inst., Canterbury College, Christ-
church.

Ferrar, Miss, 450 Armagh Street, Christ-
church.

Ferrar, H. T., M.A., F.G.S., Hackthorne
Road, Cashmere, Christchurch.*

Flesher, J. A., 169 Hereford Street, Christ-
church.

Flower, A. E., M.A., M.Sc., Christ’s College,
Christchurch.

Foster, Dr. A., 135 Hereford Street, Christ-
church.

Foweraker, C. E., M.A., Canterbury College,
Christchurch.

Francis, J. W. H., care of Rhodes, Ross, and
Godby, Hereford Street, Christchurch.

Freeman, Dr. D. L., N.D.A., Editor, Farmer,
Auckland.

Gabbatt, Professor J. P., M.A., M.Sc., Canter-
bury College, Christchurch.

Garnett, J. B., N.D.A., N.D.D., Technical
College, Christchurch.

Garton, John W., Woolston Tanneries (Li-
mited), Woolston, Christchurch.

Garton, W. W., M.A., The School, Pleasant
Point.

Gibson, Dr. F. Goulburn, 121 Papanui Road.

Gilling, C. D., The School, Hornby.

Gilling, W. O. R., M.A., B.Sc., 206 West-
minster Street, St. Albans, Christchurch.
Godby, M. H., M.A., B.Sc., Hereford Street,

Christchurch.

Godby, Mrs. M. D., 12 Holmwood Road,
Fendalton, Christchurch.

Goss, W., Peterborough Street, Christchurch.

Gould, George, 4 Fendalton Road, Christ-
church.

Gourlay, E. 8., 415 River Road, Christchurch.

Gourlay, H., 519 Manchester Street, Christ-
church.

563

Graham, Charles H. E., School, Tai Tapu.

Gray, G., F.C.S., Lincoln.

Greenwood, F., B.A., Agricultural Depart-
ment, Wellington.

Grigg, J. C. N., Longbeach.

Gudex, M. C., M.A., M.Sc., Boys’ High School,
Christchurch.

Guthrie, Dr. John, Armagh Street, Christ-
church.

Hamilton, W. M., 365 Papanui Road, Christ-
church.

Hansen, Dr. D. E., M.A., M.Sce., Technical
College, Christchurch.

Haszard, H. D. M., F.R.G.S., Lands Office,
Christchurch.

Haynes, E. J., Canterbury Museum, Christ-
church.

Hayward, J. R., 48 Peterborough Street,
Christchurch.

Herring, E., 28 Paparoa Street, Papanui.

Herriott, Miss E. M., M.A., Canterbury Col-
lege, Christchurch.

Hewitt, 8. J., 234 Selwyn Street, Christchurch.

Hight, Professor J., M.A., Litt.D., Canter-
bury College, Christchurch.

Hilgendorf, F. W., M.A., D.Sc., F.N.Z.Inst.,
Canterbury Agricultural College, Lincoln.*

Hill, Mrs. Carey, Clifton, Sumner.

Hitchings, F., F.R.A.S., 69, Durham Street,
Sydenham.

Hodgson, T. V., F.L.S., Science and Art
Museum, Plymouth, England.

Hogg, E. G., M.A., F.R.A.S.,
Road, Cashmere, Christchurch.

Hogg, H. R., M.A., F.Z.S., 7 St. Helen’s
Place, London E.C.

Holford, George, B.Ag., care of Canterbury
Farmers’ Co-operative, Christchurch.

Holland, H., 108 St. Asaph Street, Christ-
church.

Holloway, Rev. J. E., D.Sce.,
Hokitika.

Howard, E. J., care of Trades Hall, Christ-
church.

Humphreys, G., Fendalton Road, Fendalton.

Hutton, D. E., 25 Garden Road, Christchurch.

Ingram, John, 39 Mansfield Avenue, St.
Albans.

Irving, Dr.W., 56 Armagh Street, Christchurch.

Jameson, J. O., 152 Hereford Street, Christ-
church.

Jamieson, A. W., 404 Hereford Street, Christ-
church.

Jamieson, W. G., Deans
Ricearton.

Jobberns, G., B.Sec., Division Street, Lower
Riccarton.

Johnston, A. A., M.R.C.V.S., 90 McFadden’s
Road, Christchurch.

Jones, E. G., B.A., B.Se., Technical College,
Christchurch.

Keir, James, care of P. and D. Duncan
(Limited), Christchurch.

Kadson, Lieutenant E. R., M.Se., care of
H. T. Kidson, Van Dieman Street, Nelson.*

Hackthorne

F.N.Z.Inst.,

Avenue, Lower

564

Kirkpatrick, W. D., F.R.H.S., M.A., Red-
cliffs, Sumner.

Kitchingman, Miss, 205 Hackthorne Road,
Cashmere.

Knight, H. A., Racecourse Hill. _

Laing, R. M., M.A., B.Se., Boys’ High School,
Christchurch.

Lester, Dr. G. M. L., 2 Cranmer Square,
Christchurch.
Lindsay, Dr. A. B., B.Sc., 243 Hereford Street,
Christchurch. ;
Longworth, H. E., Education Department,
Wellington.

Louisson, Dr., M. G., 186 Worcester Street,
Christchurch.

Louisson, Hon. C., M.L.C., care of Crown
Brewery, Christchurch.

Macartney, R., Tai Tapu.
Macbeth, N. L., Canterbury Frozen Meat
Company, Hereford Street, Christchurch.
McBride, T. J., 15 St. Albans Street, Christ-
church.

McCallum, Dr. Bella D., M.A., 11 Ramsay
zardens, Edinburgh.

Macleod, D. B., M.A., B.Sc., Canterbury
College, Christchurch.

Marriner, H. J., Sumner.

Marsh, H. E., care of Bank of New Zealand,
Christchurch.

Marshall Mrs., 72 Bealey Street, St. Albans.

Martin, William, B.Sc., Education Office,
Christchurch.

Meares, H. O. D., Fendalton.

Mills, Miss M. M., M.A., Temuka.

Monro, A. D., B.Sc., Canterbury College,
Christchurch.

Morkane, Dr. C. F., 153 Hereford Street,
Christchurch.

Montgomery, John, corner Garden and Holm-
wood Roads, Fendalton.

Morrison, W. G., Hanmer.

Mountford, A. V., F.C.S.,
Department, Wellington.

Murray, Miss F. B., Canterbury College,
Christchurch.

Murray, W., ‘‘ Balgownie,” Opawa.

Nairn, R., Lincoln Road, Spreydon.
Neal, N. P., Canterbury College, Christchurch.
Newburgh, W. 8., care of Newburgh, Best,
and Co., Cathedral Square, Christchurch.
Newton, A. Wells, 58 Brittan Street, Linwood.
Oliver, F. S., care of C. E., Salter, Hereford
Street, Christchurch.

Olliver, Miss F. M., M.A., M.Se., Waimate.

Ollivier, C. M., St. Martin’s, Christchurch.

Orbell, N. M., Heaton Street, St. Albans.

Owen, H., care of Cook and Ross, Christ-
church.

Overton, Miss, 24 Hereford Street, Christ-
church.

Page, S., B.Se., Canterbury College, Christ-
church.

Pairman, Dr. J. C., 21 Latimer Square, Christ-
church,

Pairman, Dr. T. W., Governor’s Bay.

Pannett, J. A., Cashmere Hills.

eare of Labour

Appendix.

Paterson, A. D., care of H. Hobday, 60 Here-
ford Street, Christchurch.

Pearson, Dr. A. B., Hospital. Christchurch.

Pemberton, O. B., care of A. and P. Rooms,
Manchester Street, Christchurch.

Penlington, G., F.N.Z.LA., Warrington Street,
St. Albans.

Polson, J. G., M.A., F.R.ES., Training Col-
lege, Christchurch.

Powell, Pie MeNce Canterbury College,
Christchurch.

Prudhoe, J. C., 20 Kidson Terrace, Cashmere.

Purchase, J. E., M.A., F.R.E.S., Training
College, Christchurch.

Purdie, William C., Agricultural College,
Lincoln.

PurnelJ, C. W., Ashburton.

Purnell, George P., 106 Gloucester Strect,
Christchurch. ;

Raymond, 8. G., K.C., Heaton Street, St.
Albans.

Reece, W., Dyer’s Pass Road, Cashmere.

Relph, E. W., care of New Zealand Farmers’
Co-operative.

Rennie, J. M., Sun Office, Christchurch.

Rhodes, A. E. G., B.A., Fendalton.

Rhodes, Miss B. H. E., 86 Salisbury Street,
Christchurch. %

Rhodes, Hon. Sir R. Heaton, M.P., Tai Tapu.

Rhodes, J. H., care of Rhodes, Ross, and
Godby, Christchurch.

Robinson, R. G., Darfield.

Robinson, W. F., F.R.G.S., Canterbury Col-
lege, Christchurch.

Ross, R. G., P.O. Box 450, Christchurch.

Rowe, H. V., M.A., Boys’ High School, Christ-
church.

Ryder, A. R., M.A., Boys’ High School, New
Plymouth.

Sanders, ©. J., care of Dominion Yeast Com-
pany, Christchurch.

Sandston, Dr. A. C., Latimer Square, Christ-
church.

Scott, G., Manchester Street, Christchurch.

Scott, Professor R. J., M.Inst.C.E., F.A.1.E.E.,
Canterbury College, Christchurch.

Seager, S. Hurst, F.R.1.B.A.,
Square, Christchurch.

Seth-Smith, B., 1 Garden Road, Fendalton.

Sheard, Miss F., M.A., B.Sc., Girls’ High
School, Christchurch.

Shelley, Professor J., M.A., Canterbury Col-
lege, Christchurch.

Simpson, Dr. W., 108 Rugby Street, St. —
Albans.*

Sims, A., M.A., care of Sims, Cooper, and
Co., Hereford Street, Christchurch.

Skey, H. F., B.Sc., Magnetic Observatory,
Christchurch.

Skinner, W. H., 3 York Terrace, New Ply
mouth.

Slater, Dr. F., Sumner.

Slocombe, C., B.Se., Agricultural Department,
Wellington.

Snow, Colonel, Holmwood Road, Christchurch

Cathedral

Roll of Members.

Speight, R., M.A., M.Sc., F.G.S., F.N.Z.Inst.,
Canterbury Museum, Christchurch.

Stark, EH. E., B.Sc., P.O. Box 526, Christ-
ehurch.

Stead, H. F., Ilam, Riccarton.

Steele, G. P., care of Wilton and Co., Christ-
church.

Stevens, J. E., Deaf-mute Institute, Sumner.

Stevenson, Dr. J., Fendalton.

Stevenson, James, Flaxton.

St. John, Charles E., 745 Colombo Street,
Christchurch.

Stone, T., Lyttelton Times Office, Christchurch.

Sullivan, D. G., Sun Office, Christchurch.

Symes, Dr. W. H., M.B., B.Sc., 63 Worcester
Street, Christchurch.*

Symes, Langford P., 20 May’s Road, Papanui.

Tabart, Miss Rose, 97 Papanui Road, Christ-
church.

Taylor, A., M.A., M.R.C.V.S., Canterbury
Agricultural College, Lincoln.

Taylor, G. J., 440 Madras Street, St. Albans.

Templin, J. R., 10 Wroxton Terrace, Fendal-
ton.

hacker) Dre He de Mises 25 | Latimer
Square, Christchurch.

Thomas, Dr. J. R., 29 Latimer Square, Christ-
church.

Tripp, C. H., M.A., Timaru.*

Waddell, John, 167 St. Asaph Street, Christ-
church.

565

Wall, Professor A., M.A., Canterbury College,
Christchurch.

Waller, F. D., B.A., West Christchurch Dis-
trict High School.

Warren, F. M., 56 Clyde Road, Riccarton.

Way, G. H., 66 Dyer’s Pass Road, Christ-
church.” .

Waymouth, Mrs., care of Mrs. R. M. Hughes,
St. Buryan, 8.0., Cornwall, England.

Weston, G. T., B.A., LL.B., 152 Manchester
Street, Christchurch.

Whetter, Dr. J. P., 211 Gloucester Street,

Christchurch.

Whitaker, C. Godfrey, care of Booth, Mac-
donald, and Co., Carlyle Street, Christ-
church.

Widdowson, Dr. H. L., 4 Oxford Terrace,
Christchurch.

Wigram, Hon. H. F., M.L.C., 1 Armagh Street.
Christchurch.

Wild, L. J., M.A., B.Sec., F.G.S., Canterbury
Agricultural College, Lincoln.

Wilding, Frank S., care of Wilding and Acland,
Hereford Street, Christchurch.

Wilkins, T. J. C., B.A., Somerfield Street
School, Spreydon.

Williams, C. J. R., M.Inst.C.E., 21 Knowles
Street, St. Albans.

Wright, A. M., A.LC., F.C.S., 482 Lincoln
Road, Christchurch.

Valentine, J. A., Education Office, Hokitika.

Vowell, C., I.E., Technical College, Christ-
church.

OA GOP EN Sieh ns

{* Life members.]

Aldridge, A. P., Power-house, Waipori.

Allen, Hon. Sir James, High Commissioner,
London.

Alien, Dr. 8. C., 220 High Street.

Angell, S., Commercial Bank of Australia,
Princes Street.

Anscombe, E., 171 Princes Street,

Balk, O., 13 Driver Street, Maori Hill.

Barnett, Dr. L. #., Stafford Street.

Barr, Peter, 3 Montpelier Street.

Bathgate, Alex., 85 Glen Avenue, Morning-
ton.*

Beal, L. O., Stock Exchange Buildings.

Begg, J. C., Fifield Street, Roslyn.

Bell, A. Dillion, Shag Valley.*

Benham, Professor W. B., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.,
F.N.Z.Inst., Museum.

Benson, Professor W. N., B.A., D.Sc., F.G.S.,
University.

Betts, Miss M. W., M.Sc., Museum.

Black, Alexander, 82 Clyde Street.*

Black, James, care of Cossens and Black, 164
Crawford Street.

Bowie, Dr. J. T., London Street.

Bowron, G. W., 426 Moray Place.

Brasch, H., 99 London Street.

Brent, D., M.A., 19 New Street, Musselburgh.*

Prope: Robert, care of Post-office, Morrins-
ville.

Buchanan, N. L., 44 Bronte Street, Nelson.*

Buddle, Dr. Roger, care of Buddle and Button,
Wyndham Street, Auckland.

Butchers, A. G., M.A., John McGlashan College,
Maori Hill.

Cameron, Rev. A., B.A., LL.D., Tweed
Street, Roslyn.

Cameron, Dr. P. D., 585 George Street.

Chamberlain, C. W., 6 Regent Road.

Chapman, C. R., 135 Town Belt, Roslyn.

Church, Dr. R., 257 High Street.

Clarke, C. E., 51 King Edward Road.

Clarke, E. 8., Woodhaugh.

Colquhoun, Dr. D., 218 High Street.

Coombs, L. D., A.R.1.B.A., Stuart Street
and Octagon.

Crawford, W. J., 179 Carroll Street.

Dalrymple, Rev. A. M., M.A., 65 District
Road, Mornington.

Davidson, R. E., Hawthorne Road, Morning-
ton.

Davies, O. V., 109 Princes Street.

Davis, A., Test-room, Cumberland Street.

De Beer, I. S., 75 London Street.

Duncan, P., ‘ Tolcarne,’? Maori Hill.

Dunlop, Professor F. W., M.A., Ph.D., 95
Clyde Street.

Dutton, Rev. D., F.G.S., F.R.A.S., 37 Marion
Street, Caversham.

Edgar, G. C., Market Street.

Edgar, James, 286 York Place.

Farnie, Miss W., M.A., Museum.

Fels, W., 84 London Street.*

Fenwick, Cuthbert, Stock Exchange.

Fenwick, Sir G., Otago Daily Times Office.

566

Ferguson, Dr. H. L., C.M.G., “ Wychwood,”
Musselburgh Rise.

Finlay, H. I., 10 Pine Hill Terrace.

Fitchett, Dr. F. W. B., 8 Pitt Street.

Fleming, T. R., M.A., LL.B., Education Office.

Frye, Charles, Gasworks, Caversham.

Fulton, H. V., Agricultural and Pastoral
Society, Crawford Street.

Fulton, Dr. R. V., Pitt Street.

Garrow, Professor J. M. E., LL.B., Victoria
College, Wellington.*

Gilkison, R., 14 Main Road, North - east
Valley.*

Goyen, P., F.L.S., 136 Highgate, Roslyn.

Gray, J. A., 762 Cumberland Street.

Green, E. S., Education Office.

Guthrie, H. J., 426 Moray Place East.

Hall, Dr. A. J., 36 Stuart Street.

Hanlon, A. C., 16 Pitt Street.

Henderson, M. C., Electrical Engineer’s Office,
Market Street.

Hercus, G. R., 20 Albert Street.

Hoffmann, G., Littlebourne Crescent.

Howes, Miss Edith, Adelaide.*

Howes, W. G., F.E.S., 432 George Street.

Hungertord, J. T., Gasworks.

Inglis, Professor J. K. H., M.A., D.Sc., F.1.C.,
University.

Jack, Professor R., D.Sc., University.

Jeffery, J., Anderson’s Bay.

Johnson, A. G., M.Se., King Edward Tech-
nical College.

Johnson, J. T., 46 Littlebourne Road, Roslyn.

Johnstone, J. A., Driver Street, Maori Hill.

Jones, F. J., Railway Engineer’s Office.

Kennedy, A. R., Registrar’s Office, Dunedin.

King, Dr. F. Truby, U.M.G., Seaclitf.

Lee, Robert, P.O. Box 363.

Loudon, John, 43 Crawford Street.

Lowry, J. M., Public Works Department.

McCurdie, W. D. R., Town Hall.*

Macdougall, W. P., jun., 642 George Street.

McGeorge, J. C., Eglinton Road, Mornington.

McKellar, Dr. T. G., Pitt Street.

Mackie, A., Test-room, Cumberland Street.

McNair, J., Railway Engineer’s Office.

Malcolm, Professor J., M.D., University.

Mandeno, H., New Zealand Express Com-
pany’s Buildings.

Marshall, Angus, B.A., Technical College.

Melland, E., Arthog Road, Hale, Cheshire,
England.*

Milnes, J. W., 39 Lees Street.*

Milligan, Dr. R. R. D., University.

Morrell, W. J., M.A., Boys’ High School.

Munro, H., Dunottar.

Nevill, Right Rev. 8. T., D.D., Bishopsgrove.

Newlands, Dr. W., 12 London Street.

O’Neill, Dr. E. J., 219 High Street.

Overton, T. R., Test-room, Cumberland Street.

Park, Professor J., F.G.S., F.N.Z.Inst., Uni-
versity.

Payne, F. W., 90 Princes Street.

Petrie, D., M.A., F.L.S., F.N.Z.Inst., Ranfurly
Road, Epsom, Auckland.*

Philpott, A., Cawthron Institute, Nelson.

Pickerill, Professor H. P., M.D., B.D.S.,
University.

Poppelwell, D. L., Gore.

Appendix.

Price, W. H., 55 Stuart Street.*

Rawson, Professor G. H., Home Science De-
partment, University.

Reid, Donald, jun., 9 Dowling Street.

Riley, Dr. F. R., 6 Pitt Street.

Ritchie, Dr. Russell, 400 George Street.

Roberts, E. F., 128 Highgate, Roslyn.

Roberts, John, C.M.G., Littlebourne.

Robertson, John, B.A., B.Se., 13 Garfield
Street, Roslyn.

Rogers, L. 8., Pacific Street, Roslyn.

Ross, H. I. M., 614 Castle Street.

toss, T. C., care of Ross and Glendining
(Limited).

Rouse, Percy, Burnside Chemical Works.

Rutherford, R. W., 36 Playfair Street, Cavers-
ham.

Salmond, J. L., National Bank Buildings.

Sandle, Major S. G., R.N.Z.A. Barracks, Wel-
lington.

Sargood, Percy, “ Marinoto,” Newington.

Scott, J. H., Converter Station, Cumberland
Street.

Shacklock, J. B., Bayfield, Anderson’s Bay.

Shepherd, F. R., 36 Cargill Street.

Shortt, F. M., care of John Chambers and
Sons, Stuart Street.

Sim, Mr. Justice, Musselburgh Rise.

Simpson, George, 98 Russell Street.

Simpson, George, jun., 9 Gamma Street,
Roslyn.

Skinner, H. D., B.A., Museum, King Street.

Smith, C. 8., Star Office.

Smith, H. McD., Union Bank Buildings.

Smith, J. C., 196 Tay Street, Invercargill.

Solomon, S., K.C., 114 Princes Street.

Somerville, T., care of Wilkie and Co.,
Princes Street.

Somerville, W. G., 18 Leven Street, Roslyn.

Stark, James, care of Kempthorne, Prosser,
and Co.

Stewart, R. T., 21 Gamma Street, Roslyn.

Stewart, Hon. W. Downie, M.P., LL.B., 11
Heriot Row.

Stout, Sir Robert, K.C.M.G., Wellington.

Tannock, D., Botanical Gardens.

Theomin, D, E., 8 Royal Terrace.
Thompson, Professor G. E., M.A., University.
Thomson, Hon. G. M., F.L.S., F.N.Z.Inst.,
M.L.C., 99 Eglinton Road, Mornington.*
Thomson, G. S., B.Sc., 99 Eglinton Road,
Mornington.

Thomson, W. A., A.M.P. Buildings.

Vanes, R. N., A.R.I.B.A., National Bank
Buildings.

Walden, E. W., 12 Dowling Street.

Wales, P. Y., 2 Crawford Street.

Walker, A., Lloyd’s Surveyor, Wellington.

Waters, Professor D. B., A.O.S.M., University.

White, Professor D. R., M.A., 83 St. David
Street.

Williams, J., B.Sc., F.C.S., Otago Boys’ High
School.

Williams, W. J., City Engineer’s Office.

Wingfield, J. E., 663 Castle Street.

Woodthorpe, Ven. Archdeacon, Selwyn House,
Cumberland Street.

Young, Dr. James, Don Street, Invercar-
gill.

Roll of Members.

HAWKE’S BAY PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE.

(* Life members.]

Andersen, Miss A. M., Napier.

Anderson, Andrew, Napier.

Armour, W. A., M,A., M.Se., Boys’ High
School, Napier.

Ashcroft, Mrs., Napier.

Ashcroft, P., Napier.

Asher, Rev. J. A., Napier.

Bennett, H. M., Napier.

Bernau, Dr. H. F., Napier.

Blake, V. I., Gisborne.

Chadwick, R. M., Napier.

Chambers, Bernard, Te Mata.

Chambers, J., Mokopeka, Hastings.

Clark, T. P., Eskdale.

Cottrell, H. 8., Napier.

Dinwiddie, W., Napier.

Dunean, Russeli, Napier.

Dunn, W. L., Napier.

Edgar, Dr. J. J., Napier.

Edmundson, J. H., Napier.

Foley, M., Napier.

Gleeson, M. J., Napier.

Guthrie-Smith, H., Tutira.

Harding, J. W., Mount Vernon, Waipukurau.

Haslam, Professor F. W. C., Napier.

Henderson, E. H., Te Araroa.

Herrick, E. J., Hastings.

Hill, H., B.A., F.G.S., Napier.

Hislop, J., Napier.*

Holdsworth, J., Havelock North.

Humphrey, E. J., Pakipaki.

Hutchinson, F., jun., Rissington.

Hyde, Thomas, Napier.

Kennedy, C. D., Napier.

Kerr, W., M.A., Napier Boys’ High School.

NELSON

Bett, Dr. F. A., Trafalgar Square.

Bruce, James, Britannia Heights.

Cornes, J. J. 8., B.A., B.Sc., Nelson College.

Crequer, V. G., Halifax Street.

Curtis, Miss K. M., M.A., D.Sc., D.I.C., Caw-
thron Institute.

Curtis, W. 8., Government Buildings, Nelson.

Davies, W. C., Cawthron Institute.

Dowdell, A. T., Richmond Avenue.

Duncan, H. R., Hardy Street.

Easterfield, Professor T. H., M.A., Ph.D.,
F.1.C., F.N.Z.Inst., Cawthron Institute.

Field, T. A. H., Ngatitama Street.

Gallen, W. J., Lands and Survey Depart-
ment.

Gibb, Rev. G. H., Nile Street East.

Gibbs, F. G., M.A., Collingwood Street.

Gibbs, Dr. 8. A., Hardy Street.

Graham, Mrs. Claude, Hardy Street.

Harman, R. W., Nelson College.

Harrison, H., Cawthron Institute.

Jacobsen, W. G., Milton Street.

Johnston, Dr. W. D. 8., Hardy Street.

Kidson, H. P., M.A., B.Sc., Nelson College.

|

Large, J. S., Napier.*

Large, Miss L., Napier.

Leahy, Dr. J. P., Napier.

Loten, E. G., Napier.

Lowry, T. H., Okawa.

McLean, R. D. D., Napier.
Metcalfe, W. F., Kiritahi, Port Awanui.
Moore, Dr. T. C., Napier.

Morris, W., Hastings.

Newton, I. E., Napier.

Norrie, Rev. A. H., Taradale.
Oates, William, J.P., Tokomaru Bay.
Ormond, G., Mahia.

O’Ryan, W., Waipiro Bay.
Pallot, A. G., Napier.

Pollock, C. F. H., Napier.
Ringland, T. H., Napier.

Russell, H. J., Napier.

Sagar, Mrs. M. J., Napier.

Smith, A. E. N., Napier.

Smith, J. H., Olrig.*

Strachan, D. A., M.A., Napier.
Stubbs, G., Napier.

Thomson, J. P., Napier.

Tiffen, G. W., Gisborne.

Vautier, T. P., Napier.

Wheeler, E. G., Havelock North.
Whetter, R. G., Napier.
Williams, E. A., Napier.
Williams, F. W., Napier.
Williams, Ven. Archdeacon H. W., Gisborne.
Williamson, J. P., Napier.

Wills, W. H., B.A., Port Ahuriri.
Wilton, T. J., Port Ahuriri.

INSTITUTE.

|
|
|
|
|
|

}

Knapp, F. V., Kawhai Street.

Lucas, Dr. S. A., Hardy Street.

McKay, J. G., B.A., Nelson College.

Maddox, F. W., Port Nelson.

Moller, B. H., Collingwood Street.

Morley, E. L., Waimea Street.

Mules, Right Rev. C. O., D.D., Trafalgar
Street.

Philpott, A., F.H.S., Cawthorn Institute.

Pickup, H., Stoke.

Redgrave, A. J., Hardy Street.

Rigg, Theodore, M.A., M.Sc.,
Institute.

Sadlier, Right Rev. W. C., D.D. Wath Brow,
Brougham Street.

Tillyard, R. J., M.A., D.Sc., Se.D., F.L.S.,
F.E.S., Cawthron Institute.

Tuck, F. L. N., B.Sc., Nelson College.

Turnbull, T. A., Hardy Street.

Wharton, G. E., Maitai Bank.

Wharton, Miss, B.A., Maitai Bank,

Whitwell, F., Drumduan.

Young, Maxwell, F.C.S., Cawthron Institute.

Cawthron

568

Appendix,

MANAWATU PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.

{* Life members.]

Abraham, R. 8., Fitzherbert West.

Akers, H., Duke Street.

Bagnall, H. G., 30 Te Aweawe Street.

Barnett, Dr. E. C., M.R.C.S., M.R.C.P.,
Fitzherbert Street.

Batchelar, J. O., Willow Bank.

Bayly, Mrs., Patea.

Bendall, W. E., Dairy Union.

Bennett, G. H., The Square

Bett. Ds BeBe MER em Cheb saeViak OSes
M.R.C.P., Broad Street.

Blackbourne, Rev. H. G., M.A., Vicarage.

Bundle, H., The Square.

Burges, A., 139 Featherston Street.

Callanan, F., Bainesse.

Cameron, W. B., 24 Russell Street.

Canton, H. J., Waldegrave Street.

Clausen, A. E., The Square.

Clausen, C. N., Rangitikei Street.

Cockayne, A. H., Wellington.

Cohen, M., Broad Street.

Collinson, L. H., The Square.

Colquhoun, J. A., M.Se., High School.

Connell, F. W., Rangitikei Street.

Crabb, E. H., College Street.

Cunningham, G. H., Department of Agri-
culture.

Daly, A. J., George Street.

Edwards, R., C.E., Duke Street.

Eliott, M. A.. The Square.

Fitzherbert, W. L., Broad Street.

Gerrand, J. B., The Square.

Grace, R. H. F., National Bank.

Graham, A. J., The Square.

Guy, A., Napier.

Hankin, F. M. S., Ferguson Street.

Hannay, A., care of Manson and Barr.

Hansard, G. A., High School.

Hepworth, H., The Square.

Hodder, T. R., Rangitikei Street.

Holben, E. R. B., Rangitikei Street.

Holbrook, H. W. F., 84 Rangitikei Street.

Hopwood, A., Main Street.

Hughes, J. R., C.E., The Square.

Hunter, W., 15 Rangitikei Street.

Hurley, £. O., The Square.

Johnston, J. Goring, Oakhurst.

Keeling, G. W., College Street W.

Lambert, W. H., Rangitikei Street.
Larcomb, E., C.E., Roy Street.

Larcomb, P., Roy Street.

Mahon A., The Square.

Merton, J. L. C., LL.B., Rangitikei Street.
Moore, Miss.

Munro, J., Bank of New South Wales.

| Murray, J., M.A., High School.
| Nash, N. H., The Square.

Needham, F., Rangitikei Street.

| Noedl, A., Broad Street.

Opie, F. D., Technical School.

| Oram, M. H., M.A., LL.B., Rangitikei Street.

Park, W., F.R.H.S., College Street.

Peach, Dr. C. W., M.B., C.M., Broad Street.
Pope, Dr. E. H., The Square.

Poynton, J. W., 8.M., Auckland.*

Preece, Captain G. A., N.Z.C., Main Street.

| Ross, R., Ferguson Street.
| Russell, W. W., Rangitikei Street.
| Salmon, C. T., Assoc. in Eng., Rangitikei

Street.
Seifert, A., George Street.
Seifert, H., Featherston Street W.
Seifert, L., George Street.

| Sheppard, F. J., Rangitikei Street.

Sim, E. Grant, Rangitikei Street.

| Sinclair, D., C.E., Terrace End.

Sinclair, N. H., Allen Street.

| Smith, W. W., F.E.S., Public Reserve, New

Plymouth.
Stevens, J. H., Church Street.
Stevensen, J. C., High School.
Stowe, Dr. W. R., M.R.C.S., M.R.C.P., Linton
Street.
Sutherland, A., Boundary Road.
Taylor, C., George Street.
Turner, W., Queen Street.
Welch, W., F.R.G.S., Mosman’s Bay, N.S.W.
West, E. V., F.N.Z.I., King Street.
Whetton, H.
Whitaker, A., Grey Street.
Wilson, Miss D., Rangitikei Street.
Wollerman, H., Fitzherbert Street.
Wood, J. R.. Duke Street.
Wright, A. H. M., College Street.
Young, H. L., Cuba Street.

WANGANUI PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.

[* Life member ]

Allison, Alexander, No. 1 Line, Wanganui.

Allison, Thomas, Ridgway Street, Wanganui.

Amess, A. H. R., M.A., Collegiate School,
Wanganui.

Atkinson, W. E., Hurworth, Wanganui.

Bassett, W. G., St. John’s Hill, Wanganui.

Battle, T. H., Architect, Wanganui.

Bourne, F., F.I.A.N.Z., Ridgway Street, Wa-
nganui,

Brown, C. P., M.A., LL.B., College Street,
Wanganui.

Burnet, J. H., St. John’s Hill, Wanganui.

Cave, Norman, Brunswick Line, Wanganui.

Cowper, A. E., Victoria Avenue, Wanganui.

Crow, E., Technical College, Wanganui.

Cruickshank, Miss, M.A., M.Sc., Girls’ College,
Wanganui.

D’Arcy, W. A., 11 Campbell Street, Wanganui.

Roll of Members.

Downes, T. W., Victoria Avenue, Wanganui.

Drew, Harry, Victoria Avenue, Wanganui.

Duigan, Herbert, Ridgway Street, Wanganui.

Dunn, Richmond, St. John’s Hill, Wanganui.

Ford, C. R., F.R.G.S., College Street, Wanga-
nui.

Gibbons, Hope, Wanganui East.

Hatherly, Henry R., M.R.C.S., Gonville, Wa-
nganui.*

Hutton, C. C., M.A., St. John’s Hill, Wanga-
nui.

Jack, J. B., Native Land Court, Wanganui.

Jones, Lloyd, Victoria Avenue, Wanganui.

Liffiton, E. N., J.P., Ridgway Street, Wanga-
nui.

McFarlane, D., Ridgway Street, Wanganui.

Marshall Professor P., M.A., D.Sec., F.G.S.,
F.N.Z.Inst., Collegiate School, Wanganui.

569

Murdoch, R., Campbell Place. Wanganui.

Murray, J. B., St. John’s Hill, Wanganui.

Neame, J. A., M.A., Collegiate School, Wa-
nganui.

Park, G., B.Ecom., Technical College.

Polson, D. G., St. John’s Hill, Wanganui.

Sturge, H. E., M.A., Collegiate School, Wanga-
nui.

Sutherland, R. A. 8., M.Sc., Collegiate School.

Talboys, F. P., Tramways Manager, Wanga-
nui.

Ward, J. T., Victoria Avenue, Wanganui.*

Watt, J. P., B.A., LL.B., Ridgway Street,
Wanganui.

Watt, M. N., St. John’s Hill, Wanganui.

Wilson, Alexander, M.D., Wickstead Street,
Wanganui.

POVERTY BAY INSTITUTE.

Abbey, Rev. W. H. E., 251 Palmerston Road, |

Gisborne.
Aitkin, Rev. James, St.. Andrew’s Manse,
Gisborne.
Beale, A. M., Waipiro Bay.
Beere, Major A. G., Clifford Street, Gisborne.
Black, G. J., Kaiti.
Blair, James, Kaiti.
Blake, V. I., Survey Department, Auckland.
Bull, H., Gladstone Road, Gisborne.
Burnard, L. T., Gladstone Road, Gisborne.

Buswell, W. H., Borough Council Office, |

Gisborne.
Cuthert, A., Gladstone Road, Gisborne.
Florance, R. 8., Kaiti.
Foote, ’., High School, Gisborne.
Goffe, W. E., Ormond Road, Mangapapa.
Gray, Mrs Charles, Waiohika, Gisborne.
Greer, Miss M., Ormond Road, Gisborne.
Hutchinson, E. M., Waihuka, Gisborne.
Kenway, Howard, Waiohika, Gisborne.
Kinder, J., Gladstone Road, Gisborne.
Lees, E. L., Childers Road, Gisborne.
Lysnar, W. L., Stout Street, Whataupoko,
Gisborne.

Mander, M. B., Riverside Road, Gisberne.

Mann, E. H., Lowe Street, Gisborne.

Maunder, G. H., Stout Street, Gisborne.

| Mirfield, T., Gladstone Road, Gisborne.

Mouat, John, Gladstone Road, Gisborne.

Muir, A. L., Fitzherbert Street, Gisborne.

Oakley, Mrs., Grey Street, Gisborne.

O’ Ryan, William, Waipiro Bay.

Parlane, Rev. James, Stout Street, Gisborne.

Poole, M. P., Puha.

| Rowley, F. J., Ormond Road, Gisborne.

Sheppard, Mrs. W., Whataupoko, Gisborne.

Sievwright, Miss M., Whataupoko, Gisborne.

Steele, A. H., Tahunga.

Tiffen, G. W., Gisborne.

Townley, John, Gladstone Road, Gisborne.

| Tucker, H. G., Makauri.

| Turner, J. C. E., Wairoa.

Wainwright, Rev.

Walker. Mrs.. Fox Street, Gisborne.

Ward, Rev. E., Waerengaahika.

Williams, A. B.

Williams, Ven. Archdeacon H. W., Naurea,
Patutahi.

| Wilson, Rev. G. D., Te Karaka.

570 Appendix.

SERIAL PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED BY THE LIBRARY OF
THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE, 1920.

NEw ZEALAND.

Auckland University : Calendar.

Geological Survey: Bulletins.

Houses of Parhament: Journals and Appendix.

Journal of Agriculture.

Journal of Science and Technology.

New Zealand Employers’ Federation : Industrial Bulletin.
New Zealand Official Year-book.

Polynesian Society : Journal.

Statistics of New Zealand.

AUSTRALIA.

Australasian Institute of Mining Engineers: Proceedings.
Australian Antarctic Expedition, 1911-14: Reports.

Australian Forestry Journal.

Commonwealth of Australia, Fisheries: Parliamentary Report.

New South WALEs.

Agricultural Department, N.S.W.: Agricultural Gazette.
Australian Museum, Sydney: Records ; Annual Report.
Botanic Gardens and Government Domains, N.S.W.: Report.
Critical Revision of the Genus Kucalyptus.

Linnean Society of N.S.W.: Proceedings.

Northern Engineering Institute of N.S.W.: Papers.

Public Health Department, N.S.W.: Annual Report.

QUEENSLAND.

Geological Survey of Queensland: Publications.
Queensland Naturalist.

Royal Geographical Society : Journal.

Royal Society of Queensland: Proceedings.

SoutH AUSTRALIA.

Adelaide Chamber of Commerce: Annual Report.

Department of Chemistry, South Australia: Bulletins.

Mines Department and Geological Survey of South Australia: Mining
Operations; G.S. Bulletins and Reports; Metallurgical Reports ;
Synopsis of Mining Laws.

Public Library, Museum, and Art Gallery of South Australia: Annual
Lieport.

Royal Society of South Australia: Transactions and Proceedings.

TASMANIA.
Royal Society of Tasmania: Papers and Proceedings.

Serial Publications recewed by Library. 571

VICTORIA.

Advisory Committee: Report on Brown Coal.

Department of Agriculture : Journal.

Field Naturalists’ Club of Victoria: Victorian Naturalist.

Mines Department and Geological Survey of Victoria: Annual Report ;
Bulletins ; Records.

Public Library, Museum, and National Art Gallery of Victoria: Annual
Report.

Royal Society of Victoria: Proceedings.

WESTERN AUSTRALIA.

Geological Survey of Western Australia: Bulletins.
Royal Society of Western Australia : Journal and Proceedings.

Unitep KINGDom.

Board of Agriculture and Fisheries: Fishery Investigations.

Botanical Society of Edinburgh: Transactions and Proceedings.

British Association for the Advancement of Science : Leport.

British Astronomical Association: Journal; Memoirs ; List of Members.

British Museum: Catalogues; Guides; Scientific Reports of Britesh
Antarctic Hxpedition, 1910.

Cambridge Philosophical Society: Proceedings.

Cambridge University Library : Report.

Dove Marine Library : Report.

Geological Society, London: Quarterly Journal.

Geological Survey of Great Britain: Summary of Progress.

Handbooks, Commercial Towns, England.

Imperial Institute : Bulletins.

Institution of Civil Engineers : Report.

Leeds Philosophical and Literary Society : Annual Report.

Linnean Society : Journal (Botany) ; Proceedings ; List of Members.

Liverpool Biological Society : Proceedings.

Liverpool Geological Society : Proceedings.

Marine Biological Association: Journal.

Marlborough College Natural History Society : Reports.

Mercantile Guardian, London.

Mineralogical Society : Mineralogical Magazine.

North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers:
Transactions ; Annual Report.

Oxford University: Calendar.

Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain: Journal.

Royal Botanic Gardens, Edinburgh: Notes.

Royal Colonial Institute: United Empire.

Royal Geographical Society: Geographical Journal.

Royal Philosophical Society of Glasgow : Proceedings.

Roy al Physical Society of “Edinburgh : Proceedings.

Royal Scottish Geographical Society : Scottish Geographical Magazine.

Royal Society, Dublin: Economic Proceedings.

Royal Society of Edinburgh : Proceedings ; Transactions.

Royal Society, London: Proceedings (Series A, B); Phil. Trans. (Series
A, B); Year-book.

Royal Society of Literature: Transactions.

Royal Statistical Society, London: Journal.

Victoria Institute, London: Journal of Transactions.

Zoological Society of London: Proceedings and Transactions.

572 Appendix.

BELGIUM.

Académie Royale de Belgique : Bulletins.

Librairie Nationale d’Art et d'Histoire: Les Cahiers belges.
Société Royale de Botanique de Belgique : Bulletins.

Société Royale Zoologique et Malacologique de Belgique : Annales

DENMARK.

Acad. Roy. de Sciences et de Lettres de Denmark: Fordhandlinger ;
Memovres.

Dansk. Naturh. Foren., Kjébenhavn: Videnskabelige Meddelelser.

Kong. Dansk. Videnskab. Selskab.: Forhandlinger ; Skrifter.

Zoological Museum, Copenhagen: Danish-Ingolf Expedition.

FINLAND.
Finska Vetenskaps-Societeten : Acta, Ofersigt, Bidraq.

FRANCE.

Le Prince Bonaparte, 10 Avenue d’Jena: Notes.

Musée d’ Histoire Naturelle, Paris: Bulletins.

Société Astronomique France : Bulletin.

Société de Chimie Industrielle, Paris: Chimie et industries.
Société de Géographie : La Géoyraphie.

Société Zoologique de France: Bulletin.

GERMANY.

Botanische Verein der Provinz Brandenburg: Verhandl.

Konig]. Zool. u. Anthro.-Ethno. Museum, Dresden.

Kaiserlich-Koniglichen Geologischen Reichsanstalt, Wein: Verhandl ; Jahrb.

K.K. Zentral-Anstalt fiir Meteorologie und Geodynamik : Jahrb.

Naturhistorisches Museum, Hamburg: Mitth.

Naturhistorische Verein der Preussischen Rheinlande und Westialens, Bonn
Verhandlungen ; Sitzungsberichte.

Naturwissenschaftliche Verein fiir Schleswig-Holstein : Schriften.

Physikalisch-Okonomische Gesellschaft, Konisberg : Schriften.

Senkenbergische Naturforschende Gesellschaft, Frankfurt-am-Main : Berichte.

Verhandlungen der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft in Basel.

HobuAnp AND DutcH Hast INDIEs.

Banka Tin: Jaaresverslag von de Winning.

Koninklijke Naturkundige Vereeniging in Nederlandsch-Inde.
Mijnwesen in Nederlandsh Oest-Indie, Batavia : Jaarbock.
Nederlandsche Entomologische Vereeniging : Tydschrift.
Rijks Ethnographisch Museum, Leiden: Verslagq.

ITALY.

Reale Societa Geographica, Roma: Bollettino.

Revista Geographica Italiana.

Societa Africana d'Italia: Bollettino.

Societaé Toscana di Scienze Naturali, Pisa: Processi verbalv.

Serial Publications received by Library. 573

Norway.
Bergens Museum: Aarbok ; Aarberetning.

SPAIN.
Junta de Ciences Naturals de Barcelona: Series botanica, geologica.

SWEDEN.
Botaniska Notiser, Lund.
Kungl Svenska Vetenskapademiens, Arkw for
Meteorologiske [akttealser 1 Sverige.
Sverigeo Geologiska-Undersokning : Arsbok.

SWITZERLAND.

Naturforschende Gesellschaft, Basel.

Naturforschende Gesellschaft, Bern : Mittheilungen.
Societa Elvetica delle Scienze Naturali, Bern: Afti.
Société de Physique et d’Histoire Naturelle de Geneve.

INDIA AND CEYLON. ;
Agricultural Department, Calcutta: Report on Progress of Agriculture.
Agricultural Research Institute and College, Pusa: Report.
Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta.
Board of Scientific Advice: Annual Report.
Colombo Museum ; Spolia Zeylanica.
Geological Survey of India: Records and Memoirs.

JAPAN.

Icones Plantarum Formosanarum, Yaihoku.

Imperial Earthquake Investigation Committee, Tokyo: Bulletin.
Imperial University of Tokyo: Journal of the College of Scvence.
Tohoku Imperial University, Sendai: Sczence Reports.

Manay STAtvEs.
Malay States Government Gazette.

AFRICA.
South African Association for the Advancement of Science: - South
African Journal of Science.
Transvaal Museum: Annals.

CANADA.

Department of Naval Service: Annual Report ; Tide Tables.

Department of the Interior: Dominion Observatory Reports.

Mines Department, Geological Survey Branch: Memoirs; Summary
Report ; Musewm Bulletin.

Mines Department, Mines Branch: Bulletins; Annual Report; other
publications.

Nova Scotian Institute of Science, Halifax : Proceedings.

Royal Canadian Institute, ‘Foronto : Transactions,

Royal Society, Canada: Proceedings and Transactions.

574 Appendix.

UNITED STATES.

Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia: Proceedings.

American Academy of Arts and Sciences : Proceedings.

American Geographical Society, New York: Geographical Review.

American Institute of Mining Engineers: Transactions.

American Journal of Philology.

American Museum of Natural History, New York: Bulletins

American Philosophical Society : Proceedings.

Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University : Journal.

Astronomical Society of the Pacific.

Astrophysical Journal.

Boston Society of Natural History: Proceedings, Memoirs, &c.

Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences : Bulletins.

Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences : Bulletin.

Californian Academy of Sciences: Proceedings.

Chicago University: Journal of Geology.

Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences: Transactions ; Memoirs.

Cornell University Agricultural Station : Memoirs ; Bulletins.

Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago.

Franklin Institute: Journal.

Industrial and Engineering Chemistry : Journal.

Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore: Studies ; Circulars ; Journal.

Journal of Geology, Chicago.

Leland Stanford Junior University : Publications.

Library of Congress, Washington: Leport.

Lick Observatory, University of California.

Lloyd Library, Ohio: Indew.

Maryland Geological Survey : Reports.

Minnesota University and Geological Survey: Agricultural Experiment
Station Bulletin.

Missouri Botanical Gardens: Annals.

Missouri Bureau of Geology and Mines: Reports.

Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard: Bulletin; Annual Report ;
Memoirs.

Mycological Notes, Cincinnati.

National Academy of Sciences: Proceedings.

New York Academy of Sciences: Annals.

Ohio Journal of Science.

Ohio State University : Balleton.

Rochester Academy of Sciences : Proceedings.

Smithsonian Institution and U.S. National Museum: Annual Report ;
Miscellaneous Collections ; Contributions to Knowledge ; Bulletins ;
Contributions from U.S. National Herbarwum.

Tufts College: Studies (Scientific Series).

U.S. Department of Agriculture: Journal of Agricultural Research ;
Monthly List of Publications.

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Biological Survey: North
American Fauna ; Bulletins.

U.S. Geological Survey: Annual Report ; Professional Papers ; Mineral
Resources ; Bulietins ; Water-supply Papers.

United States Naval Observatory : Annual Report.

University of California: Bulletin of Department of Geology.

Wagner Free Institute of Science: Transactions.

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences : Transactions.

Seriai Publications recewved by Library. 575

ARGENTINE.
Academia Nacional de Ciencias: Boletin.

BRAZIL.

Da Escola Agricultura Rio de Janeiro.
Museo Nacional Rio de Janiero : Archives.
Observatorio de Rio de Janeiro.

MExIco.
Instituto Geologico de Mexico: Anales.

PERU.
Cuerpo de Ingenieros de Minas del Peru: Boletin,

Hawat.
Bishop Museum : Memoirs.

PHILIPPINES.
Bureau of Science: Philippine Journal of Science.

TAHITI.
Société d’Etudes Oceanniennes: Bulletin.

576 Appendix.

LIST Ob ENS Peru LLONs

TO WHICH

THE PUBLICATIONS OF THE INSTITUTE ARE PRESENTED BY THE
GOVERNORS OF THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE.

Honorary Members of the New Zealand Institute.

New Zeaiand.
Cabinet, The Members of, Wellington.
Executive Library, Wellington.
Forestry Department, Wellington.
Free Public Library, Auckland.
¥ Christchurch.
” Dunedin.
Wellington.
Turnbull Library, Bowen Street, Wellington.
Government Printer and publishing staff (6 copies).
Library, Auckland Institute, Auckland.
f Auckland Museum, Auckland.
x Biological Laboratory, Canterbury College, Christchurch.
, Biological Laboratory, University College, Auckland.

‘ Biological Laboratory, University of Otago, Dunedin.
Biological Laboratory, Victoria University College, Wel-
lington.

i Canterbury College, Christchurch.
Canterbury Museum, Christchurch.
‘ Canterbury Public Library, Christchurch.
5, Cawthron Institute, Nelson.
‘ Department of Agriculture, Wellington.
i Dunedin Athenzeum.
D General Assembly, Wellington (2 copies).
: Hawke's Bay Philosophical Institute, Napier.
. Manawatu Philosophical Society, Palmerston North.
2 Nelson College.
F Nelson Institute, Nelson.
, New Zealand Geological Survey.
; New Zealand Institute of Surveyors.
New Zealand Institute, Wellington.
Otago Institute, Dunedin.
,, Otago Museum, Dunedin.
- Otago School of Mines, Dunedin.
¥ Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, Christchurch.
i Polynesian Society, New Plymouth.
fi Portobello Fish-hatchery, Dunedin.
, Reefton School of Mines.
Southland Museum, Invercargill.
ke Thames School of Mines.
University College, Auckland.
University of Otago, Dunedin.
Victoria University College, Wellington.
Waihi School of Mines, Waihi.
Wanganui Museum.
Wellington Philosophical Society.

= ~ ~ > =

List of Free Copies. OTT

Great Britain.
Atheneum Subject Index to Periodicals, 11 Bream’s Buildings,
Chancery Lane, London H.C.
Bodleian Library, Oxford University.
British Association for the Advancement of Science, London.
British Museum Library, London.
: Natural History Department, South Kensington,
London 8.W.
Cambridge Philosophical Society, Cambridge University.
Colonial Office, London.
Clifton College, Bristol, England.
Geological Magazine, London.
Geological Society, Synod Hall, Castle Terrace, Edinburgh.
£ London.
Geological Survey of the United Kingdom, London.
Geological Survey Office, Hume Street, Dublin.
High Commissioner for New Zealand, London.
Imperial Bureau of Entomology, 89 Queen’s Gate, London 8.W. 7.
Imperial Institute, London.
Institution of Civil Engineers, London.
International Catalogue of Scientific Literature, 34 Southampton
Street, Strand, London.
Leeds Geological Association, Sunnyside, Crossgate, Leeds.
Linnean Society, London.
Literary and Philosophical Society, Liverpool.
Liverpool Biological Society.
Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, Plymouth.
Natural History Society, Glasgow.
Nature, The Editor of, London.
Norfolk and Norwich Naturalist Society, Norwich.
North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers,
Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
Patent Office Library, 25 Southampton Street, London W.C.
Philosophical Society of Glasgow.
Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland,
59 Great Russell Street, London W.C.
Royal Botanic Garden Library, Edinburgh.
Royal Colonial Institute, London.
Royal Gardens, Kew, England.
Royal Geographical Society, Kensington Gore, London 8.W.
Royal Institution, Liverpool.
Royal Irish Academy, Dublin.
Royal Physical Society, Edinburgh.
Royal Scottish Geographical Society, Synod Hall, Castle Terrace,
Edinburgh.
Royal Society, Dublin.
e Edinburgh.
Hs London.
Royal Society of Literature of the United Kingdom, London.
Royal Statistical Society, London.
University Library, Cambridge, England.
. Edinburgh.
Victoria University, Manchester.
Victoria Institute, London.
William Wesley and Son, London (Agents).
Zoological Society, London.

578 Appendix.

British North America.

Geological and Natural History Survey of Canada, Ottawa.

Hamilton Scientific Association, Hamilton, Canada.

Institute of Jamaica, Kingston, Jamaica.

International Institute of Agriculture, Department of Agriculture,
‘Ottawa, Canada.

Library, Advisory Research Council, Ottawa, Canada.

Natural History Society of New Brunswick, St. John’s.

Nova-Scotian Institute of Natural Science, Halifax.

Royal Canadian Institute, Toronto.

South Africa.
Durban Museum, Natal.
Free Public Library, Cape Town.
Rhodesia Museum, Bulawayo, South Africa.
South African Association for the Advancement of Science, Cape Town.
South African Museum, Cape Town.

India.
Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta.
Colombo Museum, Ceylon.
Geological Survey of India, Calcutta.
Natural History Society, Bombay.
Raffles Museum, Singapore.

Queensland.
Geological Survey Office, Brisbane.
Queensland Museum, Brisbane.
Royal Society of Queensland, Brisbane.

New South Wales.

Agricultural Department, Sydney.
Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science, Sydney.
Australian Museum Library, Sydney.
Consulate-General of the Czecho-Slovak Republic, Sydney.
Department of Mines, Sydney.
Engineering Association of New South Wales, Sydney.
Engineering Institute of New South Wales, Watt Street, Newcastle.
Library, Botanic Gardens, Sydney.
Linnean Society of New South Wales, Sydney.
Public Library, Sydney.
Royal Society of New South Wales, Sydney.
University Library, Sydney.
Victoria.
Advisory Council of Science and Industry, 314 Albert Street, Hast
Melbourne.
Australian Institute of Mining Engineers, Melbourne.
Commonwealth Institute of Science and Industry, Danks Buildings,
391 Bourke Street, Melbourne.
Field Naturalists’ Club, Melbourne.
Geological Survey of Victoria, Melbourne.
Legislative Library, Melbourne.
National Herbarium of Victoria, South Yarra.
Public Library, Melbourne.
Royal Society of Victoria, Melbourne.
University Library, Melbourne.

Iist of Free Copies. 579

Tasmania.

Public Library of Tasmania, Hobart.
Royal Society of Tasmania, Hobart.

South Australia.

Public Museum and Art Gallery of South Australia, Adelaide.
Royal Society of South Australia, Adelaide.
University Library, Adelaide.

Western Australia.
Government Geologist, Perth.

Russia.

Emperor Peter I Agricultural Institute, Woronesh.
Finskoie Uchonoie Obshchestvo (Finnish Scientific Society), Helsing-
fors.
Imper. Moskofskoie Obshchestvo LIestestvo -Ispytatelei (Imperial
Moscow Society of Naturalists).
Kiefskoie Obshchestvo Iestestvo-Ispytatelei (Kief Society of Natural-
ists).
Norway.
Adviser of Norwegian Fisheries, Bergen.
Bergens Museum, Bergen.
University of Christiania.
Sweden.
Geological Survey of Sweden, Stockholm.
Royal Academy of Science, Stockholm.
Universitetsbiblioteket, Uppsala.

Denmark.

Natural History Society of Copenhagen.
Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Literature of Copenhagen.

Germany.

Biologisches Zentralblatt, Berlin, Dahlem.

Botanischer Verein der Provinz Brandenburg, Berlin.

Kénigliche Physikalisch-Oekonomische Gesellschaft, Kénigsberg, EH.
Prussia.

Kénigliches Zoologisches und Anthropologisch - Ethnographisches
Museum, Dresden.

Naturhistorischer Verein, Bonn.

Naturhistorischer Museum, Hamburg.

Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein, Bremen.

Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein, Frankfurt-an-der-Oder.

Prussische Bibliothek, Berlin.

Rautenstrauch-Joest- Museum (Stiidtisches Museum fir Volkerkunde)
Cologne.

Redaction des Biologischen Centralblatts, Erlangen.

Senckenbergische Naturforschende Gesellschaft, Frankfurt-am-Main.

Vérein fiir Vaterlandische Naturkunde in Wurttemburg, Stuttgart.

Zoological Society, Berlin

Finland.
Abo Akademi, Abo.

580 Appendix.

Austria.

K.K. Central-Anstalt fir Meteorologie und Erdmagnetismus, Vienna.
K.K. Geologische Reichsanstalt, Vienna.

Belgium and the Netherlands.
Académie Royal des Sciences, des Lettres, et des Beaux-Arts de
Belgique, Brussels.
La Société Royale de Botanique de Belgique, Brussels.
Musée Teyler, Haarlem.

Netherlands Entomological Society, Plantage, Middenlaan 10,
Amsterdam.

Switzerland.
Naturforschende Gesellschaft (Société des Sciences Naturelles), Bern.

France.
Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris.
Musée d’ Histoire Naturelle, Paris.
Société Zoologique de France, Paris.
Société de Chimie Industrielle, 49 Rue de Mathurins, Paris.

Ltaly.

Biblioteca ed Archivio Tecnico, Rome.

Museo Civice di Storia Naturale, Genova.

Museo di Zoologia e di Anatomia Comparata della R. Universita,
Turin.

R. Accademia dei Lincei, Rome.

R. Accademia di Scienze, Lettre, ed Arti, Modena.

Societa Africana d’Italia, Naples.

Societa Botanica Italiana, Florence.

Societa Geografica Italiana, Rome.

Societa Toscana di Scienze Naturali, Pisa.

Stazione Zoologica di Napoli, Naples.

Spain.
Junta de Ciencies Naturals, Barcelona, Apartado 593.

United States of America.

Academy of Natural Sciences, Buffalo, State of New York.
‘. Davenport, lowa.
- Library, Philadelphia.
i San Francisco.
American Engineering Societies’ Library, 29 West 39th Street, New
York.
American Geographical Society, New York.
American Journal of Science (Editors), Yale University, New Haven,
Conn.
American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia.
Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University, Jamaica Plains, U.S.A.
Boston Society of Natural History.
Brooklyn Botanical Gardens, New York.
Chemical Abstracts, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio.

Inst of Free Copies. 581

Connecticut Academy, New Haven.

Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.

Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago.

Franklin Institute, Philadelphia.

Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore.

Journal of Geology (Editors), University of Chicago, Chicago, III.

Leland Stanford Junior University, California.

Lloyd Library, Cincinnati.

Missouri Botanical Gardens, St. Louis, Mo.

Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge, Mass.

National Academy of Sciences, Smithsonian Institution, Washington,
D:@:

National Geographic Society, Washington, D.C.

New York Academy of Sciences, 77th Street and Central Park West,
New York.

Philippine Museum, Manila.

Rochester Academy of Sciences.

Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.

Tufts College, Massachusetts.

United States Geological Survey, Washington, D.C.

University of California, Berkeley, U.S.A.

University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois.

University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.

University of Montana, Missoula.

Wagner Free Institute of Science of Philadelphia.

Brazil.

Escola de Minas, Rio de Janeiro.
Museu Paulista, Sao Paulo.

Argentine Republic.

Academia Nacional de Ciencias, Cordoba.
Museo Nacional de Historia Natural de Buenos Aires, Casilla del Correro.
Sociedad Cientifica Argentina, Buenos Ayres.

Uruguay.
Museo Nacional, Monte Video.

Japan.
College of Science, Imperial University of Japan, Tokyo.

Hawaii.

Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum, Honolulu.
National Library, Honolulu,
Volcano Observatory, Kilauea, Hawaii Islands.

Java.
Society of Natural Science, Batavia.

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INDEX.

AUTHORS OF PAPERS.

Apxkrx, G. L.— Porirua Harbour: a Study of its Shore-line and other Physio-
graphic Features oe af 5% a

ARCHEY, G.—
Notes on New Zealand Chilopoda
A New Species of Shark

Barmuir, H.—The First New Zealand Nee : with some I splsodes of the Maori
War in connection with the British Navy .. : ois

Bartrum, J. A.—
Notes on the Geology of Great Barrier Island, New Zealand
A Conglomerate at Onerahi, near Whangarei, Auckland, New Zealand .
Brst, E.—
The Maori Genius for Personification; with Illustrations of Maori
Mentality ; ap Hi a3 ee A
Old Redoubts, Blscichouses! and Stockades of the Wellington District ..

Bevis, J. F. See Wright, A. M., and others.

Buck, P. H. See Rangi Hiroa, Te.

CaMPBELL, J. W.—Notes on the Blepharoceridae (Diptera) of New Zealand. .

CHEESEMAN, T. F.—New Species of Flowering-plants

Cuitton, C.—Some New Zealand Amphipoda: No. 2 : 5%

Corron, C. A.—The Warped Land-surface on the South-eastern Side of the
Port Nicholson Depression, Wellington, New Zealand as Bhs

CunnincHaM, G. H.—The Genus Cordyceps in New Zealand a

Fowrrr, J. M.—On an Ice-striated Rock-surface on the Shore of Circle
Cove, Lake Manapouri ‘ ane

Furron, R.—An Account of a (sing oeee Maori) Breeponing: stone .

GiuBerT, M. J.—Geology of the Waikato Heads District and the ewe
Unconformity

Granee, L. I.—An Account of inte Gesiees of the Green ey d Coalfiela

Grirrin, L. T.—Descriptions im ith Hiuetaations) of Four Fishes new to New
Zealand a

Hotioway, J. E.—Further Studies on oe Prothallas Embryo, Be eae
Sporophyte of Tmesipteris ° ¢

Jounson, D. E.—The Food Values of ee Peace Fich : ie IT

Krrx, H. B.—On Growth-periods of New Zealand Trees, especially Notho-
fagus fusca and the Totara (Podocarpus totara) Sf as 56

MarsHattr, P., and Murpocu, R.-—
Some Tertiary Mollusca, with Descriptions of New Species
Fossils from the Paparoa Rapids, on the Wanganui River
Tertiary Rocks near Hawera

Martin, W.—
Unrecorded Plant-habitats for Eastern Botanical District of the South
Island of New Zealand

Mason, G. E.—Observations on certain External Tees (ean upon ie
New Zealand Huia (Neomorpha acutirostris Gould) and not previously
recorded j

Mestayver, M. K.—
Notes on New Zealand Mollusca: No. 1, Descriptions of Three New
Species of Polyplacophora and of Damoniella alpha
Notes on New Zealand Mollusca: No. 2

PAGES

144-156

181-195
195-196

29-36

115-127
128-130

1-13
14-28

258-288
423-425
220-234

131-143
372--382

175
471-472

97-114
157-174

386-422
472-478

429-432

77-84
85-86
86-96

857-359

176-180
180

584 Index.

Meyrick, E.—Notes and Descriptions of New Zealand Lepidoptera

Mrtier, D.—Material for a Monograph on the ie as Fauna of New Zealand :
Part IJ, Family Syrphidae ae

Morgan, P. G.—Notes on the Geology of the Patea District

Mvers, J. G.—

The Life-history of some New Zealand Insects: No. 1 aie ai

A Revision of the New Zealand Cicadidae (Homiptera), with Descriptions
of New Species

Bionomic Notes on some , New Zealand Spiders, with a Plea for the
Validity of the Species Araneus orientalis Urquhart

Notes on the Hemiptera of the Kermadec Islands, with an Addition to
the Hemiptera Fauna of the New Zealand Subregion

Netson, P. 8S. See Wright, A. M., and others.

Outver, W. R. B.—
The Crab-eating Seal in New Zealand ae ae
Variations in Amphineura 5
Notes and Specimens of New Zealand Ferns and Flowering. plants | in
London Herbaria

PARK, J.—
The Geological History of Kastern Marlborough
The Birth and Development of New Zealand

Prrrie, D.—Descriptions of New Native Flowering-plants, with a fee Notes
Puttpott, A.—Notes and Descriptions of New Zealand Lepidoptera

Raner Hiroa, TE—
Maori Food-supplies of Lake Rotorua, with Methods of Sete: them,
and Usages and Customs appertaining thereto
Maori Decorative Art: No. 1, House- pouels (Arapaki, Tuitui, or Tuku-
tuku) 3 Shc : Ft - at

SericutT, R.—
Notes on a Geological Excursion to Lake Tekapo
The Modification of Spur-ends by Glaciation
Recent Changes in the Terminal Face of the Franz Josef Glacier

Tittyarp, R. J.—
Description of a New Dragon fly belonging to the Genus Uropetala Selys
Studies of New Zealand Trichoptera, or caddis-flies: No. 1, Description
of a New Genus and Species helonging to the Family Sericostomatidae

Watt, A.—New Plant-stations an ; i a
Watt, M. N.—The Leaf-mining Insects of New y ealand: Part II .

Wricut, A. M.—The Se ee as SIDE observed in certain
Serum Reactions

Wriaguar, A. M.; Bevis, J. F.; and Nae Pp. &.—The Gane otf Flesh
Foods—(5) The Nitrogenous Constituents of iMesh: extracts

Marcus F. Marks, Government Printer, Wellington.—1921.

PAGES

334-336

289-333
58-64

235-237
238-250
251-256
256-257

360
361

362-365

65-72
73-76

365-371
337-342

433-451

452-470
37-46
47-53
53-57

343-346

346-350
426-428
197-219

484-486

479-483

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